Data Collection in Qualitative Research

Data Collection in Qualitative Research
Research Methodology II (CAMS 412)
Lecture: 8
Date: 06/11/2016
Dr. Senthilvel Vasudevan, M.Sc., M.Phil., DST., PGDBS., Ph. D,
Lecturer in Pharmacy (Biostatistics),
Dept. of Pharmacy Practice,
College of Pharmacy,
KSAU-HS,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Qualitative Research
 Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary,
transdisciplinary, and sometimes counter disciplinary
field.
 It crosses the humanities and the social and physical
sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the
same time.
 It is multi-paradigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are
sensitive to the value of the multi method approach.
 They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and
to the interpretative understanding of human experience.
 At the same time, the field is inherently political and
shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.

Qualitative Research (Contd…)
 Qualitative Research involves finding out what
people think, and how they feel? or at any rate,
what they say? they think? and how they? And
what they feel about a particular thing?
 This kind of information is subjective.
 It involves feelings and impressions, rather than
numbers.

Qualitative Research (Contd…)
 Qualitative research involves the studied use and
collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study,
personal experience, life story, interview, observational,
historical, interactional, and visual texts
 It describes the routine and problematic moments and
meanings in individuals lives.
 Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping
always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Contrast
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
 Multiple realities  Single reality
 Reality is socially constructed  Reality is objective
 Reality is context interrelated  Reality is context free
Holistic  Reductionistic
 Strong philosophical perspective  Strong theoretical base
 Reasoning is inductive  Reasoning is deductive and
inductive
 Discovery of meaning is the basis
of knowledge
 Cause-and-effect relationships are
the bases of knowledge
 Develops theory  Tests theory

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Contrasted
(contd…)
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
 Theory developed during the study  Theory developed a priori
 Meaning of the concepts  Measurement of variables
 Process oriented  Outcome oriented
 Control unimportant  Control important
 Rich descriptions  Precise measurement of variables
 Basic element of analysis is words  Basic element of analysis is
numbers
 Uniqueness  Generalization
 Trustworthiness of findings  Control of error

Research Methods in Qualitative

© 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Steps in Quantitative and Qualitative Studies (contd…)

Overview of Data Collection Techniques in
Qualitative Research
 Data collection techniques allow us to systematically
collect information about out objects of study (people,
objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which
they occur.
 In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If
data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to
answer our research.

Main Activities in Qualitative Research
Qualitative approaches on:
 Literature review
 Explicating researcher’s beliefs
 Role of participants: subject or informant?
 Selection of participants
 Setting for data collection
 Approach to data analysis
 Saturation

Literature Review
 Conducted after the data have been collected
and analyzed
 Rationale for delaying the literature review:
 To avoid leading the participants in the direction of
what has already been discovered
 Purpose of literature review:
 To show how current findings fit into what is
already known

Explicating Researcher’s Beliefs
 Bracketing – setting aside one’s biases and
personal views on a topic
 Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts
and feelings about the topic
 Purpose: the researcher is made aware when
interpretations of the data reflect personal
beliefs rather than those of the participants

About Subject or Informant
 People being studied are viewed as participant or
informant, not “subject”
 Viewed as active participants in the research
 They “inform” the researcher about their culture
 Researcher seeks to understand the participants’ cultural
knowledge
 Hence, requires learning about the participants’
culture through on-going discussion and involvement
with them

Selection of Study Participants
 Method is called “purposive sampling” Participants must
have first-hand experience with the research topic (e.g.,
homelessness, gang involvement, attending medical
school) and be able to talk about it.
 Researcher establishes clear criteria and rationale for
sample selection (Sampling Methods).
 Goal is not generalization of findings but rich descriptions
of phenomenon by those who have experienced it.

Setting for Data Collection
 “Informant-driven” rather than “theory-driven”
 Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or
experience being studied
 Informant teaches the investigator
 Data is collected in the “field” – the natural world where
people live and experience life. Investigator should:
 be nonintrusive
 spend a prolonged time in the field

Data Analysis (Introduction)
 Researcher involves self in data to bring order
and meaning to vast narrative
 Come to truly understand what the data are
saying?
 Cyclical process – data collection occurs
simultaneously with data analysis
 Analysis begins when data collection begins
 Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing,
synthesizing, and reporting on data
 Sometimes called theoretical sampling (collect
data until saturation is reached)

 Refers to a situation in data analysis where
participants’ descriptions become repeated
and then confirm with the previously
collected data.
 An indication that data analysis is complete
 When data analysis is complete, data
collection is terminated.
Saturation

Three Qualitative Methods
TABLE COMPARISON OF QUALITATIVE METHODS
METHOD STUDY FOCUS ANALYTIC
FOCUS
DISCIPLINES
Ethnography culture/cultural
group
describe a
culture/cultural
group
Cultural
Anthropology
Grounded
Theory
cultural groups generate theory
about a basic
social process
Sociology/
Symbolic
Interaction/
Criminology
Phenomenology individual
experience
discern the
essence of the
lived
experience
Philosophy/
Psychology/
Sociology

Data Collection Methods in Qualitative
Studies
 Three data collection strategies introduced:
1. Participant observation
2. In-depth interviews
3. Focus group interviews
 Qualitative researchers may combine more than
one method

Data Collection Methods:
1. Participant Observation
 Intensive, usually long term, examination of a social
group, an organization, etc.
 Researcher becomes a participant in the lives of
group members
 Observes their behaviour and learns meaning
systems (which are tied to language)
 Most closely associated with Ethnography, as
developed in Classical Anthropology
 Now done in a variety of disciplines

Steps Involved in
Participant Observation Research
A. Gaining entry into the group
B. Developing and maintaining rapport
C. Developing a method for taking field notes
D. Integrating data collection and data analysis

Steps in Participant Observation:
(A). Gaining Entry into the Group
 Take into consideration the type of group
 formal organizations require formal entry; involves
letter writing, permission requests, etc.
 Informal groups – different strategy needed
 Access may be gained through a gatekeeper (an
individual with special status)
 Want to involve key informants (those who are most
knowledgeable about the group)

(B). Developing/Maintaining Rapport
 Researcher must work hard to develop and maintain
good relationships in the field
 E.g., be sure not to become associated with one
part in a group or an organization
 Researcher could be blamed for problems that arise
in the setting or group.

C. Strategies for Taking Field Notes
Field notes – integral to participant observation
 Include descriptions and interpretations of individuals, interactions,
and events
 Distinguish descriptions from interpretations
 Record time and location of observations, as well as key information
(weather, events happening and their significance)
 Keep theoretical memos – which are the tentative interpretations
emerging and being assessed through further data collection

Field Notes (cont’d)
 May not be possible or advisable to take notes while in
the field
 Important that they be done as soon after field
observation as possible
 Note-taking is time-consuming because it is integral to
guiding the data collection and continuing the analysis

D. Integrating Data Collection and Analysis
 Organizing field notes into different types of files facilitates data
analysis
 Master field file – complete journal of field notes; number pages and
include entry dates
 Background, history file – sub file organizing background material
 Key character files – sub files on key players in the group or
organization
 Analytic files – sub files for different types of observations or
relationships

Data Collection Methods:
2. In-depth Interviews
 Some studies cannot employ the participant
observation method.
 In-depth interviews allow participants to describe
their experiences and the meaning of events
taking place in their lives.
 Interviews are flexible and allow for investigation.

Data Collection Methods
3. Focus Group Interviews
 Interview format, but in a group setting
 6-12 participants with common experience
 Dates back to the 1940s – used to assess effectiveness of
morale-boosting radio shows
 1970s onward – used by market researchers
 1980s onward – used by academics
 Transcript of discussion is the data
 Plus accompanying notes
 Use content analysis or grounded theory approach to analyze
the data

3. Focus Group Interviews (cont’d)
 Strengths: Open-ended question
 Spontaneously deal with issues as they arise
 Cost-effective method of collecting data
 Less time consuming
 Weaknesses:
 One or two participants may dominate
 Not done in a natural setting, so little
“observation” to help understand the
experience of the participants

Advantages and Limitations
 Focus on the whole of the human experience and the
meanings ascribed to them by participants
 They provide the researcher with deep insights that
would not be possible using quantitative methods
 The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of
the data it produces
 Participants true reality is likely to be reflected
 Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity and
generalizability

Data Collection in Qualitative Research

Data Collection in Qualitative Research

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