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Designed Landscapes
37 Key Projects
Designed Landscapes is a case-by-case study of 37 significant,
existing works of landscape design worldwide, largely constructed
since the Renaissance. Being an informative and easy-to-read
reference volume for practitioners and students alike, it presents key
precedents in landscape architecture using site plans and recent
photographs to showcase each project.
Organised and presented in 12 sections based on project type,
each project is examined based on date, previous site condition,
designer(s), design intentions, current composition, unique features,
ownership and management, and comparable projects. Each chapter
offers an insightful critique of the featured projects.
Written by the authors of Great City Parks, the book posits that
these carefully selected key projects have maintained their status
throughout the ages because they express values and design
intentions that continue to inform the practice of landscape
architecture in the present day. The book concludes with a ten-point
summary of lessons for professional practice gleaned from the
studies.
Including a wide range of case studies from countries including
many in western Europe, the United States, Canada, India, Japan
and China, and lavishly illustrated with over 200 full-colour images,

the book is a must-have volume for anyone interested in the history
and current practice of landscape architecture.
Alan Tate is a Fellow and Past President of the United Kingdom
Landscape Institute and a Fellow of the Canadian Society of
Landscape Architects. He has a PhD in Architecture from Edinburgh
College of Art. Tate is a Professor of Landscape Architecture at the
University of Manitoba where he was Head of the Department for 12
years between 2000 and 2019.
Marcella Eaton has a Bachelor of Environmental Studies from the
University of Manitoba and a PhD in Landscape Architecture from
Edinburgh College of Art. She is a Professor of Landscape
Architecture at the University of Manitoba and was an Associate
Dean Academic in the Faculty of Architecture from 2009 to 2015.

Designed Landscapes
37 Key Projects
Alan Tate
and
Marcella Eaton

Designed cover image: Courtesy of Alan Tate.
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Alan Tate and Marcella Eaton
The right of Alan Tate and Marcella Eaton to be identified as authors of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Tate, Alan, 1951– author. | Eaton, Marcella, author.
Title: Designed landscapes: 37 key projects / Alan Tate and Marcella Eaton.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2024. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2023008367 (print) | LCCN 2023008368 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367173081 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367173098 (paperback) | ISBN
9780429056123 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Landscape design—Case studies.
Classification: LCC SB472.45 .T38 2024 (print) | LCC SB472.45 (ebook) | DDC 712
—dc23/eng/20230626
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023008367
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023008368
ISBN: 9780367173081 (hbk)

ISBN: 9780367173098 (pbk)
ISBN: 9780429056123 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9780429056123
Typeset in Weiss and Futura
by codeMantra

Contents
Acknowledgements
Here We Go / Preface
Introduction
1 Water
1.1 Villa Lante, Bagnaia, Viterbo, Italy – Terraced water garden
1.2 Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar, Kashmir – Mughal pleasure garden
1.3 Miroir d’Eau, Bordeaux, France – Water feature / focus of
urban regeneration
2 Landform
2.1 Dumbarton Oaks, Georgetown, Washington, D.C., United
States – Terraced hillside garden
2.2 Parc Diderot, Courbevoie, Hauts-de-Seine, France – Plunging
landform
2.3 Northala Fields, Northolt, London, England – Conical roadside
earthworks
3 Plant Collections
3.1 Villandry, Indre-et-Loire, France – Renaissance château garden
+ potager extraordinaire
3.2 Hidcote Manor Garden, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire,
England – Manor house garden
4 Enclosed Spaces

4.1 Courtyards of the Alhambra, Granada, Andalusia, Spain –
Moorish courtyards
4.2 Wang Shi Yuan / Garden of the Master of the Fishing Nets,
Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China – Classical Chinese garden
4.3 Paley Park, East 53rd Street, New York, United States – Pocket
park
5 Private Gardens
5.1 Entsu-Ji Temple Garden, Kyoto, Japan – Zen monastery
garden
5.2 The Miller Garden, Columbus, Indiana, United States –
Domestic garden
5.3 Little Sparta, Lanarkshire, Scotland – Concrete poet’s garden
6 Commemorative Landscapes
6.1 Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United
States – Rural cemetery
6.2 Skogskyrkogården / Forest Cemetery, Stockholm, Sweden –
Forest cemetery
6.3 Kennedy Memorial, Runnymede, Surrey, England – Memorial
to President of the United States
7 Private Parkland
7.1 Vaux-Le-Vicomte, Maincy, France – Baroque château garden
7.2 Rousham Park, Oxfordshire, England – Arcadian parkland
7.3 Bloedel Reserve, Washington State, United States – Forest
reserve
7.4 Kröller-Müller Sculpture Garden, Otterlo, The Netherlands –
Sculpture garden
8 City Parks
8.1 Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, Paris, France – City park on
restored site
8.2 Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York, United States – American
pastoral city park

8.3 Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord, Meiderich, Germany – Post-
industrial city park
9 Campuses
9.1 The Academical Village at The University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia, United States – University campus
9.2 St Catherine’s College, Oxford, England – University college
campus
9.3 Deere & Company World Headquarters, Moline, Illinois, United
States – Corporate headquarters
9.4 Robson Square, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada –
Government precinct
10 Linear Landscapes
10.1 Grand Rounds, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States –
Urban parkway
10.2 Blue Ridge Parkway, Virginia and North Carolina, United
States – Rural parkway / national park
10.3 Promenade Samuel-De Champlain, Québec City, Canada –
Riverfront boulevard
11 Housing Landscapes
11.1 Chatham Village, Pittsburgh, United States – Garden suburb
11.2 Lafayette Park, Detroit, Michigan, United States – Inner city
housing
12 Urban Landscapes
12.1 Pienza, Val d’Orcia, Italy – Renaissance urbanism / medieval
townscape
12.2 Savannah Wards and Squares, Georgia, United States –
Enlightenment urbanism
12.3 Place Stanislas and Place de la Carrière, Nancy, France –
Enlightenment civic design
12.4 Edinburgh New Town, Scotland – Georgian city extension

Acknowledgements
The authors benefitted from an Annual Grant from the Landscape
Architecture Canada Foundation (LACF) and wish to sincerely thank
LACF for support towards the extensive travel required in the
preparation of the book.
We are extremely grateful to Mojtaba (Moin) Hassanzadeh for the
preparation of the plans of each project and for the support of the
Dean’s Office in the Faculty of Architecture for COVID-19 relief
support for this work.
We are also grateful to the staff of the Faculty of Architecture
Library, particularly Sherri-Lynn Galaschuk, for their assistance in
sourcing reference materials.
We would like to thank Marc Treib for his suggestions with respect
to ordering of the projects and for his comments on some of the
draft write-ups.
And we are, of course, grateful to publishers Routledge for their
support, particularly during the hiatus caused by the COVID-19
pandemic. Individuals involved with the project have included Grace
Harrison, Megha Patel, and Adam Guppy, Jake Millicheap, and
Assunta Petrone and colleagues at CodeMantra.

Here We Go / Preface
Every generation thinks it is the first to discover sex and ecology.
And many generations – in line with Henry Ford – eschew the study
of history believing that they can create better places without
reference to earlier endeavours by others. This book presents
lessons from places that are site-specific responses to their locale
and, which we believe, remain important examples of the art and
practice of landscape design. It is aimed at readers with an interest
in designed landscapes – whether students, practitioners, or simply
attentive visitors. It is intended to be an aid for them to visit and
understand designed landscapes more holistically – when, why, and
how they were designed, produced, adapted, and have been
managed over time. Academics should find that it provides a helpful
compendium of information and critique of relatively well-known
landmarks in landscape architecture.
Indeed, the working title of the book was Landmarks in
Landscape Architecture – but Landmarks was already the title of
Robert Macfarlane’s well-received 2015 book about land and
language. Similarly, it might have been titled Studies in Landscape
Design but for Geoffrey Jellicoe’s three excellent volumes under that
title. And so, with the publisher’s request that the title includes the
number of projects being examined, it has emerged as Designed
Landscape: 37 Key Projects – and 37 for no worse reason that it is a
prime number and will be quite distinct from titles such as 100 Years
100 Landscape Designs by John Hill (2017), The History of
Landscape Design in 100 Gardens by Linda Chisholm (2018), or
Around the World in 80 Gardens by Monty Don (2008). We regard

them as ‘key’ projects in that they demonstrate universal lessons
that transcend time.
Our initial intention was to study a long list of projects – maybe
not 100 or even 80, but certainly more than the final 37 – until we
found that the number of words necessary to do justice to each
project would have been excessive … for both the publishers and
ourselves. So, the long list of projects was selectively reduced and
refined as we proceeded. Furthermore, the writing spanned the rise
and decline of COVID-19, seriously lengthening the period of
production and restricting the range of projects that could be visited
and covered – leading, regrettably, to the exclusion of projects in
Brazil by Roberto Burle Marx.
The selection tends to favour projects that have stood the test of
time, and only three – the Mirror d’eau, Promenade Samuel-De
Champlain, and Northala Fields – are twenty-first-century creations.
Another important criterion was that all the projects should be
publicly accessible. Some of them require an entry fee – primarily
the former private gardens – but the majority are freely open to the
public. Other criteria are that they should demonstrate original
design thinking, carry lessons for current and future practitioners,
and exhibit diversity in terms of form, function, age, and location. It
was decided at the outset that, for the sake of consistency, particular
specialist landscape types – botanical gardens, theme parks, and
golf courses – would not be examined. Equally, roof gardens are not
included as a specific type of designed landscape, although much of
Robson Square in Vancouver (Chapter 9.3) is built on structure.
The book has a broader scope than the two editions of Great City
Parks. It recognises that values and achievements in landscape
design are evident in many other types of project – hence the type-
based structure of this book. It treats typology – the study or listing
of types – as a fundamental process of identifying and categorizing
differences between, and within, groups of phenomena.1
Categorisation and examination by type is an aid to comprehension
of diverse projects, and architecture theorist Paul-Alan Johnson
provided an admirably concise account of the word type, including

its ‘correlates archetype, prototype, and stereotype’, and their use,
along with the widely and inaccurately used word typology in
architecture.2 Johnson’s definitions are adopted in this book.
Architectural historian Niklaus Pevsner noted that typological
studies in architecture tend to be based on building functions,
materials, or styles.3
And applications of typology in architecture
have tended to be more instrumental and more ephemeral –
reflecting the changing zeitgeist.4 By comparison, typological
thinking has been more continuous in landscape architecture –
perhaps because landscape design encompasses a relatively wide
range of project types. It is important to bear in mind, however, that
this study is underpinned by recognition of the enduring value to
design thinking – in whatever field – of Quatremère’s idea of the
(more flexible) ‘type’ as opposed to the (more prescriptive) ‘model’.5
In summary, typology is an ordering process which, like naming, aids
human understanding of phenomena.
Categorization of precedent examples based on differences and
similarities facilitates a didactic approach to the knowledge that
designers draw upon. This knowledge supplements the vocabulary
for design development and for the communication of design ideas
to fellow designers, to clients, to government agencies, and to the
public. Furthermore, we suggest that type-based knowledge can
promote flexible design thinking rather than prompting the
imposition of pre-conceived design solutions. History – the
retrospective ordering and interpretation of sometimes random
events – is, of course, a valuable (and value-laden) means of
interpreting intentions and outcomes in the design of landscapes.6
Although this is not primarily a history text, the projects are
presented chronologically within each section, and the past, present,
and potential future of each project is addressed since these are
critical aspects of their respective stories.
The case study template used here is less rigid than for Great City
Parks and is not presented with sub-headings in the text. The
template comprises:

Key dates.
Size / previous site condition.
Designer(s).
Design intentions.
Description / current composition.
Critique / unique features.
Ownership / management / funding / future plans.
Comparable projects.
The book includes purpose-specific, hand-drawn, to-scale plans of
each project, in a similar style to those in Great City Parks. The scale
box with each plan is intended to facilitate size comparisons between
the projects.
Dimensions are given in imperial units for US projects and in
metric units for all other projects. For easy reference, a basic
conversion table is given below.
Imperial Metric Metric Imperial
1 inch 25.40 millimetres 1 millimetre 0.039 inches
1 foot 0.3048 metres 1 metre 3.281 feet
1 mile 1.609 kilometres 1 kilometre 0.621 miles
1 square
foot
0.929 square
metres
1 square
metre
10.766
square feet
1 acre 0.405 hectares 1 hectare 2.471 acres
1 square
mile
2.59 square
kilometres
1 square
kilometre
0.386 square
miles

NOTES
1. Hill 2017, pp. 8–11, gave a brief typology of landscape design
projects comprising gardens and parks, land art and sculpture
parks, plazas and promenades, campuses and communities,
cemeteries and memorials, and amphitheatres and pools.
2. Johnson 1994, p. 289. Johnson also gave an order of
precedence for each of these words: ‘archetype – the abstracted
image of a grouping; prototype – the “first-formed” of the
archetype from which a thing is (deemed) to be copied;
stereotype – the replication; and type – the generalization or
portmanteau term’. Johnson also noted that ‘“typology” is
frequently misapplied to situations in which “type” is meant, as
is its adjective “typological” for “typal”’ and that since the 1960s
architectural commentators have used type and typology
interchangeably (Ibid., p. 291). For clarity, however, the word
‘typal’ is not used here and the word ‘typology’ is only used to
mean either the study of types or a list of types.
3. See, for instance, Pevsner 1976, p. 289. More recently Simon
Unwin addressed archetypal physical structures – but not
buildings in a conventional sense. His typology comprised
standing stone, stone circle, dolmen, hypostyle, temple, theatre,
courtyard, labyrinth, the vernacular, and ruin. These might be
termed Jungian archetypes – identical psychic structures that
appeal to the collective unconscious – of the type addressed in
Jellicoe’s writings about the Kennedy Memorial (Chapter 6.3).
For an equivalent list of landscape archetypes readers might
refer to Patrick Condon’s Designed Landscape Space Typology
comprising orchard, clearing, bosque, allée, back yard, front
yard, square, street, theater, stair, terrace, promontory, cloister,
and single tree – very much a form-based list of component
elements of designed landscapes.
4. See, for instance, Vidler 1977 on the recurrence of ‘typology’ as
a source of inspiration in architectural design.

5. Younés 1999, pp. 254–6. It is also worth noting here the
distinction between typologies (lists of types) based on the
general grouping of phenomena – which are categories, and
those based on empirical taxonomies – which are classifications.
6. This description of history is adopted from Margret McMillan in
the BBC Reith Lectures in 2019.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Condon, Patrick M. – Principal Investigator (March 1988). A
Designed Landscape Space Typology: A Theory Based Design
Tool (A Report to The National Endowment for the Arts).
Minneapolis, MN: School of Architecture and Landscape
Architecture, University of Minnesota.
Hill, John (2017). 100 Years 100 Landscape Designs. Munich /
London / New York: Prestel.
Johnson, Paul-Alan (1994). The Theory of Architecture:
Concepts, Themes & Practices. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Pevsner, Nikolaus (1976). A History of Building Types. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Unwin, Simon (2017). The Ten Most Influential Buildings in
History: Architecture’s Archetypes. London and New York:
Routledge.
Vidler, Anthony (1977). ‘The Third Typology’ in Oppositions, No
7. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press for Institute of Architecture and
Urban Studies, New York, pp. 1–4.
Younés, Samir (1999 from 1832). The True, The Fictive and The
Real: The Historical Dictionary of Quatremère de Quincy
(translated by Samir Younés). London: Andreas Papadakis / New
Architecture Group.

Introduction
DOI: 10.4324/9780429056123-1
The projects examined in the book include a range of landscapes
created between the fourteenth and early twenty-first centuries.
They are manifestations of an array of religious beliefs and cultural
contexts but they are all places designed to provide spiritual uplift –
places that enrich human experience. They are examined together
here because their affective qualities are readily apparent even to
people who might not share the values or traditions that generated
them. It is contended that enriching human experience – providing
beauty with utility – remains a wholly valid aspiration and one of the
principal aims of landscape architecture. The projects merit study
and comprehension because they contain and convey lessons that
can inform future designers.
The book addresses a number of projects outside the western
canon. These are included by way of demonstrating the universal
capacity of designed landscapes to express human aspirations.
Nevertheless, in an era of growing anxiety about climate change and
social justice, the book might be seen as exploring dated cultural
values while overlooking more urgent current concerns. Although the
book does not address those issues directly, it does, perhaps,
suggest why we should address them.1
The projects are grouped by type and the types are ordered
roughly according to their degree of complexity. Thus, they begin

with the fundamental materials of the discipline – water, the shaping
of terrain and the organisation of plant collections. This is followed
by an examination of small, enclosed spaces from distinctly different
eras and geographic locations – Moorish courtyards, a classical
Chinese garden, and a twentieth-century pocket park in a Western
metropolis.
Then, at slightly larger scale, comes a trio of private gardens also
from distinctly different eras and/or geographic locations – a Zen
monastery garden, a Modernist garden, and the garden of a
concrete poet. These private gardens are followed by what we have
called private parkland – effectively larger private gardens or smaller
estates, each the product of substantial private funds but, more
importantly, each providing impeccable lessons in landscape design
as a source of beauty and utility. Each of these projects reflects the
individual values of their respective owners as well as providing
insights to ambient styles in their different eras.
The private gardens are followed by spaces of private
contemplation – two renowned cemeteries and the memorial to John
F. Kennedy at Runnymede near London. From there we proceed to
three public parks, all of which were addressed in Great City Parks
(2001 and 2015) – nineteenth-century precedents from either side of
the Atlantic and a definitive post-industrial park. But for that book,
this section would have been more extensive, particularly since parks
remain one of the types of designed landscape on which landscape
architects are frequently engaged.
Next, we examine a group of campuses – landscape settings for
large organisations. The group includes two academic campuses, a
business campus in a rural setting, and a government campus in an
urban setting. They are followed by linear landscape projects,
designed to be traversed and experienced while travelling on a
leisurely linear route. Then we examine two landscape-led housing
developments – one from before and one from shortly after World
War II, but both demonstrating the value of controlling vehicular
traffic and the value of communal external space in promoting social
cohesion. Finally, we look at a selection of comprehensively designed
cities – or segments of them – in which the public spaces were

fundamental to the structure of the city and continue to play a major
role in their daily lives.
Inevitably, characteristics of the various types overlap. All of the
enclosed spaces – the courtyard of the Alhambra, Paley Park, and
the Wang Shi Yuan – for instance, also have water as a characteristic
feature. Parc Diderot in Courbevoie is included because of its
exemplary landform but it also contains a central water feature as
dramatic as a Mughal chadar. In other words, the projects are not
exclusively of any one type … but they are exceptional examples of
the type under which they are categorised. They also represent
enduring paradigms in landscape architecture.
At this point, it is worth identifying some of the recurring themes
in the book. First, the projects examined might be viewed as an
homage to picturesque landscapes. Second, the book might also be
viewed as a paean to experiencing designed landscapes on foot – as
a kinaesthetic experience. Third, we are delving deep into what has
been termed ‘third nature’.
The picturesque emerged as a design style in England in the early
eighteenth century and has retained traction as an aesthetic
principle underlying designed landscapes – whether consciously or
not.2 This principle is manifest in landscapes designed to remove
viewers from their quotidian concerns and to stimulate their senses
– particularly vision – as they are drawn through a series of scenes
punctuated with points of interest and curiosity. In this respect, the
projects examined in the book exemplify what Berleant termed
‘engaged landscape’ – places of aesthetic engagement, as opposed
to ‘observational landscapes’ – where only a glance is needed to
grasp them.3
But these are not places of pure whimsy. They also
address underlying practical and performative criteria such that they
provide utility as well as beauty.
This leads to walking as the principal means of experiencing most
of the projects examined in the book. Careri described walking as ‘an
art from whose loins spring the menhir, sculpture, architecture,
landscape’ and ‘only in the last century has the journey-path freed
itself of the constraints of religion and literature to assume the

status of a pure aesthetic act’.4 We might go back further than that,
particularly to the writing of Henry Thoreau (1817–62) in the early
1860s and his praise of ‘sauntering through the woods and over the
hills and fields’ for at least four hours a day as a means of preserving
his health and spirits.5
And before Thoreau, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804),
we are told, followed exactly the same walking route around his
hometown of Königsberg at the same time every day. Kant regarded
his walk as fundamental to his health and as a reliable antidote to
his writing.6 Similarly, the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–90)
spent ten years from 1879 taking long walks, also for the benefit of
his health and to prompt his professional thinking.7 Then, of course,
there were figures like Walter Benjamin (1892–1940) who developed
the ability to lose himself in the city of Paris, where he became the
archetypal flâneur – literally a loafer or idle pedestrian.8
Solnit
suggests that a flâneur is ‘an observant and solitary man strolling
about Paris’.9 For the purposes of this book, it is the strolling and the
observing that are important.
Next came Michel de Certeau (1925–86), author of The Practice
of Everyday Life, including a chapter on urban walking, which –
again – regarded walking as a means of understanding the language
of the city – again, Paris. Subsequently, artist Richard Long (b. 1945)
has created art works by walking repeatedly across the same piece
of land in order to leave an impression from his steps. And latterly
writer Will Self (b. 1961) has been walking – generally from a city’s
airport to its centre – as a means of understanding those cities more
fully than through travelling by vehicle or by public transit.
This topic was also investigated in detail by Conan and others,
including postulation by John Dixon Hunt of three different kinds of
movement in gardens – the procession or ritual, the stroll, and the
ramble.10 From the projects examined in the book, we might
categorise Shalimar Bagh or the Kennedy Memorial as places of
procession or ritual, Rousham or the Wang Shi Yuan as places for a
circuitous stroll, and Bloedel Forest Reserve or parts of Prospect Park
as places for a ramble. However we describe them, most of the

landscapes examined in the book are designed to be experienced on
foot. Only the Blue Ridge Parkway and the Deere & Company World
Headquarters – where comparable revelations can only be
experienced from a moving car – and Entsu-ji (and perhaps Paley
Park) – designed for viewing in place, where only the eyes do the
moving – are not designed to be primarily ambulatory experiences.
There are also some projects where movement by bicycle is
appropriate to the scale and scope of the landscape. These include,
in particular, the Kröller-Müller Museum in the Netherlands and the
Promenade Samuel-De Champlain in Québec City. While the latter is
also perfectly walkable, the journey across the Hoge Veluwe to the
museum is most appropriately done on one of the freely-available
white bicycles, creating a journey through a landscape that was
replanted as a domain for hunting on horseback. Then there is the
Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway in Minneapolis which is
designed to be experienced in a vehicle, on a bicycle or on foot, and
the vehicular approach and circulation at the Deere & Company
World Headquarters.
Last, we have the question of agriculture as second nature – in
Cicero’s terminology – and the garden as third nature. While gardens
generally sit comfortably within Hunt’s description of third nature as
being ‘more complex in their mixture of culture and nature than
agricultural land’, many of the projects examined in the book have
high-octane cultural dimensions – perhaps making them third nature
under his definition although they may not be considered gardens as
such.11 Inevitably, the projects covered in the book are
manifestations of the varying relationship of cultures and nature.
And in this context, it may be germane – particularly in this era of
growing anxiety about climate change and social justice – to regard
landscape restoration projects under the mantra of rewilding as a
form of fourth nature. But, for now, we have confined ourselves to
the first three.

NOTES
1. One reason is reflected in the widely quoted meme about
Churchill’s response during World War II to a suggestion that
funding for the arts should be cut to support the war effort. His
purported response was ‘… then what are we fighting for?’.
Churchill scholar Richard M. Langworth noted
(https://richardlangworth.com/arts – accessed 2022-10-11) that
Churchill’s closest statement to this was ‘The Arts are essential
to any complete national life. The State owes it to itself to
sustain and encourage them. Ill fares the race which fails to
salute the arts with the reverence and delight which are their
due’ in an address to the Royal Academy in London in April
1930.
2. See, for instance, Herrington 2006, pp. 22–37 for more on this
topic.
3. Berleant 2005.
4. Careri 2002, p. 20.
5. Thoreau 1863, p. 38.
6. Gros 2014, pp. 153–8.
7. Ibid., pp. 11–29.
8. Coverley 2006, p. 58.
9. Solnit 2002, p. 198.
10. Hunt 2003, p. 188. Hunt noted that the term ramble was taken
from The Ramble in Central Park.
11. Hunt 2000, p. 34. It is noted in the account of Pienza (Chapter
12.1) that Hunt suggested that the pristinely cultivated Val
d’Orcia might also be considered third nature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Berleant, Arnold (2005). ‘Down the Garden Path’, Chapter III in
Aesthetics and Environment, Variations on a Theme from

www.academia.edu/15727197/Down_the_Garden_Path
(accessed 2022-10-13).
Careri, Francesco (2002). Walkscapes: Walking as an Aesthetic
Practice. Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo Gill.
Conan, Michael (2003 – Editor). Landscape Design and the
Experience of Motion. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.
Coverley, Merlin (2006). Psychogeography. Harpenden, UK:
Pocket Essentials.
Gros, Frédéric (2009 – English-language Edition 2014). A
Philosophy of Walking. London: Verso (translated by John
Howe).
Herrington, Susan (2006). ‘Framed Again: The Picturesque
Aesthetics of Contemporary Landscapes’ in Landscape Journal,
Volume 25, No 1. University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 22–37.
Hunt, John Dixon (2000). Greater Perfections: The Practice of
Garden Theory. London: Thames and Hudson.
——— (2003). ‘“Lordship of the Feet”: Towards a Poetics of
Movement in the Garden’ in Conan 2003, pp. 187–215.
Solnit, Rebecca (2002 Edition). Wanderlust: A History of
Walking. London: Verso.
Thoreau, Henry D. (1863–2010 Edition). Walking. Gearhart, OR:
Watchmaker Publishing.

1 Water
1.1 VILLA LANTE, BAGNAIA, VITERBO, ITALY: Terraced water
garden
1.2 SHALIMAR BAGH, SRINAGAR, KASHMIR: Mughal pleasure
garden
1.3 MIROIR D’EAU, BORDEAUX, FRANCE: Water feature / focus
of urban regeneration
DOI: 10.4324/9780429056123-2
Water is a supremely flexible design element. It can be released over
waterfalls, trained into flowing bodies, projected upward before
responding to gravity, emitted as vaporous mist, or held still as a
reflective medium. Water can offer combinations of visual and aural
stimuli. Furthermore, it is widely held that people are innately
attracted to water, arguably because humans are evolved from fish
and because a high proportion of the human body is composed of it.
It is also thought that water – blue space, and vegetation – green
space, help to regulate the amygdalae – the anxiety centres in the
brain – inducing calm.
Water was highly valued in the time of the Roman Empire for
sanitary and recreational purposes, giving rise to extraordinary feats
of hydraulic engineering. It seems fitting, therefore that the first
example, the Villa Lante, should be so near Rome and, like other
Italian Renaissance gardens, a captivating experience in which water

is the central feature – literally and figuratively – running the length
of a site that symbolises an earthly paradise.
Water in various forms is also the focus of Shalimar Bagh –
originally a place of retreat for a Mughal emperor, now a public park.
Shalimar presents an uphill procession alongside an axial line of
water features, including a fast-flowing central canal punctuated
with fountains and chadars – crenellated ramps creating white water
effects. The more recent Mirror d’eau acts as a kind of urban beach,
providing a rotating sequence of water effects, including fountains,
plumes of mist, and a reflective surface mirroring the sky and
adjacent historic buildings – demonstrating the attraction of water in
its multiple forms.
Inevitably, water is a central feature in many of the other projects
addressed in this book – the chadar-like cascade in Parc Diderot, the
axial water bodies in the courtyards of the Alhambra, the central
pond in the Wang Shi Yuan, the waterfalls in Paley Park and Robson
Square, the concealed canals at Vaux-le Vicomte, the rill at
Rousham, the Reflection Garden at the Bloedel Reserve, and the
lakes in the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, in Prospect Park, and at the
John Deere campus.

1.1 Villa Lante, Bagnaia, Viterbo,
Italy
Terraced water garden
Superlatives about the Villa Lante abound … deservedly. Despite being
built and owned by religious figures, it is an exquisite expression of
Humanist thought – an allegorical essay in the relationship of humanity to
nature, symbolising transition from the mythological Golden Age to the
Age of Jupiter – Art controlling Nature. The gardens demonstrate
extraordinarily accomplished use of water, flowing in various forms down
the centre of a 16-metre slope, as the embodiment of that message. And
that slope forms part of an ‘entire hillside’ that ‘was intended to represent
Mount Parnassus, the home of the Muses’ – an earthly paradise.1
The Council of Viterbo, a province roughly 80 kilometres north of
Rome, ceded the Dominion of Bagnaia to the Bishops of Viterbo in 1202.
The Bishop’s Palace subsequently became a summer residence with
favourable conditions created by the well-wooded Cimini Hills to the
south, making it ideal for hunting, bathing, and relaxation. Development
of the estate began in 1498 when Cardinal Raffaele Riario (1461–1521 –
Bishop of Viterbo from 1498 to 1505), nephew of Pope Sixtus IV and a
patron of the arts, commenced creation of a barco – a hunting park, and
casino or lodge. Riario was assisted in this work by his own nephew,
Ottaviano Riario (1479–1523), who succeeded him as Bishop of Viterbo, a
position that Ottaviano held until his death. By 1514, the Riarios had
created a walled enclosure of around 25 hectares.
Ottaviano Riario’s successor as Bishop, Cardinal Nicollo Ridolfi (1501–
50), had water supplied to the park in 1523 from two springs donated by
the Commune di Bagnaia.2
This was supplemented by construction in
1553–55 of a new aqueduct designed by Tommaso Ghinucci (1496–1587),
a Sienese priest, architect, and hydraulic engineer.3 The site was leased

out to various figures until Cardinal Gianfrancesco Gambara (1533–87)
became Bishop of Viterbo in 1566. Creation of the garden in its current
form began shortly after Ghinucci was commissioned by the Commune in
1567 to prepare proposals for layout of the area between the market
square in Bagnaia and the park.4
The following year Gambara resumed control of Bagnaia for the
Bishopric of Viterbo and began working with – it is generally accepted –
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (1507–73) on design of the garden. Fagiolo
argued that the first intervention, probably designed by Vignola rather
than Ghinucci, was an extension of the more westerly of a trident of
avenues from the town such that it created a division between ‘the wild
nature of the park and the artificial nature of the garden’.5
This led to
separation of the park ‘representing the Golden Age’ from the garden
‘representing the Age of Jupiter’, producing ‘two landscape archetypes –
the forest and the walled garden – juxtaposed’.6
Nevertheless, despite their physical separation and the relatively limited
attention currently paid to the park, they retain a symbiotic relationship as
representations of Art and of Nature. Indeed, the strength of the
allegorical subtext to the entire estate might be stronger if the garden
could still be accessed from its southern end via the barco rather than
along its west side adjacent to the Palazzina Gambara. As antiquarian
George Sitwell argued, ‘it is better’ … ‘to follow from its source the tiny
streamlet upon which pool, cascade, and water-temple are threaded like
pearls upon a string’.7
Gambara, with Vignola and Ghinucci, worked on the garden between
1568 and 1578. The majority of the work on the terraces and fountains
seems to have been undertaken in 1573–74 – around the time of
Vignola’s death – with Ghinucci returning to design the hydraulics for the
fountains. The first cubic, 22-metre square, hip-roofed casino, the
Palazzina Gambara, was commenced at this time and largely completed
ahead of a visit from Cardinal Gregory XIII in 1578. The matching
Palazzina Montalto on the east side of the garden was commenced in
Gambara’s time and is generally thought to have been completed in about
1590 by Gambara’s successor, Alessandro Damasceni Peretti di Montalto
(1571–1623), nephew of Pope Sixtus V. The understated modesty of
these off-axis palazzine makes a critical contribution to the character and
unity of the garden, allowing the narrative of the water features to be
central – both literally and metaphorically.

The ‘wonderfully satisfying’ gardens comprise the ‘essential elements of
the Italian garden – light and shade, terraces descending a steep hillside,
water moving and still, sculpture, elegant pavilions, balustrades and
steps’.8 But it is more than the sum of its parts. Whether a visit starts at
the top of the garden – which is not currently possible – or at the
Palazzina Gambara, there is an inevitable attraction to the spine of water
and the unfolding views that are revealed along its length. And whichever
route is followed, the allegorical essay begins with the Pegasus Fountain
beside the palazzina entrance, backed by a curved retaining wall
supporting the corbelled busts of the nine Muses – reinforcing the idea of
the hillside as Mount Parnassus.
Plan 1.1a Villa Lante Setting
1. Hunting park
2. Villa Lante
3. Fountain of Pegasus
4. Hunting lodge
5. Cistern
6. Secret Garden
7. Bagnaia market square

Plan 1.1b Villa Lante Plan and Section
1. Fountain of the Deluge / Houses of the Muses
2. Fountain of the Dolphins
3. Water Chain
4. Fountain of the River Gods
5. Cardinal’s Water Table
6. Fountain of the Lights
7. Grotto of Neptune
8. Grotto of Venus
9. Palazzina Montalto
10. Palazzina Gambara
11. Fountain of the Moors (or the Square)
12. Gate to Bagnaia
The essay represents a transition from untamed wilderness at the top of
the garden to a world under human control at the bottom – a transition
from Nature to Art or cultural refinement in the age of Renaissance
Humanism. It begins at the Fountain of the Deluge where water pours

from a rusticated, maidenhair-fern-covered grotto into a pool between
two loggias representing the twin peaks of Mount Parnassus and
containing statues of the Muses. The Deluge is also thought to represent
Jupiter destroying ‘increasingly evil’ man leading to the commencement of
a new era.9 Together with the nearby octagonally-shaped Fountain of the
Dolphins, the Deluge is deemed to represent Water – the first of the four
elements expressed in the water features, the others being the Fountain
of the River Gods – Earth, the Fountain of the Lights – Fire, and the
Fountain of the Square – Air.
Photo 1.1.1 Water cistern in hunting park (October 2019)
Beyond the Dolphins the water reappears at the top of the Water Chain, a
stepped cordon of stonework scrolls that can be interpreted as an
elongated crayfish – gambero in Italian, a recurrent reference throughout
the garden – enclosed by box hedges that lead the eye down the axis,
and over the Fountain of Giants to the Cardinal’s Water Table. ‘Beside this
cascade, the “ordinary” step cascades or water stairways of the villa
Aldobrandini or Chatsworth or Caserta may go hang. They are bigger,
grander, and duller – by far’.10
Next is the Fountain of the River Gods, or
Giants – representing the River Arno and the River Tiber, and reflecting a

change from sea water in the Deluge to river water in this Earth-based
fountain – forming the face of a retaining wall.
And then the seemingly-still water slips slowly through a channel – for
cooling wine or even for floating plates along it – in the top of a long
rectangular, stone table that reinforces the axis of the garden, before
reappearing in the circular, concentric tiers – three concave above three
convex below – of the Fountain of the Lights (Fire) falling to the black
gravel terrace, lined with mature plane trees, on the upper side of the
palazzine. The water eventually comes to rest in the 75-metre square
bottom terrace with four pools around the Fountain of the Square, or
Moors, surrounded by tightly-trimmed parterres of box and yew – where
Art has finally subdued Nature. On the axis of the terrace, a gate leading
to the town square of Bagnaia completes the visual and physical
connection of Nature, Art, and City.
But Gambara’s pursuit of such earthly delights came to a close after
visits from Pope Gregory XIII (in 1578) and Cardinal Carlo Borromeo (in
1580). Pope Gregory, by all accounts, criticised Gambara’s extravagance
and cancelled his cardinal’s stipend – prescient, perhaps, of Fouquet’s fate
at Vaux-le- Vicomte. Similarly, Borromeo ‘was clearly irritated by what he
saw, showing all the usual intolerance of the zealous Counter-
Reformationist towards the principles of Humanism’.11 And, as Adorni
noted, Gambara’s case was not helped by his trying to explain the
Humanist iconography of the garden to Borromeo. Gambara subsequently
ceased construction of the garden and donated funds towards rebuilding
the local church and hospital.
On Gambara’s death in 1587, the estate passed to Cardinal Montalto,
appointed to that position in 1585 at the age of 14, by his uncle Pope
Sixtus V. Montalto completed the second Palazzina – named for him – to
match the Palazzina Gambara. He made alterations to the Fountain of the
Square, or Moors, removing a pyramidal fountain, and changed some of
the fountains on the circuit through the barco. Montalto owned the estate
until his death in 1623 when it passed to other cardinals until, in 1656,
Pope Alexander VII – a strong opponent of nepotism – allowed it to be
sold to Duke Ippolito Lante (1618–88). The estate remained in the
ownership of the Lante-della Rovere family until 1953 when it was taken
over by Angelo Cantoni.12

Photo 1.1.2 Secret Garden (October 2019)

The gardens and palazzine were badly damaged by Allied bombing in
World War II but were ‘faithfully restored [beginning] in 1954’ making the
Villa Lante ‘the most perfectly kept of all Renaissance gardens’.13 In 1973,
it came under the supervision of the Italian government and is one of the
Grandi Giardini Italiana – Great Gardens of Italy, an organisation
established in 1997 to help promote and protect historic gardens,
comparable to the Demeure Historique established by Joachim Carvallo,
restorer of Villandry (see Chapter 3.1).
The Villa Lante is beloved of all its observers … ‘distinguished from
other gardens since art and nature are in equilibrium’ … ‘a perfectly
proportioned garden’ … ‘Man and nature are harmoniously reconciled in
the high art of this very formal garden’ … ‘as much an iconic masterpiece
of the Renaissance as Brunelleschi’s dome’ … ‘or Michelangelo’s Sistine
Chapel ceiling’ – but none more than Sitwell in light of Borromeo’s
chastisement of Gambara.14
He argued that ‘such a garden’ …
is a world-possession, and the builder of it like a great poet who has
influenced the life of thousands, putting them in touch with the
greatness of the past, lifting their thoughts and aspirations to a
higher level, revealing to them the light of their own soul, opening
their eyes to the beauty of the world.15

Photo 1.1.3 Water Chain (October 2019)

The gardens of the Villa Lante are inevitably compared with the slightly
earlier, larger and altogether more exuberant hydraulic extravaganza of
the nearby Villa d’Este, built from 1560 for Cardinal Ippolito II d’Este
(1509–72). And the barco can be compared to the also nearby Sacro
Bosco at Bomarzo, a forest park of stone sculptures created from around
1550 by Vicino Orsini (1523–83), Duke of Bomarzo. But neither has the
clarity, compactness or beguiling modesty of the 1.5-hectare gardens of
the Villa Lante.

Photo 1.1.4 Cardinal’s Water Table and Fountain of the River
Gods (October 2019)

The clarity comes from its focus on the single central idea – a continuous,
line of completely controlled water running the length of the garden,
disappearing and reappearing in different guises. The centrality of the
water obliges the twin pallazzine to sit back without imposing themselves
on the scene. In that respect it is comparable to Hidcote, where the house
is off-centre and far less significant than the garden. And the fact that the
entire Lante garden cannot be seen from any single viewpoint causes
visitors to move through it and to experience the closely unfolding
allegorical sequence around which it is organised – physically and
conceptually.16
Photo 1.1.5 Topiary around Fountain of the Square and Palazzina
Gambara (October 2019)

Photo 1.1.6 Fountain of the Square with town of Bagnaia beyond
(October 2019)
NOTES
1. Adorni 1991, p. 93.
2. Ibid., p. 91 – the date is given elsewhere as 1532.
3. Ibid., p. 91.
4. Faglio 2011, p. 85.
5. Ibid., p. 85.
6. Lazzaro-Bruno 1977, p. 557 / Girot 2016, p. 157.
7. Sitwell 1909, p. 17.
8. Stuart, p. 131.
9. Lazzaro-Bruno 1977, pp. 556–7.
10. Thacker 1979, p. 102.
11. Adorni 1991, p. 94.
12. Lazzaro-Bruno 1977, p. 553.
13. Thacker 1979, p. 10.

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