Development of Science (Anjali Reghu).pdf

Development of Science (Anjali Reghu).pdf

• 1.
  1 'Development of Sciencein Ancient, Medieval and Modern Periods' & 'Evolution of Science Education' ANJALI REGHU PHYSICAL SCIENCE OPTIONAL
• 2.
  2 INTRODUCTION Science is thesystematic study of nature and its phenomena, aiming to understand, explain, and predict events through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. Its development reflects the curiosity and intellect of human civilization across different periods. From the ancient era, where early humans relied on observation and practical knowledge, to the medieval period, which focused on preserving and refining ancient wisdom, and finally to the modern age, characterized by experimentation, innovation, and technological breakthroughs, science has continually transformed society. Equally important is the evolution of science education, which has ensured the transmission of knowledge across generations. Science education has developed over centuries, evolving from early emphasis on observation and experimentation by thinkers like Roger and Francis Bacon to modern approaches focused on scientific literacy, critical thinking, and problem- solving. Globally, institutions such as the Royal Society and major universities played a key role in spreading knowledge, while in India, post-independence policies, commissions, and organizations like NCERT, UGC, and IITs strengthened science education at all levels. Today, science education aims not just to impart factual knowledge, but to cultivate rational, informed, and socially responsible individuals capable of applying scientific understanding in everyday life and addressing contemporary challenges.
• 3.
  3 1. DEVELOPMENT OFSCIENCE IN ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL AND MORDERN PERIODS Science as a body of knowledge developed along with man‘s understanding of nature. All things that man did for survival are a part of the story of growth of science. Development of science can be studied in the following stages 1.1 SCIENCE IN ANCIENT PERIOD History indicates that Neolithic men of the New Stone Age were more advanced than Paleolithic men. They practiced agriculture, reared domestic animals, built houses, and lived in groups. Early Homo sapiens probably discovered fire accidentally or by trial and error, and with it came cooking and flint sharpening. They also discovered processes such as making earthen pots, weaving baskets, building boats and houses, and painting curves on flat surfaces. The use of metals for making arms and ornaments suggests that these early societies were already employing scientific principles in their daily lives. Human civilization is known to have begun in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other regions. Along with practical skills, these societies acquired the art of writing, which stands out as the greatest attribute of science. Written records of astronomical observations, architectural designs, metallurgical processes, medical practices, methods of timekeeping, and the making of calendars provide evidence of early scientific thinking. In these civilizations, the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians made remarkable contributions. The Sumerians invented symbols and scripts for writing, while the Assyrians, known for their keen observation, applied arithmetic and algebra in their records. By naming constellations and studying celestial movements, they helped Egyptian priests develop annual calendars. Both Assyrians and Egyptians understood weighing, used balances, and were familiar with fundamental ideas of mass, length, and time. Their skill as engineers was reflected in their ability to make glass, produce glazes for pottery, and develop techniques in medicine and other useful arts. S. F. Mason, in his book ‗History of Science‘, points out that civilized society arose in India around 3000 BCE with the Bronze Age culture in the river valleys. The Indus
• 4.
  4 Valley Civilization, whichflourished at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, revealed advanced systems of town planning, drainage, and the use of kiln-fired bricks—clear indicators of high workmanship. These excavations demonstrate that India and China had civilizations as old as those of Mesopotamia and Egypt, each attaining considerable scientific advancement. Indian contributions to science were especially profound. The discovery of zero and the decimal system revolutionized mathematics. Ancient Indian scholars such as Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara, and Varahamihira made significant contributions to astronomy and mathematics, while Athreya, Sushruta, and Charaka advanced medicine and surgery. Texts such as the Sushruta Samhita described cataract surgery, while Ayurveda documented over a thousand diseases and hundreds of medicinal plants. In addition, Panini‘s work in phonetics and grammar, Kautilya‘s Arthashastra with its references to dams and bridges, and Kanad‘s atomic theory through the Vaisheshika school reflected systematic inquiry. In Greece, the origins of natural philosophy also laid a foundation for science. Empedocles (494–434 BCE) proposed the theory of four elements—fire, water, air, and earth—as the basic components of the universe. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle further systematized the study of nature and knowledge, shaping intellectual traditions that influenced later generations. Meanwhile, Chinese civilization contributed in the areas of astronomy, medicine, and technology, and their records of comets, eclipses, and medicinal practices show a highly developed sense of observation and documentation. 1.2 SCIENCE IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD The Medieval Period was marked by significant scientific progress across the world. Science expanded under the influence of cultural, religious, and political contexts, and knowledge was preserved, developed, and transmitted. In Europe, industries such as mining, coinage, and metallurgy grew rapidly, while natural philosophy and astronomy continued to flourish. These developments paved the way for the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.
• 5.
  5 In India, civilengineering reached new heights with the Iron Pillar of Delhi and advanced water management systems like Sudarshan Lake. Metallurgy was highly developed, producing world-class swords, steel, and zinc. Agricultural practices were eco-friendly, using natural pesticides, while navigation and textiles showcased Indian skill. In Islamic regions, the establishment of institutions such as the House of Wisdom in Baghdad supported translation and advancement of Greek, Persian, and Indian knowledge. China contributed practical innovations such as papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and printing, which had a global impact. In Africa, centers of learning like Timbuktu produced manuscripts on astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. In the Americas, civilizations such as the Maya and Inca made strides in astronomy, agriculture, and record-keeping. 1.2.1 Major Contributions to Science in the Medieval Period Sl. No. Year/ period Name / Civilization Field / Contribution 1 780–850CE Al-Khwarizmi Introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals and algebra to European mathematics. 2 865–925CE Abu Bakar al- Razi Physician & chemist; works on smallpox & measles 3 965– 1040CE Ibn al-Haytham Optics; explained vision, reflection, refraction 4 980– 1037CE Ibn Sina Medicine; canon of Medicine encyclopedia; described 700+ drugs 5 1114– 1185CE Bhaskara II Mathematics & Astronomy; calculus-like ideas, gravity, planetary motion 6 1200– 1280CE Albertus Magnus Natural science; works on botany, zoology, astronomy, alchemy
• 6.
  6 7 1219– 1292CE Roger Bacon Optics; stressedexperiments, groundwork for telescope/microscope 8 1225– 1274CE Thomas Aquinas Philosophy; promoted reason & observation in understanding nature 9 1350– 1425CE Madhava of Sangamagram Infinite series; early calculus; sine & cosine expansions 10 1031– 1095CE Shen Kuo Astronomy & Magnetism; compass, true north, fossils, climate change 11 13th c Hamsadeva Biology; Mriga-Paksi-Shastra on animals & birds 12 16th–17th c Jahangir Biology; breeding & hybridization experiments 13 16th–17th c Mughal Chemistry; gunpowder use, perfumes, paper-making 14 17th–18th c Jai Singh II Astronomy; built Jantar Mantar observatories 15 Pre- Columbian Maya Civilization Astronomy; calendar, planetary motion, concept of zero 16 Pre- Columbian Inca Civilization Agriculture & Engineering; terrace farming, irrigation, Quipu records 1.3 SCIENCE IN MORDERN PERIOD The Modern Period of science, beginning around the 16th century, marks a shift from traditional beliefs to systematic observation, reasoning, and experimentation. Visionary scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton laid the foundation for modern physics, astronomy, and mathematics, while later developments in chemistry, medicine, quantum theory, relativity, and genetics transformed human understanding of life and the
• 7.
  7 universe. This erahighlights humanity‘s relentless pursuit of knowledge and its application to improve living conditions, drive technological progress, and address societal challenges, emphasizing both discovery and responsible use of science. 1.3.1 Here gives the contributions of science from 16th to 21st centuries 1.3.1.1 Contributions of science in 16th century Sl. No. Year Name of scientist Discovery 1 1510 Da vinci designed the horizontal water wheel 2 1513 Peter Henlein first portable pocket watch 3 1543 Copernicus Earth was not the centre of the universe 4 1565 Conrad Gesner A graphite pencil 5 1569 Gerardus Mercator Mercator map projection 6 1589 William Lee Knitting machine called the "Stocking frame 7 1590 Zacharias Janssen compound microscope 8 1593 Galileo water thermometer 9 1600 Gilbert Book on optics Magnet
• 8.
  8 1.3.1.2 Contributions ofScience in the 17th Century Sl. No Year Name of scientist Discovery 1 1610- 1634 Galileo Wrote the book ―‖Sidereal messenger‖describing telescopic observations. In 1632, published ―Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems‖, supporting the Sun- centered (heliocentric) model of the solar system. 2 1571-1630 Johannes Kepler planets revolve around the sun in ellipses and they move faster as they approach the sun 3 1668 Isaac Newton Reflecting telescope Published his masterpiece ―‖Philosophic naturals Principia Mathematica‖. In 1704 Newton also wrote a book on light called ‗Optics‘ . Newton showed that white light is made up of several colours. 4 1629-1695 Christiaan Huygens Titan, the moon of Saturn. In 1656 he made the first pendulum clock. 5 1661-1691 Robert Boyle Wrote Book Skeptical Chemist, Modern chemistry. Boyle's law
• 9.
  9 1.3.1.3 Contributions ofscience in 18th century Sl. No Year Name of scientist Discovery 1 1751 Axel Cronstedt Nickel 2 1752 Benjamin Franklin Lighting is a form of electricity 3 1756 Joseph Black Carbon dioxide 4 1766 Henry Cavendish Isolated hydrogen and studied its properties 5 1772 Daniel Rutherford Nitrogen 6 1774 Joseph Priestley Oxygen 7 1743- 1794 Antoine Lavoisier Oxygen combines with substances. He also discovered the role of oxygen in respiration and corrosion of metals 8 1785 James Hutton Theory of the Earth 9 1781 William Herschel Planet Uranus 10 1784 John Goodricke Variable stars 11 1800 Alessandro Volta First chemical battery
• 10.
  10 1.3.1.4 Contributions ofscience in 19th century Sl. No. Year Name of the Scientist Discovery 1 1808 John Dalton Atomic theory Colour blindness 2 1819 Hans Christian Oersted The electric current in a wire caused a nearby compass needle to move 3 1822 Friedrich Wohler Isolated aluminum produced urea 4 1834- 1907 Dmitri Mendeleev Periodic Table 5 1847 Hermannvon Helmholtz Law of the Conservation of Energy 6 1854 John Snow Cholera was transmitted by water 7 1822- 1895 Louis Pasteur Microscopic organisms caused disease 8 1873 James Clerk Maxwell Light is an electromagnetic wave 9 1791- 1867 Michael Faraday Dynamo 10 1896 Henri Becquerel Radioactivity 11 1797- 1875 Charles Lyell Formation of Rocks Principles of Geology 12 1898 Marie curie Pierre curie Radium 13 1897 Joseph Thomson Electron 14 1801 Giuseppe Piazzi First asteroid, Ceres 15 1838 Friedrich Bessel Measured the distance to a star 16 1846 Johann Gottfried Galle, John Couch Adams Planet Neptune
• 11.
  11 1.3.1.5 Contributions ofscience in 20th century Sl. No. Year Name of the Scientist Discovery 1 1862 Lord Kelvin The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested 2 1969 Neil Armstrong The first person from Earth to walk on another celestial body 3 1957 Soviet Union The first orbiting space probe, Sputnik 1, was launched 4 1903 Mikhail Tsvet chromatography 5 1904 HantaroNagaoka proposed an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus 6 1905 Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch Developed the Haber process for making ammonia, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture. 7 1909 S. P. L. Sørensen pH concept and develops methods for measuring acidity 8 1912 Peter Debye Developed the concept of the molecular dipole to describe asymmetric charge distribution in some molecules 9 1913 Niels Bohr Bohr introduced the concepts of quantum mechanics to the atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom
• 12.
  12 The development ofpost-Newtonian theories in physics, such as the Special theory of Relativity, general theory of relativity, and quantum mechanics led to the development of nuclear weapons. New models of the structure of the atom led to developments in theories of chemistry and the development of new materials such as nylon and plastics. Advances in biology led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such as polio.A massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as electricity, the incandescent light bulb, the automobile and the phonograph, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first airplane flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century, large airplanes such as the Boeing 777 and Airbus A330 flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of television and computers caused massive changes in the dissemination of information. 10 1913 Henry Moseley working from Van den Broek's earlier idea introduces the concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight 11 1913 Frederick Soddy' Radiochemistry 12 1913 J. J. Thomson mass spectrometry 13 1916 Gilbert N. Lewis The Atom of the Molecule 14 1951 Clemens C. J. Roothaan Roothaan equations. 15 1970 John Pople computational chemistry 16 1951 SumioIijima electron microscopy
• 13.
  13 1.3.1.6 Contributions ofscience in 21st century Sl. No. Year Name of the Scientist Discovery 1 1910 Ernest Rutherford Atomic nucleus 2 1932 James Chadwick Neutron. 3 1900 Max Planck Quantum theory 4 1905 Albert Einstein The special theory of Relativity 5 1915 Albert Einstein General Theory of Relativity 6 1927 Werner Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and speed of a subatomic particle. 7 1915 Alfred Wegener Continental drift 8 1926 Arthur Eddington Stars are powered by nuclear fusion 9 1920 Edwin Hubble Our galaxy is only one of many galaxies 10 1930 Clyde Tombaugh Pluto 11 1928 Alexander Fleming Penicillin. 12 1964 Murray Gell-Mann Quarks exist 13 1924- 2018 Stephen Hawking Black holes, relativity and cosmology
• 14.
  14 2. EVOLUTION OFSCIENCE EDUCATION Science education has evolved significantly over the centuries, influenced by prominent thinkers, scientists, and social changes. Landmarks in the Development of Science Education: A Global View Early Contributions and the Inductive Method Roger Bacon was one of the first scholars to emphasize the importance of experiments and inductive inquiry in education. Francis Bacon expanded upon these ideas, advocating for sensory training and systematic observation as integral to learning. This approach laid the foundation for modern science teaching, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and evidence-based reasoning. Influential Scientists Significant contributions to science education were made by pioneers such as Galileo Galilei, William Harvey, and Andreas Vesalius. Their work not only advanced knowledge in their respective fields but also inspired teaching methods grounded in experimentation and observation. Comenius further highlighted the role of objects and pictures in learning, promoting visual and hands-on teaching strategies. Institutional Milestones The establishment of the Royal Society in 1664 marked a major milestone, providing a platform for scientific inquiry and knowledge sharing. During the 17th century, several scientific academies were established, fostering collaboration and dissemination of scientific knowledge. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century brought science closer to society, emphasizing its practical applications. The University of London, founded in 1827, introduced natural science education, with scientists such as T.A. Huxley, John Tyndall, and Michael Faraday advocating for the spread of science education. Science in School Curriculum Science was formally introduced into school curricula for the first time at Rugby School, England, in 1849, where Botany, Geology, Physics, and Chemistry were taught. Towards
• 15.
  15 the late 19thcentury, H.E. Armstrong promoted the Heuristic Method of teaching, which encouraged students to discover concepts themselves rather than passively receiving information. 20th Century Expansion In 1916, the Thomson Committee in Britain evaluated the state of natural science education, resulting in the Thomson Report, which emphasized systematic science instruction. The 20th century witnessed the global propagation of science education, making it an essential component of school curricula worldwide. EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN INDIA Post-Independence Developments Science education in India received significant attention after independence. The Secondary Education Commission (1953) highlighted the necessity of integrating science into education to keep pace with rapid technological and scientific advancements. The commission stressed vocational education, research, and the development of scientific thinking among students. Seminars and Policy Initiatives The All India Seminars on Teaching Science (1956) suggested a uniform system of science teaching focusing on observation, experimentation, creative thinking, and environmental awareness. These seminars emphasized cultivating habits of systematic thinking, healthful living, and scientific curiosity. National Scientific Policy Resolution (1958) This policy underscored the importance of science and technology in national prosperity, highlighting that effective utilization of scientific knowledge could overcome deficiencies in resources and enhance industrial and economic growth. It laid the foundation for promoting research, scientific training, and technological innovation in India.
• 16.
  16 Institutions and Committees Severalkey institutions and initiatives further strengthened science education: NCERT (1961): Established the Department of Education in Science and Mathematics (DESM) to conduct research, develop curricula, and train teachers. It emphasized environmental education, modern pedagogy, and outreach activities like science fairs and exhibitions. UNESCO Planning Mission (1963): Provided technical guidance to improve science and mathematics education in India. Indian Education Commission (1964–66): Recommended compulsory science education and modernization of teaching methods, linking science with agriculture and technology. National Policy on Education (1986): Focused on problem-solving, decision-making skills, and application of science in daily life. Initiatives like Navodaya Vidyalayas aimed to provide quality science education in rural areas. University Grants Commission (UGC) and IITs: Promoted higher education and research in science and technology, establishing national centers and institutes with advanced facilities. Science as a Discipline and Its Role in Curriculum Science became a part of school curricula in the 19th century in Europe and the USA through efforts of scientists like Huxley, Spencer, and Faraday. Initially, there was resistance from scholars of the humanities, who considered science as materialistic. Today, science education is integral to general education, aiming to develop scientific literacy, which includes knowledge of concepts, processes, and applications for personal and societal decision- making. Scientific Literacy and Its Objectives Scientific literacy involves three aspects: 1. Promoting rational thinking and separating fact from superstition 2. Learning about science – understanding its impact on society. 3. Doing science – applying the scientific method to solve problems.
• 17.
  17 The objectives ofscience education include: 1. Preparing students for the workforce by developing observation, reasoning, and problem-solving skills. 2. Understanding scientific reports and media discussions. 3. Appreciating the relationship between science, technology, and society. 4. Encouraging curiosity, hobbies, and aesthetic appreciation of nature. 5. Promoting rational thinking and separating fact from superstition SCIENCE EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Science has deeply influenced society, enabling industrialization, improved healthcare, and technological progress. However, it also presents challenges such as environmental damage and ethical dilemmas. Conferences like the Budapest Conference (1999) emphasized concepts like science for knowledge, peace, development, and society, highlighting responsible use of scientific knowledge. The interaction between science and politics has often been contentious, with policymakers seeking quick solutions, sometimes contrary to scientific evidence. Thus, science education in schools is crucial to developing informed citizens capable of understanding and critically evaluating science-related issues. Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Modern Approaches Modern science education focuses on inquiry, critical thinking, and problem-solving rather than rote memorization. Key elements include: Hands-on learning and experimentation. Integration of environmental science with social studies at primary levels. Group discussions, continuous assessment, and activity-based pedagogy. Science fairs, children‘s science congresses, and interactive textbooks. The National Curriculum Framework (2005) emphasized nurturing creativity, linking classroom learning with real-world applications, and developing learner-friendly, activity- oriented textbooks
• 18.
  18 CONCLUSION The journey ofscience across ancient, medieval, and modern periods demonstrates humanity‘s relentless pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the natural world. Ancient civilizations laid the foundation with mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering. The medieval period preserved and expanded this knowledge despite social and religious constraints, while the modern period revolutionized science with systematic experimentation, theories, and technological innovations. The evolution of science education highlights its essential role in shaping informed and responsible citizens. From rote learning to inquiry-based, activity-oriented approaches, it fosters curiosity, reasoning, and practical application of knowledge. In India and worldwide, science education continues to adapt to technological advances, societal needs, and environmental challenges. By promoting scientific literacy, critical thinking, and ethical use of knowledge, it equips learners to make sound decisions, contribute to progress, and live responsibly in an increasingly complex and interconnected world.
• 19.
  19 REFERENCES 1. Sengupta, M.,Mitra, C., & Maji, P. K. (2016). Understanding Discipline and Subjects (1st Semester, Course-V). Kolkata: Rita Publication 2. https://mangaloreuniversity.ac.in/sites/default/files/Course- 7(d)%20Physical%20Science%20(Part-1).pdf 3. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/evolution-of-science-education-1/192756481 4. https://pkmcollege.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Learning-Resources.pdf 5. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/12195/1/Unit-5.pdf 6. https://edukemy.com/blog/medieval-science-and-technology-upsc-art-culture-notes/