E10 01 techniques and principles in language teachingt cap 2

E10 01 techniques and principles in language teachingt cap 2

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  FACULTAD DE CIENCIASDE LA EDUCACIÓN SEGUNDA ESPECIALIDAD DIDÁCTICA DEL INGLÉS “TEACHING TECHNIQUES” MG. EVELYN GUILLÉN CHÁVEZ
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  CHAPTER 2 TEACHING LISTENING AND SPEAKING
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  INTRODUCTION According to 2003,2004 The National Capital Language Resource Center, Washington, DC , the four "macro skills" (listening, speaking, reading, writing) are all part of normal language proficiency and use.
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   Students should have good listening comprehension before working on reading, writing, and academic skills.  Students should have good reading comprehension before working on writing and academic skills.  Students should have good writing ability before working on academic skills.  Speaking should be encouraged throughout the process of acquiring English, especially after good listening comprehension has been attained.
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   A focal skill is a language skill that a student is currently working on.  Supporting skills are language skills that can be used to support work on a focal skill  An emergent skill develops to some extent as a consequence of work focused on some other skill.
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   It is used most frequently.  Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners actively involve themselves in the interpretation of what they hear.  Not all listening is the same; casual greetings, for example, require a different sort of listening capability than do academic lectures.  Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, television), a message, and a receiver (the listener).  Given the importance of listening in language learning and teaching, it is essential for language teachers to help their students become effective listeners.  In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: those that learners are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.
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   Integrating Metacognitive Strategies  Before listening: Plan for the listening task .  Set a purpose or decide in advance what to listen for.  Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed.  Determine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend to the overall meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases).  During and after listening: Monitor comprehension .  Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses .  Decide what is and is not important to understand .  Listen/view again to check comprehension.  Ask for help.  After listening: Evaluate comprehension and strategy use.  Evaluate comprehension in a particular task or area.  Evaluate overall progress in listening and in particular types of listening tasks .  Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task .  Modify strategies if necessary .
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  Using Authentic Materialsand Situations  Authentic materials and situations prepare students for the types of listening they will need to do when using the language outside the classroom.  Radio and television programs.  Public address announcements (airports, train/bus stations, stores).  Speeches and lectures.  Telephone customer service recordings.
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  Strategies for DevelopingListening Skills  Show students how they can adjust their listening behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and listening purposes.  Help students develop a set of listening strategies and match appropriate strategies to each listening situation.
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  Listening Strategies  Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input.  Top-down strategies are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next. Top-down strategies include  listening for the main idea  predicting  drawing inferences  summarizing  Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message, that is, the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning. Bottom-up strategies include  listening for specific details  recognizing cognates  recognizing word-order patterns  Strategic listeners also use metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor, and evaluate their listening.  They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best in a particular situation.  They monitor their comprehension and the effectiveness of the selected strategies.  They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their listening comprehension goals and whether the combination of listening strategies selected was an effective one.
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  Listening for Meaning  To extract meaning from a listening text, students need to follow four basic steps:  Figure out the purpose for listening. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate listening strategies.  Attend to the parts of the listening input that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory in order to recognize it.  Select top-down and bottom-up strategies that are appropriate to the listening task and use them flexibly and interactively. Students' comprehension improves and their confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-up strategies simultaneously to construct meaning.  Check comprehension while listening and when the listening task is over. Monitoring comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures, directing them to use alternate strategies.
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  Developing Listening Activities Listening exercises that are meant to train should be success-oriented and build up students' confidence in their listening ability.
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  Construct the listeningactivity around a contextualized task  Contextualized listening activities approximate real-life tasks and give the listener an idea of the type of information to expect and what to do with it in advance of the actual listening.
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  Define the activity'sinstructional goal and type of response.  Each activity should have as its goal the improvement of one or more specific listening skills.  A listening activity may have more than one goal or outcome, but be careful not to overburden the attention of beginning or intermediate listeners.  Recognizing the goal(s) of listening comprehension in each listening situation will help students select appropriate listening strategies.  Identification: Recognizing or discriminating specific aspects of the message, such as sounds, categories of words, morphological distinctions  Orientation: Determining the major facts about a message, such as topic, text type, setting  Main idea comprehension: Identifying the higher-order ideas  Detail comprehension: Identifying supporting details  Replication: Reproducing the message orally or in writing
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  Check the levelof difficulty of the listening text. The factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a listening text.  How is the information organized?  Does the story line, narrative, or instruction conform to familiar expectations?  How familiar are the students with the topic?  Does the text contain redundancy?  Does the text involve multiple individuals and objects?  Are they clearly differentiated?  Does the text offer visual support to aid in the interpretation of what the listeners hear?
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  Use pre-listening activitiesto prepare students for what they are going to hear or view.  1. Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of the text  2. Provide students with the background knowledge necessary for their comprehension.  3. Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the passage  4. Make students aware of the type of text they will be listening to and the purpose for which they will be listening  5. Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for background reading or class discussion activities .  6. Sample pre-listening activities:  7. Looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs  8. Reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures  9. Reading something relevant to the student.  10. Constructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement of concepts or words showing how they are related)  11. Predicting the content of the listening text  12. Doing guided practice
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  Match while-listening activitiesto the instructional goal, the listening purpose, and students' proficiency level.  While-listening activities relate directly to the text, and students do them do during or immediately after the time they are listening. Keep these points in mind when planning while-listening activities:  If students are to complete a written task during or immediately after listening, allow them to read through it before listening.  Keep writing to a minimum during listening  Organize activities so that they guide listeners through the text.  Use questions to focus students' attention on the elements of the text crucial to comprehension of the whole.  Use predicting to encourage students to monitor their comprehension as they listen.  Give immediate feedback whenever possible.  Sample while-listening activities o listening with visuals o filling in graphs and charts o following a route on a map o checking off items in a list o listening for the gist o searching for specific clues to meaning o completing cloze (fill-in) exercises o distinguishing between formal and informal registers
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  Assessing Listening Proficiency  You can use post-listening activities to check comprehension, evaluate listening skills and use of listening strategies, and extend the knowledge gained to other contexts.  In order to provide authentic assessment of students' listening proficiency, a post-listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put information they have gained through listening.  It must have a purpose other than assessment .  It must require students to demonstrate their level of listening comprehension by completing some task.  To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that listening to a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For example, after listening to a weather report one might decide what to wear the next day; after listening to a set of instructions, one might repeat them to someone else; after watching and listening to a play or video, one might discuss the story line with friends.  Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-listening tasks. You can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student's comprehension of specific parts of the aural text. (See Assessing Learning for more on checklists and rubrics.)
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   The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency.  To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and communicative output.  Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need to begin producing language themselves.  Language input may be content oriented or form oriented.  Structured output focuses on correct form.  Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced.  In communicative output, the learners' main purpose is to complete a task.
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   Effective instructors teach students speaking strategies -- using minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and using language to talk about language -- that they can use to help themselves expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it.  1. Using minimal responses especially useful for beginners.  2. Recognizing scripts. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.  3. Using language to talk about language . Instructors can give students strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension check.
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  Developing Speaking Activities  Traditional classroom speaking practice often takes the form of drills in which one person asks a question and another gives an answer. The question and the answer are structured and predictable, and often there is only one correct, predetermined answer. The purpose of asking and answering the question is to demonstrate the ability to ask and answer the question.  In contrast, the purpose of real communication is to accomplish a task, such as conveying a telephone message, obtaining information, or expressing an opinion. In real communication, participants must manage uncertainty about what the other person will say. Authentic communication involves an information gap; each participant has information that the other does not have. In addition, to achieve their purpose, participants may have to clarify their meaning or ask for confirmation of their own understanding.  To create classroom speaking activities that will develop communicative competence, instructors need to incorporate a purpose and an information gap and allow for multiple forms of expression. However, quantity alone will not necessarily produce competent speakers. Instructors need to combine structured output activities, which allow for error correction and increased accuracy, with communicative output activities that give students opportunities to practice language use more freely.
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   Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they know in situations that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together to develop a plan, resolve a problem, or complete a task. The most common types of communicative output activity are role plays and discussions .  In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may eventually encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of language functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role relationships among the students as they play their parts call for them to practice and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language that is appropriate to the situation and to the characters.  Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self- confidence or have lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first. To succeed with role plays:  Prepare carefully  Use role cards
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   Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class to predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might use.  Keep groups small .  Give students time to prepare.  Be present as a resource, not a monitor.  Allow students to work at their own levels.  Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the instructor prepares students first, and then gets out of the way. To succeed with discussions.  Prepare the students.  Offer choices.  Set a goal or outcome.  Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion.  Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10 minutes, for discussion.  Allow students to participate in their own way .  Do topical follow-up.  Do linguistic follow-up.  Through well-prepared communicative output activities such as role plays and discussions, you can encourage students to experiment and innovate with the language.