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![leaders, and in them the Battalion sustained a serious loss. In
addition to these, 2/Lieuts. H. H. Gant and G. Gilson were killed,
Lieut. H. P. Lawrence and 2/Lieuts. F. E. Rogers, C. Brandram and R.
E. Glover wounded; while 11 N.C.O.'s and men were killed, 49
wounded and 30 missing, making a total list for the day of 99 all
ranks.
The captures of the Brigade amounted to 325 prisoners, 40
machine-guns, 8 field guns and one motor ambulance, and once
again the prisoners showed that reserves were being flung
wholesale into the enemy fighting line. Measured solely by the depth
of ground taken, the 1st September was the most successful action
ever fought by the 2/4th Battalion, the advance being over 3000
yards, and the achievement was the subject of a congratulatory
message from the Brigadier.
The same evening the 58th Division was relieved by the 74th[7] and
passed into Corps reserve after a week of hard fighting. The 2/4th
Battalion withdrew, after handing over its objectives intact to the
14th Black Watch, to a valley a mile west of Marrières Wood. The
Battalion remained in this valley for five days, employed in resting
and training, fortunately under weather conditions which were fine
and warm except on the 5th September. During this period 2/Lieut.
D. A. S. Manning and drafts of 21 other ranks joined the Battalion.
2/Lieut. Bidgood was appointed Intelligence Officer (vice 2/Lieut.
Davies, sick).
[7] The 74th Division (Girdwood) was a Yeomanry Division which
had been employed in the East. This was its first appearance in
the French theatre of war. The 14th Black Watch was formerly the
Fife and Forfar Yeomanry.
The days succeeding the relief of the 58th Division were marked by
hard fighting, but by the evening of the 4th September the 47th and
74th Divisions had advanced the line east of Moislains and well up
the long slope leading to Nurlu. As was to be expected now that the
line of the Somme had been turned the enemy began to fall back
towards the next defensive position, the outposts of the Hindenburg](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/32994-250302094620-b050ba15/75/Download-full-ebook-of-Proteins-Galanakis-instant-download-pdf-41-2048.jpg)
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- 6. PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING,AND APPLICATIONS
- 7. PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING, AND APPLICATIONS Editedby CHARIS M. GALANAKIS Department of Research & Innovation, Galanakis Laboratories, Chania, Greece; Food Waste Recovery Group, ISEKI Food Association, Vienna, Austria
- 8. Academic Press isan imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-816695-6 For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Charlotte Cockle Acquisition Editor: Megan R. Ball Editorial Project Manager: Katerina Zaliva Production Project Manager: Omer Mukthar Cover Designer: Miles Hitchen Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
- 9. List of Contributors NilsK. Afseth Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway Tatiana Q. Aguiar CEB Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Peter Alexander School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Security, The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom Daniel Ananey-Obiri Food and Nutritional Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States René Renato Balandrán-Quintana Center for Research in Food and Development, A.C. Coordination of Technology of Foods from Vegetal Origin, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Ulrike Böcker Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway Calum Brown Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Atmospheric Environmental Research (IMK-IFU), Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Cristina Chuck-Hernández Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey, Mexico Clare Dias Land Economy and Environment Research Group, SRUC, Edinburgh, United Kingdom Lucı́lia Domingues CEB Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Parag R. Gogate Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India José Ángel Huerta-Ocampo CONACYT-Center for Research in Food and Development, A.C. Coordination of Food Science, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Rajeshree A. Khaire Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India Kenneth A. Kristoffersen Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway Diana Lindberg Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway Ivone M. Martins CEB Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Lovie G. Matthews Food and Nutritional Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States vii
- 10. Ângelo Paggi MatosFederal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil Ana Marı́a Mendoza-Wilson Center for Research in Food and Development, A.C. Coordination of Technology of Foods from Vegetal Origin, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Dominic Moran Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Security, The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom Carla Oliveira CEB Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal César Ozuna Food Department, Bioscience Graduate Program, Division of Life Sciences, Campus Irapuato-Salamanca, University of Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico Puneet Parmar Teagasc, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland Seema Patel Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics Research Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States Shivani Pathania Teagasc, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland Gabriela Ramos-Clamont Montfort Center for Research in Food and Development, A.C. Coordination of Food Science, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico Mark D.A. Rounsevell School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Atmospheric Environmental Research (IMK-IFU), Garmisch- Partenkirchen, Germany Sı́lvio B. Santos CEB Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Reza Tahergorabi Food and Nutritional Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States Brijesh K Tiwari Teagasc, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland Eva Veiseth-Kent Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway Kathryn E. Washburn Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway Sileshi G. Wubshet Nofima AS - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Norway viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
- 11. Preface Proteins are essentialfor life and provide many food systems with functional proper- ties. As the quality of proteins of animal origin is higher than plant proteins, the human population demands to consume more meat. In addition, the global use of protein ingredi- ents in formulated foods, beverages, and dietary supplements is estimated to be at 5.5 mil- lion metric tons by 2018 and exceed US$24.5 billion by 2015. The increasing demands for proteins, the increasing population, and the depletion of resources has led researchers to investigate more sustainable sources for these valuable compounds in order to feed the world and meet the market’s needs. In addition, the production of meat has a much larger impact compared with the production of vegetable-based proteins or proteins from other sources. Thus, the academic and industrial sectors have two important challenges ahead: (1) to identify alternative sources of proteins that meet the nutritional expectations; and (2) to innovate to offer acceptable and economically sustainable products. Among other activities (webinars, workshops, e-courses etc.), the Food Waste Recovery Group (www.foodwasterecovery.group) of ISEKI Food Association has published books over the last 5 years that deal with different issues of sustainable food systems, such as innovations in the food industry and traditional foods, food waste recovery, and nonther- mal processing. Following the needs of our current time, this book covers proteins’ proper- ties and health effects in view of the new trends in sustainable sources, recovery procedures, stability aspects, and application trends. The ultimate goal is to support the scientific community, professionals, and enterprises that aspire to develop the industrial and commercialized applications of proteins. The book consists of 10 Chapters. Chapter 1, Sustainable Proteins Production, provides an introduction to the book by discussing alternatives to conventional animal products as well as exploring the potential change in global agricultural land requirements associated with each alternative. It compares the agricultural land area given shifts from conventional animal product consumption to one of the alternative products. The analysis uses stylized transformative consumption scenarios where half of current conventional animal products are substituted to provide at least equal protein and calories. Chapter 2, Insects as a Source of Sustainable Proteins, reviews the available literature on edible insects, presents the latest developments in this field, discusses their scope for food security, and proposes the advantages and disadvantages of this emerging food trend. Chapter 3, Microalgae as a Potential Source of Proteins, assesses the properties of some microalgae—microscopic pho- tosynthetic organisms present in both marine and freshwater environments. The term microalgae, in applied phycology, usually includes the microscopic algae and the photo- synthetic bacteria (i.e., cyanobacteria), formerly known as Cyanophyceae. Chapter 4, Plant- Based Proteins, condenses the basic concepts of protein sustainability and protein quality, then provides an overview of the characteristics of proteins from common plant sources as ix
- 12. well as otherunconventional ones. Emphasis is given to the aspects of greatest interest, such as protein quality, extraction methods, functional properties, and bioactivity. Chapter 5, Protein Isolates From Meat Processing By-Products, discusses the recovery of proteins from meat processing by-products and covers all the important aspects of achiev- ing optimal utilization of proteins in such residual raw materials, identifying those eligible for human consumption as coproducts and for feed applications as by-products. In Chapter 6, Proteins From Fish Processing By-Products, different methods of fish protein recovery, including hydrolysis and isoelectric precipitation, and their impact on the pro- tein functional properties are succinctly reviewed. Fish protein hydrolysates can be pro- duced through exogenous means, using either acids, base, enzymes, or microorganisms. In addition to their bioactivity, structural and functional properties such as solubility, foam- ing, emulsification, water holding, and fat holding capacities of fish are also enhanced dur- ing fish protein hydrolysis. Chapter 7, Whey Proteins, presents an overview of the processing steps for the recovery of proteins from whey, along with guidelines on the operating conditions and recent advances for improved processing. A brief overview of the proven and upcoming applications has also been presented with information on the global markets. Chapter 8, discusses the bioanalytical aspects of the enzymatic protein hydrolysis of by- products. It covers the classical analytical methodologies used to measure these parameters, as well as emerging approaches of using rapid spectroscopic techniques as process control and optimization tools. Moreover, key factors and process considerations in relation to the use of proteases for recovery of peptides will be discussed. Food pro- teins, depending on the food matrix and (multiple) processing conditions, undergo physi- cal and chemical changes, affecting their quality and functionality in the food system. Therefore, Chapter 10, denotes the stability of proteins during processing and storage. Finally, Chapter 9, Production and Bioengineering of Recombinant Pharmaceuticals, dis- cusses the production and bioengineering of recombinant approaches used for obtaining phage display-derived proteins/peptides, antimicrobial peptides, phage-encoded endoly- sin enzymes, and lectins. Conclusively, the book fills the existing gap in the current literature by providing infor- mation in different critical dimensions, namely properties, sustainable sources, recovery processes, and food applications. It is a guide for all scientists, technologists, engineers, chemists, and new product developers working in the whole food science field. It could be a helpful reference book for researchers, academics, and professionals dealing with food applications and food processing as well as those who are interested in the development of innovative products and functional foods. It could be used by University libraries and Institutes all around the world as a textbook and/or ancillary reading in undergraduates and postgraduate level multidiscipline courses dealing with nutritional chemistry, and food science and technology. During this project I was fortunate to have the opportunity of collaborating with so many experts from Brazil, Germany, India, Ireland, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Hereby, I would like to honor and thank all the authors of the book for accepting my invitation, and for bringing together several topics of sustain- able proteins into one comprehensive textbook. Their alignment with the editorial guide- lines and timeline is much appreciated. I would also like to thank the acquisition editor x PREFACE
- 13. Megan Ball, thebook manager Katerina Zaliva, and all colleagues of Elsevier’s production team for their help during the publishing process. Last but not least, I have a message for all the readers of this book. Collaborative book projects may contain errors as they are developed via scientific discussions by different experts. Therefore, any comments, notifi- cations, or even criticism are and always will be welcome. In that case, please do not hesi- tate to contact me to discuss these issues in detail. Charis M. Galanakis1,2 1 Food Waste Recovery Group, ISEKI Food Association, Vienna, Austria 2 Research & Innovation Department, Galanakis Laboratories, Chania, Greece Email: [email protected] xi PREFACE
- 14. C H AP T E R 1 Sustainable Proteins Production Peter Alexander1,2 , Calum Brown3 , Clare Dias4 , Dominic Moran2 and Mark D.A. Rounsevell1,3 1 School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom 2 Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Security, The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom 3 Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Atmospheric Environmental Research (IMK-IFU), Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany 4 Land Economy and Environment Research Group, SRUC, Edinburgh, United Kingdom O U T L I N E 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Human Appropriation of Land for Food 4 1.2.1 Allocating Areas for Food Commodities 5 1.2.2 Allocating Areas for Animal Feed and Pasture 6 1.2.3 Assessing the Land Use Impact of Different Diets 7 1.3 Global and Country-Level Consumption Patterns and Trends 7 1.3.1 Intercountry Variation in Appropriation of Land for Food 7 1.3.2 Changing Dietary Patterns 9 1.4 Alternatives to Current Animal Products 12 1.4.1 Insects 13 1.4.2 Cultured Meat 13 1.4.3 Imitation Meat 14 1.4.4 Aquaculture 14 1.5 Comparison of Land Requirements 15 1.5.1 Alternative Animal Product Scenarios 15 1.5.2 Insect Consumption 17 1.5.3 Cultured (In Vitro) Meat 17 1.5.4 Imitation Meat 17 1.5.5 Aquaculture 18 1.5.6 Conventional Livestock Consumption Changes 18 1.5.7 Waste and Other Dietary Change Scenarios 18 1.5.8 Uncertainty Quantification 19 1.5.9 Yields of Alternatives to Animal Product 20 1.5.10 Land Requirements of Scenarios 20 1.5.11 Discussion 24 1.6 Conclusions 32 References 33 1 Proteins: Sustainable Source, Processing and Applications DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816695-6.00001-5 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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- 16. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Livestock providesa quarter of all the protein (and 15% of energy) consumed in food, but also creates substantial environmental impacts (FAO, 2012; Herrero et al., 2016). The area of global pasture is more than twice that of cropland, with livestock animals addition- ally consuming around one-third of the crops harvested as feed (FAO, 2006). Despite rises in crop yields and in the efficiency of livestock production, global agricultural land area has been expanding, increasing by 464 Mha between 1961 and 2011 (Alexander et al., 2015). Land use change in recent decades has accounted for 10% 12% of total anthropo- genic carbon dioxide emissions, and one-third since 1850 (Houghton et al., 2012; Le Quéré et al., 2015). Livestock production also contributes to atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, due to methane from enteric fermentation (presently 2.1 Gt CO2 eq/year; Gerber et al., 2013), and nitrous oxide emissions from fertilizer use on pasture and crop- lands in fodder production (Smith et al., 2014). In total, livestock is responsible for 12% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions (Havlı́k et al., 2014). A larger global population consuming a diet richer in meat, eggs, and dairy (Popkin et al., 1999; Keyzer et al., 2005; Kearney, 2010; Tilman et al., 2011; Bodirsky et al., 2015) has meant that agricultural land use change in the past 50 years has been dominated by the expansion of livestock pro- duction (Alexander et al., 2015). Besides the direct GHG emissions, agriculture also has large indirect emissions (e.g., from agrochemicals production and fossil fuel usage) (Smith and Gregory, 2013). The combination of land use change and other emissions increases the share of agriculture in all global anthropogenic GHG emissions to between 17% and 32% (Smith and Gregory, 2013). Therefore changing demands on agricultural production, and in particular for animal products (i.e., meat, milk, and eggs), has the potential to substantially alter GHG emissions (Bustamante et al., 2014; Havlı́k et al., 2014). Additionally, the sparing of agricultural land would provide options for further climate change mitigation measures, including afforestation or bioenergy (Humpenöder et al., 2014; Henry et al., 2018). The projected rise in global population and higher per capita rates of animal product consumption, arising from higher incomes and urbanization, suggests that livestock pro- duction will continue to increase (Tilman et al., 2011). Changes in production practices and animal genetics that increase efficiencies may help to offset some of the potential land use and associated environmental impacts (Le Cotty and Dorin, 2012; Havlı́k et al., 2014). Substantial research attention has been given to supply-side responses, including expand- ing land in agricultural use and increasing food yields, especially crops (e.g., closing the “yield gap” or “sustainable intensification”) (Foley et al., 2011; Mueller et al., 2012; Kastner et al., 2014; West et al., 2014); or the potential benefits and trade-offs associated with increasing livestock intensities (Davis et al., 2015; Herrero et al., 2016; de Oliveira Silva et al., 2017). Nevertheless, demand-side measures to reduce animal product consumption may be necessary to meet climate change targets (UNFCC, 2015; van Vuuren et al., 2018), while helping to achieve food security (Smil, 2013; Bajželj et al., 2014; Meadu et al., 2015; Lamb et al., 2016). High levels of meat consumption are also detrimental to human health, with links to obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (Popkin and Gordon-Larsen, 2004; Hu, 2011; Bouvard et al., 2015; Cesare et al., 2016). Despite both the health and 2 1. SUSTAINABLE PROTEINS PRODUCTION PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 17. environmental benefits, changingconsumer preferences toward a low meat diet is difficult because of cultural, social, and personal associations with meat consumption (Graça et al., 2015; Macdiarmid et al., 2016). Although there is some evidence for increasing rates of vegetarianism and reduced meat diets in western countries (Vinnari et al., 2010; Leahy et al., 2011), the global average per capita rate of animal product consumption has contin- ued to increase (FAOSTAT, 2015a). Analyses of the sustainability of the food system that do consider dietary changes tend to do so through an exogenous wealth-based factor, and anticipate continuations of cur- rent dietary trends (Schmitz et al., 2014; Engström et al., 2016a). However, diets and the food preferences that shape them do not necessarily follow fixed trends. Instead, they alter over time, influenced by technology, policies, and changes in social norms (e.g., Hollands et al., 2015). Modeling work has been done to project the impact of alternative assumptions regarding future diets (Stehfest et al., 2009; Popp et al., 2010; Haberl et al., 2011; Bajželj et al., 2014), and the ability of the agricultural system to supply the global population with a diet containing adequate calories has also been considered (Cassidy et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2014). Further studies in this area have taken a life cycle analysis (LCA) approach that typically consider either GHG emissions, energy or water requirements for individual commodities (Carlsson-Kanyama and González, 2009; Marlow et al., 2009; González et al., 2011; Pelletier et al., 2011). Studies of the food system that include the impact of dietary change typically assume the continuation of existing consumption patterns and income and price elasticity relation- ships (e.g., Engström et al., 2016a,b; Schmitz et al., 2014; Tilman et al., 2011), implicitly dis- counting the possibility of major shocks or transformative changes in diets. There has also been an increasing number of studies considering the impact of alternative assumptions regarding future diets, such as lower animal product consumption, healthy diets, vegetari- anism, or veganism (e.g., Stehfest et al., 2009; Popp et al., 2010; Haberl et al., 2011; Bajželj et al., 2014; Erb et al., 2016; Mora et al., 2016). However, technology changes or radical alteration of consumer preferences, which could be transformative for the food system, remain unexplored. New technologies raise the possibility of supplying high-quality food from novel sources, for example, cultured meat, also known as in vitro meat (Thornton, 2010). Also, behavior, preferences, and social norms change over time, such that food previously considered unacceptable or undesirable (e.g., insects, in western countries) could become a more com- mon part of future diets (van Huis, 2013). There are historical precedents for foods becom- ing acceptable after long periods of rejection; for example, tomatoes in Britain were widely viewed with suspicion and dismissed for over 200 years (Smith, 2013a; Bir, 2014). Similarly, lobster in America was initially a poverty food eaten by slaves and prisoners, and used as fertilizer and fish bait, due to their abundance (Dembosky, 2006). It was not until the late 19th century that lobster developed a status as a luxury food, supported by the expansion of the US railway network giving access to new markets (Townsend, 2012). But while alterna- tive food sources may become technologically feasible or publically acceptable in the future, their potential contribution to sustainability remains unclear. This chapter aims to review and compare the potentially transformative alternatives to conventional animal products, including cultured meat, imitation meat and insects, and consider the implications for global agricultural land use requirements given widespread 3 1.1 INTRODUCTION PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 18. adoption, based onAlexander et al. (2016, 2017a). The Human Appropriation of Land for Food (HALF) index is presented and used to provide a relative measure of the scale of the impacts of alternative diets on land use. The approach is explorative, rather than predic- tive, and assumes half of existing animal products are substituted by each alternative food, to provide at least equal energy and protein. The objective is to compare the alterna- tives on an equal basis and to assess their potential to reduce agricultural land require- ments, and contribute to food system sustainability. To allow comparison with other current diets and potential dietary change, other scenarios were included using the same methodology. These scenarios include shifts in conventional animal product consumption, changes to high and low animal product diets (based on average consumption in India and the United States), and reductions in consumer waste. The focus is on animal products due to their dominance in the food system for land use and environmental impacts (Herrero et al., 2016), and because of their relative inefficiency in converting inputs into human-edible food (FAO, 2006; Mottet et al., 2017). The premise is that due to the cultural and personal associations with animal product consumption (Graça et al., 2015; Macdiarmid et al., 2016), consumers with higher incomes continue to eat large quantities of animal products and consumers currently eating at lower rates will increase their consumption as incomes increase. Therefore alternatives that mimic aspects of these products in a manner that is acceptable to consumers need to be explored for environmental sustainability. 1.2 HUMAN APPROPRIATION OF LAND FOR FOOD A metric of the land use impact of alternative diets that is not impacted by the effect of local or domestic production or international trade is needed to compare diets. In this chapter the HALF index (Alexander et al., 2016) is presented and used for this purpose. The HALF index expresses the land area required for the global population to consume a particular diet, as a percentage of the world land surface. HALF therefore provides a rela- tive measure of the scale of the impacts of alternative diets on land use. Diet here is assumed to include the quantities of commodities lost and wasted after reaching the consumer. The index is calculated from global average production intensities and yields from a baseline year, primarily 2011. HALF is accordingly not predictive, as adaptive responses in production systems that may result from changes in demand are excluded. Rather, the HALF index is a metric that characterizes the land use impact of alternative scenarios of dietary patterns. The HALF index does not provide a land use footprint for particular countries or regions, but addresses questions such as “how much land would be used if the global population adopted diet X.” The inclusion of local production systems within a land footprint would tend to obscure the understanding of the role of diet in the global food system. The results can be interpreted in terms of both methods and areas of produc- tion, with a given increase in the HALF index implying the same increase in agricultural areas, an equivalent increase in productive efficiency, or some combination of the two. FAO country-level panel data for crop areas, production quantities, commodity uses, and nutrient values were used to construct the HALF index (FAOSTAT, 2015a,b,c,d,e,f). 4 1. SUSTAINABLE PROTEINS PRODUCTION PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 19. Global average productionvalues and efficiencies for primary crops, processed commodi- ties, and livestock products were used to calculate the agricultural areas needed to meet per capita consumption for each country. Assessments of country average diet do not use production or international trade associated with that country, except as they con- tribute to the world average. The calculations and assumptions are described in Alexander et al. (2016). 1.2.1 Allocating Areas for Food Commodities The areas associated with the production of 90 commodities, representing 99.4% of global food consumption by calorific value, were each allocated between three categories of use: food for human consumption, animal feed, and nonfood related uses (primarily biofuels and fiber). The commodities comprise 50 primary crops that are directly grown, 32 processed commodities derived from them, and 8 livestock products. The FAO com- modity balance data (FAOSTAT, 2015c) identifies the quantities used for food, feed, pro- cessing, other nonfood related uses (primarily, bioenergy and fiber), seed, and waste. To provide an assessment of the embedded areas required for delivering the consumed com- modities two adjustments were made. Firstly, for each primary crop, the quantities used as seed and wasted (e.g., in storage and transport) were distributed across the remaining categories of use (i.e., food, feed, processing, and nonfood). The second adjustment deals with the difference between the total cropland area and the harvested areas (e.g., in 2011, respectively, 1556 and 1378 Mha; FAOSTAT, 2015b,f) due to set-aside, multiple-cropping, and failed or unharvested crops. To account for these differences, the cropland area for each primary crop was adjusted by the ratio of these areas (e.g., in 2011 areas they are increased by a factor of 1.129). After applying both the adjustments, the cropland area for each primary crop was then allocated pro rata between the categories of use (i.e., food, feed, processing, and nonfood), by the mass used for each category. This approach removes the areas used to produce commodities for bioenergy, fiber, or other nonfood uses (see supplementary material of Alexander et al. (2016), e.g., calculations). The areas used to grow the primary crops for processing were further mapped to the commodities output from the processing. Where multiple commodities are produced from a single crop, the areas used to grow the primary crop were allocated on an approximate economic value basis (see Table S4; Alexander et al., 2016). For example, processed oil crop areas were divided equally between the resulting oil (used primarily for food and biofuel), and the seed meals or cakes (used primarily for livestock feed). In 2011, 224.1 Mt of soybeans, which represent the single biggest vegetable oil crop (48% of the total), were processed globally into 41.6 Mt of oil and 174.7 Mt of meal (7.8 Mt is assumed lost during processing). This gives a similar total market value for the oil and meal (45% of value is in the oil and 55% in meal), at 2011 market prices of US$1103 and 321 per ton, respectively (Index Mundi, 2016), suggesting that an equal division of input area is a reasonable approximation. Alternative allocations would introduce additional biases. For example, calculations on the basis of mass would be biased toward associating the area with the seed meals, while conversely, accounting for them as a by-product with no area allocated would implicitly and incorrectly assume they can be freely produced and have no value. 5 1.2 HUMAN APPROPRIATION OF LAND FOR FOOD PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 20. 1.2.2 Allocating Areasfor Animal Feed and Pasture Animal nutrition derives from grassland and feed crops including forage crops. Data are available to quantify the area of pasture and quantities of crops used as feed (FAOSTAT, 2015c,f). However, there are no empirical data to describe directly how these sources of nutrition are divided between livestock species, and hence between commodity types such as meat, milk, and eggs. Instead, feed conversion ratios, describing the efficiency of convert- ing inputs into edible animal products, were used to estimate animal feed requirements (Table 1.1). Commonly, feed conversion ratios are expressed in terms of dry matter (DM) of feed per animal live weight (LW). To represent the production efficiency of meat consumed by humans, these ratios were adjusted to express feeding requirements per unit edible weight (EW), and also to account for the need to raise sire and dam animals (Smil, 2002). The nutritional requirements of monogastric livestock (i.e., poultry and pigs) were assumed to be met solely from feed, while nutrients for ruminant species (e.g., cattle and sheep) come from feed and grazed pasture. Firstly, the produced masses from monogastric animals were multiplied by the feed conversion factors (Table 1.1) to give estimates of the feed requirements. These feed amounts, and the cropland areas needed to provide them, TABLE 1.1 Global Average Feed Conversion Ratios and Efficiencies for Animal Products Animal Product Feed Conversion Ratio (kg DM Feed/kg EW) Percentage Edible (% EW of LW) Energy Feed Conversion Efficiency (%) Protein Feed Conversion Efficiency (%) Direct Energy for Housing or Processing (MJ/kg EW) Data Source Poultry 3.3 70 13 19.6 4.5 Macleod et al. (2013), Smil (2013) Pork 6.4 55 8.6 8.5 1.8 Macleod et al. (2013), Smil (2013) Beef 25 40 1.9 3.8 0.08 Opio et al. (2013), Smil (2013) Other meata 15 55 4.4 6.3 0.09 Opio et al. (2013), Smil (2013) Eggs 2.3 19 25 1.3 Macleod et al. (2013), Smil (2013) Whole milk 0.7 24 24 0.22 Opio et al. (2013), Little (2014) a The “other meat” category, which forms 6.6% of all meats produced in 2011, is based on sheep and goat meat (65% by mass of “other meat” in 2011), but includes other sources of meat, for example, horse, rabbit, and camelids. The feed conversion efficiencies and direct energy for housing are given for reference, and are not used in the analysis. Source: Alexander, P., Brown, C., Rounsevell, M., Finnigan, J., Arneth, A., 2016. Human appropriation of land for food: the role of diet. Global Environ. Change 41, 88 98. 6 1. SUSTAINABLE PROTEINS PRODUCTION PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 21. were allocated tothe monogastric livestock products. Secondly, the remaining feed (23% in 2011 using feed DM content; INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, FAO, 2016), and associated cropland areas were allocated pro rata by the estimated feed requirements across the ruminant products. The same pro rata allocation was used to associate the pasture area with products derived from ruminant animals. 1.2.3 Assessing the Land Use Impact of Different Diets The average consumption per capita and per commodity were calculated globally and nationally (FAOSTAT, 2015a,c). The area required to produce each commodity was deter- mined from the global production system land use allocations (described earlier). The area needed to provide all the commodities for each country’s diet if it were adopted by the global population could then be calculated (FAOSTAT, 2015g). This was expressed as a proportion of total global land area to obtain the HALF value. HALF values were also cal- culated to quantify the land use impacts of changes in country-level diets over time. The values primarily used here were calculated with variable diet only, and a constant baseline population and production system (2011 was chosen as the most recent year with available values; FAOSTAT, 2015c). National land footprints for food, that is, an estimate of the actual agricultural land area used to supply each country’s food, were also calculated based on domestic production and the land displaced through international trade. This used the same data as the HALF calculation, and accounted for imports and exports following the approach of previous studies (Jalava et al., 2014; Alexander et al., 2015). For each commodity, net exports were included using the domestic production yields, and net imports using the global mean yields of net exports (weighed by net export quantities). The country footprints were expressed as an area per capita using country populations (FAOSTAT, 2015g). 1.3 GLOBAL AND COUNTRY-LEVEL CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND TRENDS 1.3.1 Intercountry Variation in Appropriation of Land for Food The total agricultural area used for human food production was 4484 Mha in 2011, of which 871 Mha was used for cropland for human consumption, and 3700 Mha for animal products (497 Mha of cropland for feed and 3203 Mha of pasture). The remaining cropland was used for biofuels (140 Mha), fiber (33 Mha), feed for nonfood uses of animal products (9 Mha), and net variations in stock levels (7 Mha). Expressed as a percentage of the global land surface (13,009 Mha; FAOSTAT, 2015f) the HALF index is 35.1, or an average area per person of 0.65 ha. Expressing HALF as a percentage of global land surface includes land that is unlikely to be suitable for agriculture, for example, ice-covered or desert areas. However, the use of an estimate of suitable land suffers from difficulty in definition and measurement, and also would vary with climate change. Consequently, the clarity of com- paring to the global land surface was preferred. There are large differences in HALF values between country-level average diets. For example, the global adoption of the diet in the United States would require over six times 7 1.3 GLOBAL AND COUNTRY-LEVEL CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND TRENDS PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 22. the agricultural areathat adoption of the diet in India, with a HALF index of 97.7 com- pared to India’s 15.8. Fig. 1.1 shows the HALF index at 2011 for the average diets of 170 countries for which sufficient data were available. The highest HALF values are for diets in New Zealand, Argentina, and Australia at 135.8, 114.9, and 112.2, respectively, due to the high levels of animal products—particularly beef—consumed. At the other extreme are Mozambique, Liberia, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka all with a HALF index below 11.5, that is, less than a third of the global average. The HALF results use global mean production efficiencies, and so no specific account is taken of domestic (national) production except as it contributes to the world average. The national food footprints include aspects of diet and production within them, whereas HALF (Fig. 1.1) only includes variations in diet. The distribution of these national foot- prints differ from the distribution of HALF values as a result (e.g., Mongolia has a per capita footprint three times greater than any other country (39 ha per person), due to the use of extensive grazing). Many developed countries have a lower land use footprint than implied by the HALF index, due to the high agricultural yields in these countries. For example, the United States was found to have a national food footprint of 1.0 ha per per- son, but a HALF of 1.8 ha per person. The first value addresses, “how much land is used to produce the food consumed in the United States?” and the second “how much land would be used if the global population adopted the average diet in the United States?” Using a global average production system is reasonable because of the global scale of the analysis (considering global adoption of alternative diets), and also because of the levels of 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 FIGURE 1.1 Map of Human Appropriation of Land for Food index for average country-level diets in 2011. Countries where the index could not be calculated due to no commodity consumption data being available (FAOSTAT, 2015c), for example, Libya, Somalia, and Greenland, are shown in light gray. Source: Alexander, P., Brown, C., Rounsevell, M., Finnigan, J., Arneth, A., 2016. Human appropriation of land for food: the role of diet. Global Environ. Change 41, 88 98. 8 1. SUSTAINABLE PROTEINS PRODUCTION PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 23. international trade inagricultural commodities and the associated globalized markets (Fader et al., 2013; Meyfroidt et al., 2013; D’Odorico et al., 2014). The inclusion of produc- tion systems within the land footprint to some degree obscures the understanding of the role of diet in the global food system. HALF, therefore, provides both a clearer compara- tive metric between countries of the land requirements of different diets, and also a way to consider the impacts from changes in dietary patterns. 1.3.2 Changing Dietary Patterns Calculating the time-dependent HALF index for dietary variations only, that is, assum- ing a constant 2011 population and production systems, demonstrates the impacts of changes in food consumption patterns (solid lines in Fig. 1.2). The global agricultural land required has increased by 8.7% due to dietary changes, from a HALF value of 32.3 in 1961 to 35.1 in 2011. For country-level average diets, results for Brazil and China show particu- larly substantial increases, due to the transitions in diets that are associated with increasing per capita wealth (Godfray et al., 2010), as well as the influence of urbanization (Huang and David, 1993; Popkin et al., 1999; Dong and Fuller, 2010; Seto and Ramankutty, 2016) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year HALF index Brazil China India Nigeria UK USA World Diet only variable (2011 population and production) Diet, population, and production variable FIGURE 1.2 Human Appropriation of Land for Food (HALF) index from 1961 to 2011, globally and for selected counties. Solid lines show variable diets, but constant population and agricultural production systems (at 2011 values). Dashed lines show variable diet, population, and agricultural production systems over time. Source: Alexander, P., Brown, C., Rounsevell, M., Finnigan, J., Arneth, A., 2016. Human appropriation of land for food: the role of diet. Global Environ. Change 41, 88 98. 9 1.3 GLOBAL AND COUNTRY-LEVEL CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND TRENDS PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 24. and globalization offood markets (Popkin, 2006; Meyfroidt et al., 2013). The land required for the diet in Brazil more than doubled between 1961 and 2011, from 43.5 to 88.2, making it the 11th highest ranked country globally in 2011. However, the Chinese diet’s HALF increased nearly five times, from 6.0 in 1961 (the lowest at that period), to 28.6 (but still below the global average). The gap between the United States and Indian diets has reduced slightly, from the United States value being 7.5 times the Indian value in 1961 to 6.2 times in 2011, with an 8% reduction in the United States and a 11% increase for the Indian diet. When the time-dependent HALF indices are recalculated to take account of changing pro- duction efficiencies and population sizes (Fig. 1.2, dashed lines), they show a high degree of similarity to the diet-only case (Fig. 1.2, solid lines). This is because increasing agricultural efficiencies and population growth in the past have acted in opposite directions on land requirements, largely offsetting one another. If production efficiencies from 2011 had been available and used in 1961, less than half of the agricultural land used at the time would have been required to feed the population at the time. However, populations have more than doubled since 1961, and therefore the 2011 population would have required more than twice the land for food production based on 1961 production systems. The net effect is that if the mean global diet of 1961 had been consumed by the 2011 population, using 2011 pro- duction systems, agricultural land area would have remained largely unchanged from 1961 (just 5 Mha less land is estimated to have been needed than was used in 1961). When HALF values including variation in the production system and population (dashed lines in Fig. 1.2) are lower than the HALF values for dietary changes only (solid lines), then cumula- tive improvements in agricultural efficiencies achieved by 2011 have not fully offset the rise in population. However, diets have also been changing. Dietary changes alone between 1961 and 2011 has caused the agricultural area for food to increase by 368 Mha or 2.8% of the land surface. HALF has increased less than the 464 Mha expansion of global agricultural land since 1961 (FAOSTAT, 2015f), as an increasing proportion of land is used for nonfood uses of agricultural commodities, that is, feedstocks for biofuels. The central role of the types of foods consumed in determining the agricultural land requirements of different diets, compared to the overall quantity of nutrients consumed, can be seen from the calculated energy intake and the percentage derived from animal products (Fig. 1.3). Variation in total food energy consumed between countries and over time is substantially smaller than the variations in the land needed (Fig. 1.3). In 2011 the per capita land required to sustain a US diet was 635% of that required for an Indian diet, even though the energy content of the food was only 65% greater (or 99% greater in terms of protein). This disparity stems from the profile of commodities consumed, with 30% of energy derived from animal products in the United States and 9% in India (65% and 19%, respectively, for protein). This greater proportion of animal products increases the land requirements in comparison to a predominantly vegetarian diet, for example, as in India. In developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, per capita die- tary land requirements have been falling (Fig. 1.2) even while energy and protein consump- tion continue to rise (Fig. 1.3A). This apparent discrepancy is explained by the fall in the proportion of nutrients from animal products (Fig. 1.3B), and a shift in the mix of animal products consumed (Fig. 1.4). The drop in the proportion of nutrients from animal products is in large part due to the increased consumption of vegetal products, particularly vegetal 10 1. SUSTAINABLE PROTEINS PRODUCTION PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 25. oil, for example,soybean oil. For example, in the United States vegetal oils provided 9.6% of calories in 1961, but this expanded to 19.2% by 2011 (14.5% from soya bean oil alone). Consumption of these oils accounts for over half (55%) of the 3.2 MJ (765 kcal) per person per day increase in energy consumed in the United States, with other sweeteners (i.e., corn syrup) and poultry meat respectively accounting for 26% and 18% of the rise. 0 5 10 15 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Energy (MJ per person per day) 0 10 20 30 40 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year % From animal products 0 40 80 120 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Protein (g per person per day) 0 20 40 60 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year % From animal products (A) (B) (i) Energy (ii) Protein Brazil China India Nigeria UK USA World FIGURE 1.3 Per capita mean consumption (A), and percentage derived from animal products (B), of energy (i), and protein (ii), in foods consumed from 1961 to 2011 globally, and for selected countries, using global average nutritional values (FAOSTAT, 2015d,e). This includes commodities wasted after reaching the consumer, but not in the food supply chain. Source: Alexander, P., Brown, C., Rounsevell, M., Finnigan, J., Arneth, A., 2016. Human appropriation of land for food: the role of diet. Global Environ. Change 41, 88 98. 11 1.3 GLOBAL AND COUNTRY-LEVEL CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND TRENDS PROTEINS: SUSTAINABLE SOURCE, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS
- 26. Visit https://ebookmass.com todayto explore a vast collection of ebooks across various genres, available in popular formats like PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading experience and effortlessly download high- quality materials in just a few simple steps. Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that let you access a wealth of knowledge at the best prices!
- 27. Other documents randomlyhave different content
- 28. 2/Lieuts. G. Gilson,H. Lelyveld, J. Slattery, M. F. Giles and H. B. Bartleet (5th Londons); 2/Lieuts. J. T. Spencer and E. S. McKittrick (8th Londons); 2/Lieut. W. A. Davies (9th Londons); and 480 N.C.O.'s and men. The majority of this large reinforcement consisted of men from the 14th Division, which had suffered very severely in the battles of March 1918. The drafts of young soldiers on which the Battalion had been depending of late, though of excellent material, were obviously not so desirable as fully seasoned soldiers; and the 14th Division men were therefore particularly welcome. With a seasoning of old 2/4th London men and the remnants of the K.O.Y.L.I., who had come from the 16th Entrenching Battalion, they helped to make up once again a really fine Battalion. On the 21st August the offensive was resumed and though, as we have stated, we propose to continue the record of the 2/4th Battalion's operations in the Fourth Army, it should be borne in mind that henceforth the Army instead of having an inert neighbour on its left flank had an active one in the Third Army, which was now also on the move. This new great battle (21st August to 1st September), known as the Battle of Bapaume, 1918, extended the area of fighting to the Somme-Scarpe salient. The increasing enemy resistance at the termination of the Battle of Amiens had drawn G.H.Q. to the decision to break off the battle and transfer their attention to another part of the front; a method which throughout the closing period of the war proved its value. The Germans were kept always in doubt—as the British had been in March 1918—as to whether each fresh offensive was in reality only a feint, in doubt as to where to place their already dwindling reserves. Moreover, the British Armies were now no longer faced by line upon
- 29. line of almostimpregnable trenches as they had been in 1916, and frontal attacks were not the only possibility open to them. G.H.Q. therefore decided on a vast turning movement. An attack in a south-easterly direction between Albert and Arras would turn the flank of the Somme line of defence about Péronne, and would constitute a distinct forward step towards the further objectives of Cambrai and St Quentin. The immediate object of the III Corps was to free Albert and to oust the Bosche from the strong defensive system which he had built up round the town during the summer months. On the first day of the III Corps battle, 22nd August, the 58th Division was in Corps reserve, the divisions in line being from right to left, the 47th, 12th and 18th. The 2/4th Battalion remained at training on the 22nd August, but an early move was made the following morning, when it marched at 4 a.m. to a sheltered valley half a mile south of Méricourt-l'Abbé. In this position it remained all day together with the rest of the Brigade; the 174th Brigade being in the old British line at Morlancourt, at the disposal of the 18th Division. In the centre the 47th Division carried the line forward to the high ground east of the Happy Valley, while on the right the Australians occupied the high ground immediately north of Bray. The exploitation of this success was ordered by Army H.Q. for the following day, but the situation was altered by a strong German counter-attack, which late in the afternoon drove the 142nd Brigade (47th Division) almost back to their start-line, leaving the Australians at Bray in an awkward salient. That night the 175th Brigade moved from its reserve area near Tailles Wood and took over the line from the 142nd. The following day was occupied in reorganisation, though the advance was continued south of the river, and orders were received for the pressure to be continued on the whole army front on the 24th August.
- 30. At 1 a.m.that morning the attack was prosecuted by the 47th Division, in conjunction with the 3rd Australians on the right and the 12th on the left. The 47th Division attack was carried out by the 175th (attached) and 140th Brigades, the battalions of the 173rd Brigade being ordered to support the 175th. For this purpose the 2/4th Battalion was turned out at midnight on the 23rd/24th August and reached a position of assembly in the old Amiens defence line east of Morlancourt at 4 a.m. on the 24th. The attack was entirely successful. The Happy Valley once more passed into our hands, and the 47th Division established itself finally on the farther crest. The Australians occupied Bray, while on the left the 12th Division pressed forward in the direction of Fricourt. The enemy opposition was not severe though between 3 a.m. and 8 a.m. a large amount of high explosive and gas shelling was experienced. The day brought forth further evidence of the increasing demoralisation of the enemy troops, and intelligence reports pointing strongly to the probability that the enemy was fighting a delaying action preparatory to a big retreat, the immediate exploitation of the success was ordered. This day the 175th Brigade remained in line but came once more under orders of the 58th Division which took over the Divisional sector, the 174th Brigade going into line on the right of the 175th. During the morning a conference of commanding officers in the 173rd Brigade was held and orders were issued for the further advance. The attack was to be made with two brigades in line, the 175th on the right and the 140th on the left, supported by the 173rd Brigade. This latter was to be led by the 2/2nd and 3rd Londons with the 2/4th Londons in support, the last-named with the rôle of being prepared to support any part of the front and carry it on to the final objective. Owing, however, to the situation remaining obscure on the left flank this operation was postponed till 2.30 a.m. on the 25th, when rapid developments took place. In accordance with the orders already issued the 2/4th Londons moved from their Assembly position near Tailles Wood, the order of march being A, B, C, D Companies with Headquarters and one
- 31. section Brigade Machine-GunCompany bringing up the rear, and with 100 yard intervals between companies. In this order it reached a position in the Happy Valley under cover of a dense mist at 4 a.m. on the 25th August. Here it was to stand fast awaiting further orders from the Brigadier. But in the meantime the Division, evidently still bearing in mind the experience of February 1917, had issued instructions to the effect that should the leading battalions lose touch with the enemy an advanced guard should at once be formed to push forward rapidly and regain contact. This was the contingency which materialised. At 6.30 a.m. the attacking units reported themselves on their objectives, but in the mist touch with the enemy seemed to be lost, and all units of the 173rd Brigade were ordered to advance. The Brigadier at once issued orders for the formation of the advanced guard, and the 2/4th Battalion, which was more or less definitely located in the Happy Valley and was thus the battalion most easily to be reached in the mist, was selected for this duty. The advanced guard troops were: No. 2 Troop Northumberland Hussars, 2/4th Londons, 1 Section 86th Brigade R.F.A., 1 Section M.G.C., the whole under Major Crosbie. The line of advance ordered was cross-country as far as Bronfay Farm and thence along the Bray-Maricourt Road. The Battalion was to advance in column of route until ordered to deploy. At 8.30 a.m. the guard was formed and the advance began, A Company under Lieut. V. C. Prince forming the Vanguard with Headquarters, B, C and D Companies following as Main Guard. This was an entirely new role for the 2/4th Battalion, and the sudden development of open warfare conditions, the realisation that the Battalion was in close
- 32. formation on aroad with cavalry operating ahead and the guns following, raised everyone's hopes and expectations to the highest pitch. The move was of course made without artillery support, and until Bronfay Farm was nearly reached very little sign of his existence was vouchsafed by the Bosche, beyond a little desultory shell-fire. About this time the mist dispersed and the cavalry were checked by severe machine-gun fire from Billon Wood and the high ground to the north of it. The company commanders showed great initiative and dash, and a valuable reconnaissance was made by 2/Lieut. Prince and Cooke, his Sergt.-Major, to ascertain where the bulk of the firing was coming from. Quickly grasping the situation, Prince deployed his company and led it against the south-west edge of the Wood. The rear companies deploying in turn, the whole Battalion became committed to the attack, which, owing to the conditions under which it started, developed a little raggedly as regards the frontages occupied by companies, but still with good discipline and plenty of dash. Hetley (B Company) made for the left or north edge of the Wood along the Maricourt Road, while the gap between him and Prince was promptly taken up by C and D Companies. Observing the action taken by the 2/4th Londons, Brigade promptly pushed forward the 2/2nd Londons to the left flank to deal with the high ground north of Billon Wood, and ordered the 3rd Londons to support the attack. The enemy shelling had now assumed very severe proportions, and though little resistance was met with by the 2/4th Battalion in Billon Wood, which it cleared without much difficulty, the Bosche gunners were able effectually to prevent it from emerging from the east edge of the Wood. Hetley says about this bombardment, "The shelling of Billon Wood was one of the heaviest I have ever undergone, being quite comparable to Bullecourt or the Salient in 1917." The line in the Wood was rather patchy and Hetley, leaving Grimsdell in charge, returned to Battalion Headquarters where Major Crosbie provided him with a couple of Lewis guns and about twenty-five men. With these he returned, and having got the Battalion into a deep trench,
- 33. put out observationposts on the east edge of the Wood. The Battalion is credited by Division with having gained a line this day some 200 yards east of the Wood, but it seems doubtful whether this conclusion can be supported. On the left flank, however, the 2/2nd and 3rd Londons made a good deal of progress up the long spur leading to Maricourt, and at the end of the day had established themselves in a chain of small copses about 500 yards west of the village. Their further progress was here arrested, owing to the fact that the 12th Division on the left was held up before Carnoy, which remained for the time in the enemy's hands. At midnight the 2/4th Battalion was relieved by the 7th Londons of the 174th Brigade, which side-stepped to the left, and on relief was concentrated at Great Bear Wood north-east of the Happy Valley. The casualties of the day, due almost entirely to shell-fire, were: 2/Lieuts. H. Lelyveld, J. C. Wood, A. Irvine and C. C. W. Goodale, wounded, and in N.C.O.'s and men 15 killed, 166 wounded and 14 missing. The good work of 2/Lieut. Prince and C.S.M. Cooke has already been referred to. Prince was rewarded with the M.C. Cooke was killed in the Wood, and a few days after his death notification was received that he had been awarded the M.C. for his work on the 8th August. Mention must also be made of Pte. Campion, a battalion runner, who performed invaluable work in locating the scattered parties of the Battalion in the Wood, thereby enabling Hetley to assume proper control of the firing line. On the 26th August the following congratulatory message was issued by the Brigadier (Brig.-Gen. Charles Corkoran): "The Major-General commanding the Division in congratulating you all wishes me to tell you that Sir Douglas Haig, the Army Commander and the Corps Commander have all expressed the highest praise for the way in which the Brigade is fighting. For myself I cannot
- 34. say how proudI am to be in command of such a brigade as the Fusilier Brigade." The Battle of Bapaume, 1918 (2/4th Battalion) Orders were issued on the night of the 25th/26th August for the prosecution of the attack on the following day, but the 26th proved a day of check. The 3rd Londons, who led the attack, reached Maricourt, but, the flanking brigades being held up, they were unsupported and had to fall back. A threatened German counter- attack south of Maricourt having failed to materialise, the remainder of the day was occupied in consolidation on a line about 500 yards west of the village. The 2/4th Battalion was moved from Great Bear Wood at 9 a.m. on the 26th in anticipation of a successful attack, and took up a position in considerable depth in the vicinity of Bronfay Farm, where it was occupied in preparations for the battle of the 27th August. This day the Battalion was joined by Lieut. H. P. Lawrence and 2/Lieut. R. Grey, attached from the 10th Londons, and two days later by 2/Lieuts. H. H. Gant (2nd Londons), H. Hearnshaw (7th Londons) and C Brandram (9th Londons). The objectives of the projected attack of the 27th August were the capture of Maricourt and the establishment of our line in the old British trenches of July 1916 on the eastern fringe of Maricourt Wood, east of the village. Exploitation of the success into the old
- 35. German trenches asopportunity should allow was also arranged for. The leading battalion of the Brigade was the 3rd Londons, with the 2/4th Londons in close support and the 2/2nd Londons in reserve. Simultaneous attacks were to be made by the 3rd Australians in the direction of Vaux on the right and by the 12th Division towards Maltzhorn Farm on the left. Early in the morning the 2/4th Battalion was assembled in artillery formation on the line consolidated the previous day, and twenty minutes after zero (4.55 a.m.) it followed the 3rd Londons towards Maricourt. The greater part of the advance was through the village itself and the Battalion soon got rather mixed up with the 3rd Londons in the course of mopping up the numerous dugouts in its ruins. The defence put up by the Germans, at least on the 2/4th Battalion's front, this day showed marked deterioration. It was sporadic and on the whole poor, and with comparatively little difficulty and remarkably small loss to itself, the Battalion gained its final objective east of the Wood, a message from Capt. Hetley to this effect being received in Battalion Headquarters at 7.30 a.m. The inevitable breaking up of attack formations consequent on passing through a ruined village resulted in a good deal of disorganisation, and on arrival on the objective, which the 2/4th Battalion reached on the extreme left of the Brigade sector, no touch was found with either the 3rd Londons on the right or the 12th Division on the left. Hetley, however, who again assumed control on the spot, soon set this to rights, and leaving C.S.M. Bonser, D.C.M., to reorganise the platoons immediately available, sent C.S.M. Cowland to pick up the 12th Division on the left, while he himself pushed out to the right flank with a patrol. These efforts were entirely successful, and both the neighbouring battalions being found to be well up and the flanks thus secured, Hetley returned and established his headquarters in the railway cutting. The rapidity of this advance and the completeness of its success leave one breathless after the weary and sanguinary struggles with which this ground had been hardly wrung from the enemy's grip in
- 36. 1916. Maricourt Woodwas full of German dugouts, and evidently these had not been quite completely dealt with during the advance, for later in the morning a couple of German gentlemen, feeling a desire to take the morning air, came quietly strolling down the hill from the Wood to Hetley's headquarters, where his unexpected presence caused them painful surprise. During the morning C.S.M. Bonser was entrusted with the task of collecting isolated groups of men and with them filling up gaps and forming a support line in case of counter-attack. At this work he proved invaluable. Hetley writes: "He led party after party round dugouts in Maricourt clearing out Bosche, and was later perfectly splendid in organising the men and fetching up reinforcements, that is, rallying isolated parties in the town and Wood, all this under heavy if somewhat wild shell fire." Bonser received a bar to his D.C.M. for this day's work, and later, after the disbandment of the Battalion, when attached to the 2/2nd Londons gained a second bar on September 18th at Epéhy. On our flanks the day was equally successful, Vaux falling to the Australians, and the high ground at Maltzhorn Farm passing into the 12th Division's hands. No counter-attack was delivered by the Bosche and we were left in undisputed possession of our gains which amounted to some 1700 yards of ground. Orders were issued during the day that the advance should be pressed on to Maurepas Station, but these were subsequently cancelled, as the enemy were found to be holding their old 1916 line in strength with three fresh divisions. At 8 p.m. Major Crosbie made a reconnaissance of the line and organised the Battalion in two companies; A and B being placed under Capt. Hetley and C and D under 2/Lieut. Grimsdell, the Battalion's right flank resting on the point at which the railway crossed the front trench. Throughout the night the position was heavily shelled, but with very little loss to us. In spite of the fatigue of the troops Army H.Q. was fixed in its determination to allow the Bosche no breathing space, and at 1 a.m.
- 37. 28th August orderswere received in the line that the attack was to be continued that day. The 3rd Londons were to lead the Brigade again, while the 2/2nd and 2/4th Londons were to remain in reserve in the old British front line. At 4.45 a.m. the attack was launched. The day resolved itself into a series of patrol encounters, in the course of which some very stubborn opposition was met with, notably in the Bois d'en Haut. By the evening the Divisional line had been established another 1000 yards further east, in front of the Bois d'en Haut and in touch on the left with the 12th Division, who had taken Hardecourt after stiff resistance, while the Australians had possessed themselves of Curlu. That evening the Battalion was relieved, the 175th Brigade taking over the sector, and withdrew to reserve in a valley north of Bray- sur-Somme, a few hundred yards from the site of the old Citadel Camp, a spot well known to the Somme veterans of the 1/4th Battalion. During the whole of these days in fact the 2/4th Battalion, though a little distance south of the Guillemont heights, had been crossing the tracks of the 1/4th Battalion in the earlier battles of this historic district, but under what extraordinarily different conditions! The painful steps of 1916, which gained perhaps a few hundred yards a week at appalling cost of life, amid the wretchedness of mud and rain, were now victorious strides which had carried our lines forward like an irresistible tide. Since the 2/4th Battalion had moved into the Happy Valley on the 24th August it had advanced some 8000 yards and already half the devastation of the old Somme battlefields was left behind. The losses of the two days' fighting at Maricourt were, considering the extent of the gains, remarkably light. Lieut A. R. Muddell and 2/Lieuts. E. C. McKittrick and R. Grey were wounded, while Lieut. and Adjt. H. J. King, M.C., and Lieut. H. P. Lawrence were also hit but remained at duty. 114 N.C.O.'s and men became casualties, 9 being killed, 74 wounded and 29 missing.
- 38. For their splendidleadership Capt. G. H. Hetley and 2/Lieut. E. V. Grimsdell were rewarded with the M.C. After the 173rd Brigade came out of the line the 58th Division remained in action and on the 29th August it carried the line forward, against an ever-increasing opposition, to the east of Maurepas. The following day, the 47th Division having taken over from the 12th on our left, the two divisions of Londoners again pressed on shoulder to shoulder. The enemy resistance this day was as stubborn as had been experienced for some time and the advance was eventually checked with the 58th facing the west edge of Marrières Wood, and the 47th extending the line to Priez Farm. The 29th August was occupied by the 2/4th Battalion in cleaning and resting, and the necessary reorganisation consequent on its losses in the battle were effected. This day Major Crosbie left to take charge of the Battle Surplus Camp and Major F. G. Tollworthy, M.C., once more assumed command of the Battalion. On the 30th August Lieut. A. B. Carpenter (25th Londons) with 29 other ranks joined the Battalion. The Fourth Army Line was now approaching Péronne, and from Cléry to St Christ the Australian Corps had reached the west bank of the Somme. The stiffening of the enemy resistance which had been so noticeable during the last two days' fighting, and the natural strength of the Somme as an obstacle, made it clear that the enemy was determined to hold out at Péronne as long as possible; and true to its scheme of allowing the Hun no respite, the Army at once made its plans for forcing a bridgehead over the river, with the object of reducing Péronne and the Somme line of defence. The most favourable point of attack appeared to be the river between Péronne and Cléry, and the capture of the eminence of Mont St Quentin, though likely to be arduous, would give us complete command of Péronne itself and enable us to enfilade the whole of the enemy positions south of the city on the east of the river. The actual capture of Mont St Quentin was entrusted to the Australians in whose path it lay, and the movements of the III Corps
- 39. to their northformed a part of the scheme for widening the bridgehead once gained. The two days' fighting of the 31st August and the 1st September may therefore be described as the Battle of Mont St Quentin, and our task is now to deal with the part taken in it by the 2/4th Battalion. The 31st August saw a good deal of heavy fighting by the 175th Brigade, which was still in line, the chief feature of the enemy's resistance being the severity of the shell fire with which his heavy guns plastered the whole Brigade area. Marrières Wood was captured and the line pushed on to a position west of the Péronne- Rancourt Road and overlooking the slope leading down to Bouchavesnes. At 7 p.m. that night unexpected orders were received by the 173rd Brigade to return to the line and deliver an attack at 5.30 a.m. the following morning. From Bronfay Farm the battalions were conveyed by bus to Hem Wood, whence they marched to assembly in the line, taking it over from the 175th Brigade. The immediate objective of the attack was the village of Bouchavesnes, after which the line was to be pushed forward to a position overlooking the valley of the Tortille River and the Canal du Nord. The order of battle was: 2/4th Londons on the right, 3rd Londons on the left, with the 2/2nd Londons following in close support. In spite of the short notice for the operation the Battalion was duly assembled without delay on a line 300 yards west of the Péronne-Rancourt Road, and at zero, 5.30 a.m., 1st September, moved forward under a creeping barrage. The advance was made with two companies (A and B, under Capt. F. J. Griffiths and 2/Lieut. C. C. Gibbs) in front and two in support (C and D, under 2/Lieuts, Y. C. Prince, M. C., and G. C. Ewing, M.C.). Each company moved in artillery formation with three platoons in front and one in support. For once we were favoured with good weather conditions, and though cold the morning was fine with good visibility. On the western outskirts of Bouchavesnes the enemy put up a rather stiff fight, but on being tackled with determination, he once again
- 40. showed signs ofweakening morale, and the remainder of the village was occupied and mopped up with very little opposition. Although the Bosche infantry showed weakness his artillery work was, as usual, excellent. His counter-barrage came down promptly and heavily, and the bulk of our casualties this day were caused by his shell fire. On several occasions, indeed, during these successful days of August and September the enemy displayed prodigious skill in handling his guns. Field guns remained in action in the copses which are scattered all over this countryside, firing over open sights till the last possible moment; and when these were forced to limber up the fire was promptly taken up by high velocity guns firing at extreme ranges in the rear. On the 1st September, however, the advance was particularly rapid, and several field guns were unable to get away, and fell into our hands. After passing the village the Battalion pressed forward rapidly up the hill to the east of it, collecting a good many machine-gun posts on the way, and by 10.45 a.m. was on its final objective, organised and established on a definite line under the personal control of Major Tollworthy. This line was on the western crest of the Tortille Valley overlooking Moislains, and about 1000 yards short of that village. Some little difficulty was experienced by the divisions on the flanks, but touch was soon gained, the Australians being still on the right and the 47th Division (who captured Rancourt and gained the western edge of St Pierre Vaast Wood) on the left. No counter-attack developed during the day, and the Bosche seemed to resign himself to the loss of ground. His acquiescence in our success was doubtless partly due to the fact that this day the Australians, after three days' magnificent fighting, captured Mont St Quentin and entered Péronne. The casualties of the 2/4th Battalion were again extremely light when compared with the importance of the success achieved, but unfortunately they included the loss of two company commanders (Capt. F. J. Griffiths and 2/Lieut. V. C. Prince) killed. Both of these officers had done splendid work and shown themselves capable
- 41. leaders, and inthem the Battalion sustained a serious loss. In addition to these, 2/Lieuts. H. H. Gant and G. Gilson were killed, Lieut. H. P. Lawrence and 2/Lieuts. F. E. Rogers, C. Brandram and R. E. Glover wounded; while 11 N.C.O.'s and men were killed, 49 wounded and 30 missing, making a total list for the day of 99 all ranks. The captures of the Brigade amounted to 325 prisoners, 40 machine-guns, 8 field guns and one motor ambulance, and once again the prisoners showed that reserves were being flung wholesale into the enemy fighting line. Measured solely by the depth of ground taken, the 1st September was the most successful action ever fought by the 2/4th Battalion, the advance being over 3000 yards, and the achievement was the subject of a congratulatory message from the Brigadier. The same evening the 58th Division was relieved by the 74th[7] and passed into Corps reserve after a week of hard fighting. The 2/4th Battalion withdrew, after handing over its objectives intact to the 14th Black Watch, to a valley a mile west of Marrières Wood. The Battalion remained in this valley for five days, employed in resting and training, fortunately under weather conditions which were fine and warm except on the 5th September. During this period 2/Lieut. D. A. S. Manning and drafts of 21 other ranks joined the Battalion. 2/Lieut. Bidgood was appointed Intelligence Officer (vice 2/Lieut. Davies, sick). [7] The 74th Division (Girdwood) was a Yeomanry Division which had been employed in the East. This was its first appearance in the French theatre of war. The 14th Black Watch was formerly the Fife and Forfar Yeomanry. The days succeeding the relief of the 58th Division were marked by hard fighting, but by the evening of the 4th September the 47th and 74th Divisions had advanced the line east of Moislains and well up the long slope leading to Nurlu. As was to be expected now that the line of the Somme had been turned the enemy began to fall back towards the next defensive position, the outposts of the Hindenburg
- 42. line, and onthe 5th September the pursuit began in earnest, though it was met at many points with stubborn resistance. At 7 a.m. on the 7th September the 2/4th Battalion embussed at Hem Wood and were conveyed to St Pierre Farm on the Péronne- Nurlu Road, the whole Division being on its way back to the fighting line. The spectacle of the roads during this forward move was most impressive. Packed with troops, guns and stores of every description moving eastward, it seemed to convey to the troops a greater realisation of the importance of their victories than the actual advances they had made in action. The Battalion lay in Villa Wood, south-west of Nurlu, during the day, and at 6 p.m. marched to a bivouac area immediately north of Liéramont, where it arrived at 9.30 p.m. On the 8th September the fine weather of the preceding week gave way to heavy rainstorms, and the Battalion moved into shelters in Liéramont, and in this position it remained resting until a late hour in the evening of the 9th. During the 8th September troops of the 58th Division endeavoured to advance against the large and strongly defended villages of Epéhy and Peizières, but the position was stubbornly held by the Alpine Corps, and the line became stabilised in trenches on the south and west slopes of the hill on which the villages stand. The following morning determined counter-attacks by the Alpine Corps drove back the Divisional line a short distance. This stiffening of the defence made it essential for Army H.Q. to be informed as to whether the enemy rearguards were fighting a delaying action, or whether the defence was organised in depth; and to test this an attack by the III Corps was ordered for the 10th September. The 58th Division was directed on Epéhy-Peizières while the 74th was given Ronnssoy Wood as its objective. The 173rd Brigade was detailed for this attack with the 3rd Londons on the right, the 2/2nd on the left and the 2/4th in close support.
- 43. The great frontageof the two villages, which topographically are really one, and the high state of their defences made the operation one of great difficulty, and the plan of action was to deal with it in two stages. For the first objective the two leading battalions were to gain the line of the eastern road of the villages, the 3rd Londons in Epéhy and the 2/2nd in Peizières. The 2/4th Londons were to follow the 2/2nd closely in the initial stages and then, turning southwards, were to mop up the area between the inner flanks of the leading battalions and establish themselves in Fishers Keep as a link between the two. In the second stage the leading battalions were to gain the line of the railway east of the villages where they would join hands, the 2/4th Battalion remaining in the villages. On the left the 21st Division was to push forward immediately after the villages were captured and secure the position by occupying the high ground which dominated them a mile to the north. This very complicated operation was to be carried out under two creeping barrages, one for each leading battalion, and a machine- gun barrage, while the heavy batteries would engage distant targets. At 11 p.m., 9th August, the 2/4th Battalion left its position in Liéramont and moved forward to assembly, which, considering the vileness of the weather, the lack of reconnaissance and the extreme darkness, was completed satisfactorily; and at 5.15 a.m. the Battalion advanced to the attack. The leading battalions met with a good deal of opposition, which on the left flank was centred on Wood Farm. In the 2/4th Battalion A and B Companies, respectively under 2/Lieuts. C. C. Gibbs and G. C. Ewing, M.C., gained their objective at Tottenham Post on the western outskirts of Peizières with comparatively little difficulty. B Company under Capt. Hetley, whose rôle was to penetrate the villages to Fishers Keep, had a much more difficult task. The fighting through ruined streets inevitably led to some disorganisation of platoons, and the villages, moreover, were stiff with Bosche machine-gun posts, which, once the barrage had passed over them,
- 44. were free todo their worst on the attackers. Severe casualties were sustained, among whom were numbered two platoon commanders, 2/Lieuts. H. B. Bartleet and P. F. Royce, killed. Finding progress impossible among the cunningly concealed Bosche machine-gunners Hetley collected and organised his company on the west edge of the village. A similar fate met D Company (2/Lieut. D. A. S. Manning) which endeavoured to enter Peizières from the west. After gallantly struggling against impossible odds Manning withdrew his men to swell the garrison of Tottenham Post. The 2/2nd Londons under Capt. Wright made a magnificent attempt to carry out their task, and did in fact reach the railway embankment, but a sharp counter-attack drove them back to the fringe of the village. Unfortunately the flanking movement of the 21st Division on the left failed to materialise, and this doubtless contributed to the failure of the 173rd Brigade. The fact, however, was clearly established that the resistance of the enemy was organised and deliberate, and it became patent that an attack with tank co-operation would be necessary to reduce it. The rifle strength of the three battalions set against these villages on the 10th September was only about 900 in all, and their attack, therefore, lacked the weight essential to success. In spite of the lack of success, however, the day was not entirely fruitless, for the captures amounted to 80 prisoners, 20 machine- guns and 3 anti-tank guns. The 2/4th Battalion's losses were: 2/Lieuts. F. Bidgood, P. F. Royce and H. B. Bartleet, killed; 2/Lieut. F. J. Paterson, wounded; 5 N.C.O.'s and men killed, 19 wounded and 3 missing. During the night following the battle the 2/4th Battalion was relieved by the 12th Londons, and was concentrated in trenches at Guyencourt. Here it remained till 8 p.m. on the 11th September, when it withdrew to shelters in Liéramont. We may here remark that on the 18th September the 173rd Brigade captured Epéhy and Peizières and thus helped clear the road for the
- 45. advance to theHindenburg line. We have now come to the end of the 2/4th Battalion's story. Owing to the increasing difficulties of maintaining units at fighting strength it had been decided by G.H.Q. to make still further reductions in the number of formations, and to swell the ranks of those remaining with the personnel of those disbanded. This dismal fate befell the 2/4th Londons, and on the 12th September 1918 the whole of its personnel was transferred to the 2/2nd Londons, and the Battalion as a separate entity ceased to exist, after twenty-one months of active service life. Its place in the Brigade was taken by the 2/24th Londons from the 32nd Division. The last action in which the Battalion fought was admittedly a "feeler," and as such undoubtedly served a useful purpose in the scheme of the Fourth Army's great advance; but perhaps we may be pardoned for regretting that it was not a more successful close to the Battalion's history. It was bad luck. Yet there was a certain degree of poetic justice in the fact that the Battalion had helped fight the Germans back to what had been on 21st March 1918 the British line of resistance, and it can, therefore, justly claim to have redeemed in full its losses in the awful battles of the retreat.
- 47. CHAPTER XXIV THE FINALADVANCE II. The 1/4th Battalion in the Battle of Bapaume, 1918 The extension northward of the battle line, which marked the opening of the Battle of Bapaume on the 21st August 1918, involved Byng's Third Army, comprising from right to left the V, IV and VI Corps. As we have indicated in the preceding chapter, the object of the Third Army was to conduct a vast enveloping movement which should turn the flank of the German defence of the Somme line, and throw open the road to Cambrai and St Quentin. Already the enemy had shown signs of nervousness in the area of the Somme-Scarpe salient and had withdrawn from his most advanced positions at Serre; and it was clear, therefore, that any attack on this front by the British must be prosecuted rapidly to avoid a repetition of the skilful German retreat of February 1917. For an offensive in this area the British troops were far more favourably placed in August 1918 than they had been on the former occasion. They possessed the Bucquoy Ridge, with the consequent advantages of observation which had formerly been denied to them; and the terrain over which the battle would be fought, though certainly devastated and a mass of trenches, did not present the colossal system of inter-supporting fortresses which it had in 1916. The time for a big attack had come, and G.H.Q. decided to strike. The 23rd August saw the Fourth and Third Armies advancing on a front of 33 miles from Lihons to Mercatel. The suddenness of the German collapse in these latter days of the War is probably unique in the annals of military history. At the
- 48. beginning of Junetheir star was still in the ascendant. They were occupying ground which they had never previously held during the whole War; their successes of March and April had shaken the Allied defence to its very foundations; and it seemed still doubtful whether they had reached the limit of their capabilities of offence. Yet by the middle of August the whole face of the War had changed. On a wide front the Germans were in retreat; vast masses of material, thousands of prisoners had fallen into our hands; the British morale had been proved stronger than ever, while that of the enemy was giving indications of a serious break. Whether the High Command anticipated the completeness of this lightning change we cannot say; that the vast bulk of regimental officers and men scarcely contemplated it, is almost certain. Early in July General Hull, in a conversation with Lieut.-Col. Marchment, expressed the opinion that very little would be done in 1918 by way of retrieving the losses suffered during the spring! The 8th August found the 1/4th Londons at a strength of 42 officers and 892 other ranks withdrawn in Brigade reserve to billets at Arras. Here a quite pleasant week was spent in which the routine of training was varied by a Battalion sports meeting, and a most successful swimming gala—a new feature of recreation—for which purpose the moat at the Citadel formed a splendid bath. Between the 16th and 18th August the 56th Division was relieved from the Tilloy trenches and passed into Corps reserve, the 1/4th Londons handing over their Brigade reserve billets to the 1/9th Royal Scots and moving to Berneville on the 17th August. For a few days changes of station followed on each others' heels with startling rapidity, and after having been quartered successively at Houvin- Houvigneuil and Magnicourt-sur-Canche, the Battalion reached Grand Rullecourt at 11.30 p.m. on the 20th August.
- 49. On the 19thorders had been issued to the Division to take part in an attack with the XVII Corps in the area of the Scarpe, but these were subsequently replaced on the 21st August by a transfer of the Division to Haldane's VI Corps, and orders to join with it in the Third Army attack. A day of rest at Grand Rullecourt was occupied by the Battalion, in the absence of attack orders, with speculations as to its chances of soon being called upon to fight. Preliminary arrangements were made to march into battle at short notice, and the same evening, the 21st August, the Battalion marched thirteen miles to Berles-au- Bois, arriving at 2 a.m. on the 22nd. About 10 o'clock that morning Lieut.-Col. Marchment and the company commanders were ordered to Humbercamp to receive battle orders, but after an hour's fruitless waiting the company commanders returned to prepare their companies for action, and the Colonel went to try and get what orders he could at Brigade Headquarters. Here he was informed that the attack would take place in sixteen hours' time—early on the 23rd August! The general idea of the Battalion's rôle was explained to Lieut.-Col. Marchment to be the capture of the village of Boyelles and the Marc system of trenches immediately north of it, the attack to commence at 4.55 a.m. on the 23rd August, two companies in line, one in support and one in reserve. Artillery support would be provided by 6 brigades of field guns firing an unregistered barrage, while 21 tanks would take part in the attack. A section of the Divisional Machine-gun Company would be attached to the Battalion. With this somewhat sketchy information Lieut.-Col. Marchment hurried back to the Battalion to set it in motion, and by 5 p.m. it was on its way to the first assembly position at Blairville. Here it occupied the old German trenches exactly opposite the first trench sector ever held by the 2/4th Battalion in February 1917. The line facing Boyelles was at this time occupied by the 59th Division, and the 168th Brigade was detailed to attack through them, with the Guards Division opposite Hamelincourt on its right, and the
- 50. 52nd Division northof the north branch of the Cojeul River on its left. The Brigade order of battle from right to left was Kensingtons (south of Boyelles); 1/4th Londons (Boyelles); and London Scottish (Boiry-Becquerelle); the 1st Londons being attached in Brigade reserve for the operation. Leaving the Battalion on the march Lieut.-Col. Marchment hurried on to Blairville by car to see the Brigadier of the brigade in line (59th Division) and was at once faced by another difficulty in finding that the 59th Division had themselves taken over the front trenches only the preceding night! Clearly not much possibility of assistance from them; but they arranged to provide guides to lead our platoons to the positions of final assembly. The sudden transfer of the 56th Division from the XVII to the VI Corps, and the subsequent difficulty in obtaining orders must have been caused by some reason of great importance: we are not aware what it was. Certainly the effect was not to make things easier. Indeed, when the Divisional attack order was issued by Gen. Hull at 3 p.m. on the 22nd August he had not received the written instructions of VI Corps. But, starting under such inauspicious circumstances, all the more credit is due to the battalions, and in particular to the commanding officers, for the signal successes which were ultimately achieved. Reconnaissance of the ground by officers and N.C.O.'s was obviously out of the question, and Lieut.-Col. Marchment had to content himself with explaining the situation to them while battle stores were issued to the men. At 10.30 p.m. the Battalion moved off by platoons in charge of the 59th Division guides, who, considering their own scanty acquaintance with the ground, did well, for they brought almost the whole Battalion to its assembly positions in Falcon Trench well on time, though one platoon of A Company and the Headquarter details went sadly astray and did not turn up till long after zero hour. The Padre believes he was taken for a long walk somewhere round Albert! During the march up the enemy was using gas shell freely, and masks had to be worn at times, but little loss was caused.
- 51. The Battalion wasdrawn up as follows: Right front—B Company, Capt. R. S. B. Simmonds. Left front —D Company, Capt. C. W. Rowlands, M.C. Support —C Company, Capt. H. A. T. Hewlett. Reserve —A Company, Capt. H. N. Williams, M.C. The hour or two of darkness before zero was spent in cutting lanes through our wire, and at 4.55 a.m. the barrage opened, intense and well distributed. Lieut.-Col. Marchment describes it as the best and most tremendous he had ever seen. The scene from Headquarters was extraordinary: the intense shrapnel barrage and smoke on the German front line, the medium howitzers firing on Boyelles village beyond, and the heavies cutting up the distant landscape in dense black clouds; and behind it all the sun just rising. At 5.7 a.m. the companies moved forward. The right company (B) made good use of the railway embankment, and following the line on its south side advanced on a one-platoon frontage to Boyelles Station, while three tanks entered the village. Here the railway was crossed and a good deal of opposition was met with from enemy machine-guns, heavy and light, firing from the eastern half of the village. These were, however, skilfully outflanked and rounded up to the number of 3 heavy and 8 light guns, after which the company pushed forward and caught up the barrage. Two platoons halted approximately on the Blue line (first objective) on the eastern edge of Boyelles, while two pressed on to Boyelles Trench 500 yards further east. But few enemy were encountered in this advanced position. B Company being now well distributed in depth, the work of consolidation was put in hand. The right flank was not yet in touch with the Kensingtons and was therefore rounded off by pushing two Lewis gun sections and one subsection M.G.C. southwards towards the railway. D Company on the left met with more stubborn resistance in the Marc system, and the leading platoons were temporarily held up in No Man's Land by enemy firing from the Marc saps. Moreover, the
- 52. tank allotted tothis part of the front failed to reach the Marc front system at all, having apparently lost its way. The support company (C), however, pushed a platoon forward into the sunken road leading northwards from Boyelles, whence it was able to enfilade the Marc trenches, while the right platoon of the London Scottish advancing on our left managed to turn the position similarly from the north. Being practically surrounded the enemy surrendered en masse, the bag amounting to 2 officers and 80 other ranks. Little further opposition was encountered, and D company continued the advance to Boyelles Trench, where touch was gained with C Company on the right and the London Scottish on the left. The dugouts in this line were energetically mopped up and many Germans sent marching westward. Two patrols were sent forward towards Boyelles Reserve. In the meantime the support company mopped up the neighbourhood of the cemetery and the sunken roads in its vicinity, while A Company in reserve occupied the Marc system. This latter proved a very sound move as our start-line was heavily shelled all the morning. The first news of the attack at Battalion Headquarters was received in the shape of Private Cohen, who appeared wounded but carrying a German light machine-gun—a good omen of success! At about 9 a.m. the lost platoons turned up and their arrival, including as they did the Padre and the Medical Officer, was extremely welcome, for by now the wounded were beginning to filter through, and the small band of five under Lieut.-Col. Marchment were encumbered with some 200 Bosche prisoners—not to speak of their duties of conducting the battle. Communication by wire was rapidly established with brigade and also forward to the companies, a report centre being formed north of Boyelles. At 9.15 a.m. 56th Division issued orders that the attack would be pressed at 11.30 a.m. into Boyelles Reserve, but owing to temporary dislocation of the signal service these orders did not reach the 1/4th Londons until 11.15 a.m. To start at the scheduled hour was out of
- 53. the question, butarrangements were made at once for the further advance, which ultimately began at about 5 p.m. The advance was made by the left front and support companies, the right front company extending to its left to cover the area vacated by them. This second attack met with complete success. The two attacking companies were led by a line of scouts followed by one platoon in extended formation. The remaining platoons followed in artillery formation by sections. Some resistance was offered by light machine-gun teams in Boyelles Reserve, but the widely extended formation saved the attackers from severe loss. The enemy artillery was also active during the advance, but again the formation adopted enabled the rear platoons to pick their way with but few casualties. The whole of the allotted portion of Boyelles Reserve was captured, and patrols pushed forward 500 yards to the east of it. The enemy shell fire now became more intense, but a protective barrage was put down by our guns, and no counter-attack developed. After a while activity on the whole area subsided. The same evening the 168th Brigade handed over the captured positions to the 167th and passed into Divisional reserve, the 1/4th Londons concentrating north of Hendecourt. By noon on that day the Battalion was back at Blairville. It is impossible to speak too highly of the men by whom this great success had been gained. The long approach marches in exceptionally hot weather brought the Battalion to the point of battle in an already tired condition; the hurried orders and the total lack of previous reconnaissance created difficulties which were surmounted by the splendid response made by all ranks to the demands imposed on them. The rapid appreciation of the situation by company commanders and the careful dispositions of the commanding officer all contributed in full measure to this important victory, while the skilful use of ground and of suitable formations was the means of securing the gains at a minimum of loss. The excellent work performed by signallers and runners, all of whom had a hard day's work, were of incalculable value to Battalion Headquarters, and
- 54. enabled Lieut.-Col. Marchmentat all times to keep a firm grip of the situation of the moment. The casualties of the Battalion were extremely light, only 18 being killed, but by ill luck it lost three company commanders, Capts. C. W. Rowlands, M.C., and H. A. T. Hewlett being killed, and Capt. R. S. B. Simmonds, wounded. 2/Lieuts. A. W. Chignell, T. Yoxall and F. S. C. Taylor were wounded. The captures made by the Battalion amounted to 3 officers and 240 other ranks, of the 1st and 2nd Battalions 87th R.I. Regiment, 24 light and 8 heavy machine-guns, 6 light, 1 medium and 1 heavy trench mortar. After the relief of the 168th Brigade the offensive was continued by the 167th, at first with considerable success, the Division being once again attached to the XVII Corps. An advance in the northern area of the Divisional front of some 2500 yards was made into Summit and Fooley Trenches, but on the south flank the most strenuous efforts of the 56th and Guards Divisions failed to eject the enemy from Croisilles, which was held in great force by machine-gunners. South of the Cojeul River the enemy resistance was increasing, and information was obtained from prisoners to the effect that three fresh German divisions had been brought into the Bullecourt- Hendecourt area. North of the Cojeul, however, the 52nd and Canadian Divisions had registered important successes. The old Wancourt line fell to them on the 26th, and this advance was rapidly followed up by the recapture of Monchy-le-Preux, and a penetration into quite new ground at St Rohart Factory—hardly fought for by the 56th Division in May 1917—and at Boiry Notre Dame. By the evening of the 26th August the 52nd Division had cleared the Hindenburg line from Henin to the Sensée River, and was reported to be east of Fontaine-lez-Croisilles. Croisilles, however, still held out and the Guards had been pressed back slightly towards St Leger. The result of this fighting was to swing the Corps line round facing roughly south-east astride the Hindenburg line, with a strong pocket of most stubborn Bosche in
- 55. the ramification oftrenches around Croisilles itself, and on both banks of the Sensée River to the north-east. The 169th Brigade which had now taken over the Divisional front was getting worn by its constant fighting and losses, and reinforcement was needed. After a few hours' rest at Blairville the 1/4th Londons marched at 7.45 a.m. on the 25th August to trenches in front of Boisleux St Marc, moving the following evening to the trenches east of Boiry-Becquerelle, which had been captured by the London Scottish on the 23rd. A good deal of gas shelling occurred here during the night. A signaller was killed and several men were wounded, among whom the Battalion was unfortunate in losing Sergt. Johnson, the excellent orderly-room clerk, and Corpl. Coates, M.M., of the Scouts. On the afternoon of the 27th the Battalion moved forward in close support to the 169th Brigade, and occupied Summit Trench immediately north of its junction with Hill, and on the extreme left of the Divisional sector. It is rather curious to note that in these fights and marches the 1/4th Battalion was in an area which had been traversed by the 2/4th Battalion during the actions of March 1917, while at the same time the 2/4th Battalion in the Fourth Army was bearing its share in recapturing spots familiar to the 1/4th Battalion during the 1916 Somme battles! The 1/4th Battalion had settled down in Summit Trench to make the best of a very wet evening, when, after dark, orders were received to move at once into the Hindenburg line and to concentrate at River Road, near the banks of the Sensée River for an attack the following morning on Bullecourt. It had been determined, owing to the prolonged resistance of the enemy at Croisilles and the resultant holding back of the right flank, to pursue the operation by an advance towards Bullecourt straight down the Hindenburg line. This would have the effect of completely enveloping and "squeezing-out" the pocket of Germans in the Croisilles-Guardian Trench area.
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