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The ECG measures the electrical activity of the heart. Each component of the ECG waveform provides important information about the heart's structure and function. Abnormalities seen on the ECG can help identify arrhythmias, conduction defects, chamber enlargement, ischemia, infarction and other cardiac pathologies. A thorough understanding of normal ECG patterns is required to accurately interpret ECG tracings and diagnose cardiac conditions.
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- 2. What is anECG? The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a representation of the electrical events of the cardiac cycle. Each event has a distinctive waveform, the study of which can lead to greater insight into a patient’s cardiac pathophysiology.
- 3. What types ofpathology can we identify and study from ECGs? • Arrhythmias • Myocardial ischemia and infarction • Pericarditis • Chamber hypertrophy • Electrolyte disturbances (i.e. hyperkalemia, hypokalemia) • Drug toxicity (i.e. digoxin and drugs which prolong the QT interval)
- 4. ECG PAPER • Lightlines small squares- 1 X 1 mm • Bold lines large squares 5 X 5 mm • Horizontal axis=time 1. Distance across small square=0.04 sec. 2. Distance across large square=0.2 sec. • Vertical axis=voltage 1. Distance across small square=0.1 mV 2. Distance across large square=0.5 mV
- 6. Anatomy of Heartand ECG signal Normal ECG signal Conducting System of Heart
- 8. ECG Leads Leads areelectrodes which measure the difference in electrical potential between either: 1. Two different points on the body (bipolar leads) 2. One point on the body and a virtual reference point with zero electrical potential, located in the center of the heart (unipolar leads)
- 9. ECG Leads The standardECG has 12 leads: 3 Standard Limb Leads 3 Augmented Limb Leads 6 Precordial Leads The axis of a particular lead represents the viewpoint from which it looks at the heart.
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- 14. Summary of Leads LimbLeads Precordial Leads Bipolar I, II, III (standard limb leads) - Unipolar aVR, aVL, aVF (augmented limb leads) V1-V6
- 15. Arrangement of Leadson the ECG
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- 21. What is theheart rate? (300 / 6) = 50 bpm
- 22. What is theheart rate? (300 / ~ 4) = ~ 75 bpm
- 23. What is theheart rate? (300 / 1.5) = 200 bpm
- 24. What is theheart rate? 20 x 10 = 200 bpm
- 25. Normal H.R. 60-90bpm Bradycardia less than 60 bpm Tachycardia less than 100 bpm
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- 33. Regular rhythm • IfH.R. is normal ( normal , atrial flutter) • If bradycardia # no P or inverted ( nodal rhythm ) # normal P @ regular relation with QRS ( complete HB, sinus bradycadia) @ irregular relation with QRS ( partial HB) If tachycardia # Abnormal QRS ( vent . Tachycardia ) # normal QRS @ Normal P (SVT atrial ) @absent or inverted P ( SVT nodal )
- 34. Irregular rhythm • Ifirregular irregularity ( AF) • If occasional irregularity # normal QRS ( Supravent. extrasystole ) # abnormal ORS ( Vent. Extrasystole )
- 35. Normal Sinus Rhythm– the rules! • P before every QRS • PR interval <0.2 seconds (5 baby squares) • QRS after every P wave • QRS <0.12 seconds (3 baby squares) • Regular and identical • Rate 60-100 bpm – <60 bpm – sinus bradycardia – >100 bpm – sinus tachycardia
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- 45. Left Bundle BranchBlock Criteria • QRS duration ≥ 120ms • Broad R wave in I and V6 • Prominent QS wave in V1 • Absence of q waves (including physiologic q waves) in I and V6
- 46. Left Bundle BranchBlock
- 47. Right Bundle BranchBlock Criteria • QRS duration ≥ 110ms • rSR’ pattern or notched R wave in V1 • Wide S wave in I and V6
- 48. Right Bundle BranchBlock
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- 54. P waves • Itis important to remember that the P wave represents the sequential activation of the right and left atria, and it is common to see notched or biphasic P waves of right and left atrial activation. • Does not exceed 2.5 mm (height) in lead II • Less than 0.12 seconds (width) in lead II • Abnormal P: – RAE ( P Pulmonale ) – LAE ( P mitrale ) – Atrial flutter – Nodal rhythm ( absent with regular rhythm ) – AF( absent with irregular rhythm ) – Dextrocardia
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- 58. Left Atrial Enlargement Criteria Pwave duration in II ≥120ms or Negative component of biphasic P wave in V1 ≥ 1 “small box” in area
- 59. Right Atrial Enlargement Criteria Pwave height in II ≥ 2.4mm or Positive component of biphasic P wave in V1 ≥ 1 “small box” in area
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- 65. PR interval • measuredfrom beginning of P to beginning of QRS • 0.12-0.20 s ( 3-5 small squares). • Best seen in lead II .
- 66. PR interval . Short PR:< 0.12s 1- Preexcitation syndromes: *WPW (Wolff-Parkinson-White) Syndrome: An accessory pathway connects the right atrium to the right ventricle or the left atrium to the left ventricle, and this permits early activation of the ventricles (delta wave) and a short PR interval.
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- 69. PR interval . 2- AVJunctional Rhythms with retrograde atrial activation (inverted P waves in II, III, aVF): Retrograde P waves may occur before the QRS complex (usually with a short PR interval), in the QRS complex (i.e., hidden from view), or after the QRS complex (i.e., in the ST segment). 3- Ectopic atrial rhythms originating near the AV node (the PR interval is short because atrial activation originates close to the AV node; the P wave morphology is different from the sinus P) 4- Normal variant 5- tachycardia
- 70. PR interval . Prolonged PR:>0.20s 1-First degree AV block (PR interval usually constant) 2-Second degree AV block (PR interval may be normal or prolonged; some P waves do not conduct) Type I (Wenckebach): Increasing PR until nonconducted P wave occurs Type II (Mobitz): Fixed PR intervals plus nonconducted P waves 3-AV dissociation: Some PR's may appear prolonged, but the P waves and QRS complexes are dissociated . 4- Rheumatic fever 5- Digitalis
- 71. First degree AVblock
- 72. Second degree AVblock (mobitz I)-Wenckebach
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- 78. The QRS Axis TheQRS axis represents the net overall direction of the heart’s electrical activity. Abnormalities of axis can hint at: Ventricular enlargement Conduction blocks (i.e. hemiblocks)
- 79. The QRS Axis Bynear-consensus, the normal QRS axis is defined as ranging from -30° to +90°. -30° to -90° is referred to as a left axis deviation (LAD) +90° to +180° is referred to as a right axis deviation (RAD)
- 80. Determining the Axis •The Quadrant Approach • The Equiphasic Approach
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- 82. The Quadrant Approach 1.Examine the QRS complex in leads I and aVF to determine if they are predominantly positive or predominantly negative. The combination should place the axis into one of the 4 quadrants below.
- 83. The Quadrant Approach 2.In the event that LAD is present, examine lead II to determine if this deviation is pathologic. If the QRS in II is predominantly positive, the LAD is non-pathologic (in other words, the axis is normal). If it is predominantly negative, it is pathologic.
- 84. Quadrant Approach: Example1 Negative in I, positive in aVF RAD
- 85. Quadrant Approach: Example2 Positive in I, negative in aVF Predominantly positive in II Normal Axis (non-pathologic LAD)
- 86. The Equiphasic Approach 1.Determine which lead contains the most equiphasic QRS complex. The fact that the QRS complex in this lead is equally positive and negative indicates that the net electrical vector (i.e. overall QRS axis) is perpendicular to the axis of this particular lead. 2. Examine the QRS complex in whichever lead lies 90° away from the lead identified in step 1. If the QRS complex in this second lead is predominantly positive, than the axis of this lead is approximately the same as the net QRS axis. If the QRS complex is predominantly negative, than the net QRS axis lies 180° from the axis of this lead.
- 87. Equiphasic Approach: Example1 Equiphasic in aVF Predominantly positive in I QRS axis ≈ 0°
- 88. Equiphasic Approach: Example2 Equiphasic in II Predominantly negative in aVL QRS axis ≈ +150°
- 89. QRS complex • Normal:0.06 - 0.10s Prolonged QRS Duration (>0.10s): A-QRS duration 0.10 - 0.12s 1- Incomplete right or left bundle branch block 2-Nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay (IVCD) 3-Some cases of left anterior or posterior fascicular block B-QRS duration > 0.12s 1-Complete RBBB or LBBB 2-Nonspecific IVCD 3-Ectopic rhythms originating in the ventricles (e.g., ventricular tachycardia, pacemaker rhythm)
- 90. Left Bundle BranchBlock Criteria • QRS duration ≥ 120ms • Broad R wave in I and V6 • Prominent QS wave in V1 • Absence of q waves (including physiologic q waves) in I and V6
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- 92. Left Bundle BranchBlock
- 94. Right Bundle BranchBlock Criteria • QRS duration ≥ 110ms • rSR’ pattern or notched R wave in V1 • Wide S wave in I and V6
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- 96. Right Bundle BranchBlock
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- 101. Right Ventricular Hypertrophy •Right axis deviation • Right atrial enlargement • Down sloping ST depressions in V1-V3 (RV strain pattern) • Tall R wave in V1 Although there is no widely accepted criteria for detecting the presence of RVH, any combination of the following ECG features is suggestive of its presence:
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- 103. Q Wave • Normal(physiologic) or due to pathology (pathologic). • Depth and width are determining criteria – Q wave >0.04 (40 ms) wide is considered a significant finding (pathologic)
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- 115. ST segment From theend of QRS ( J point ) to beginning of T wave . isoelectric
- 116. ST Segment • TheST segment is normally level with the T-P segment rather than the PR segment • Examine every lead for ST segment elevation of 1 mm or more.
- 118. Differential Diagnosis ofST Segment Elevation 1-Normal Variant "Early Repolarization" (usually concave upwards, ending with symmetrical, large, upright T waves) 2- Ischemic Heart Disease (usually convex upwards, or straightened) Acute transmural injury - as in this acute anterior MI 3- Persistent ST elevation after acute MI suggests ventricular aneurysm 4-ST elevation may also be seen as a manifestation of Prinzmetal's (variant) angina (coronary artery spasm) 5-ST elevation during exercise testing suggests extremely tight coronary artery stenosis or spasm (transmural ischemia) •
- 119. Differential Diagnosis ofST Segment Elevation 6-Acute Pericarditis #Concave upwards ST elevation in most leads except aVR # No reciprocal ST segment depression (except in aVR) #Unlike "early repolarization", T waves are usually low amplitude, and heart rate is usually increased. #May see PR segment depression, a manifestation of atrial injury
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- 123. ST depression • >2mmusually indicates ischemia • Common in normal ECG, especially in pregnancy • But: – Non specific not more than 2mm below baseline – It is convex downward or slopes upwards from the S wave
- 124. Differential Diagnosis ofST Segment Depression 1-Normal variants or artifacts: Pseudo-ST- depression (wandering baseline due to poor skin-electrode contact) 2-Physiologic J-junctional depression with sinus tachycardia (most likely due to atrial repolarization) 3-Hyperventilation-induced ST segment depression
- 125. Differential Diagnosis ofST Segment Depression 4-Ischemic heart disease Subendocardial ischemia (exercise induced or during angina attack ) ST segment depression is often characterized as "horizontal", "upsloping", or "downsloping" 5-Non Q-wave MI 6- Reciprocal changes in acute Q-wave MI (e.g., ST depression in leads I & aVL with acute inferior MI)
- 126. Differential Diagnosis ofST Segment Depression 7-Nonischemic causes of ST depression #RVH (right precordial leads) or LVH (left precordial leads, I, aVL) # Digoxin effect on ECG # Hypokalemia #Mitral valve prolapse (some cases) #Secondary ST segment changes with IV conduction abnormalities (e.g., RBBB, LBBB, WPW, etc)
- 127. Acute inferoposterior MI (notetall R waves V1-3, marked ST depression V1-3, ST elevation in II, III, aVF)
- 129. The ECG signsof Infarct! • Abnormal Q waves • ST segment elevation (Greater than 1mm in 2 or more adjacent leads) • Inverted T waves
- 130. ST Elevation -Myocardial Infarction • ST elevation in two or more leads – Must be at least 1mm in limb leads – Must be at least 2mm in chest leads
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- 133. Old inferoposterior MI(note tall R in V1-3, upright T waves and inferior Q waves)
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- 137. T wave: tallT waves( more than 2 big squares) • Hyperkalaemia • Hyperacute myocardial infarction • Left bundle branch block (LBBB)
- 138. T waves: small,flattened or inverted • Ischemia • age, race • hyperventilation, anxiety, drinking iced water • LVH • drugs (e.g. digoxin) • pericarditis, PE • intraventricular conduction delay (e.g. RBBB) • electrolyte disturbance
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- 144. QT interval • measuredfrom beginning of QRS to end of T wave • QT Interval (QTc < 0.40 sec) upper limit for QTc = 0.44 sec 1-Bazett's Formula: QTc = (QT)/SqRoot RR (in seconds) 2-Poor Man's Guide to upper limits of QT: For HR = 70 bpm, QT<0.40 sec; for every 10 bpm increase above 70 subtract 0.02 sec, and for every 10 bpm decrease below 70 add 0.02 sec. For example: QT < 0.38 @ 80 bpm QT < 0.42 @ 60 bpm
- 146. QT interval • ProlongedQT : A. Familial long QT Syndrome (LQTS) B. Congestive Heart Failure C. Myocardial Infarction D. Hypocalcemia & Hypokalaemia E. Hypomagnesemia F. Type I Antiarrhythmic drugs & Cispride G. Rheumatic Fever H. Myocarditis I. Congenital Heart Disease • Short QT : A. Digoxin (Digitalis) B. Hypercalcemia C. Hyperkalemia
- 148. The U waveis the only remaining enigma of the ECG, and probably not for long. The origin of the U wave is still in question, although most authorities correlate the U wave with electrophysiologic events called "afterdepolarizations" in the ventricles.. The normal U wave has the same polarity as the T wave and is usually less than one-third the amplitude of the T wave. U waves are usually best seen in the right precordial leads especially V2 and V3. The normal U wave is asymmetric with the ascending limb moving more rapidly than the descending limb (just the opposite of the normal T wave).
- 149. Prominent upright Uwaves 1-Sinus bradycardia accentuates the U wave 2-Hypokalemia (remember the triad of ST segment depression, low amplitude T waves, and prominent U waves) 3- Quinidine and other type 1A antiarrhythmics
- 150. Negative or "inverted"U waves 1- Ischemic heart disease (often indicating left main or LAD disease) Myocardial infarction (in leads with pathologic Q waves) 2-During episode of acute ischemia (angina or exercise-induced ischemia) 3- During coronary artery spasm (Prinzmetal's angina) 4- Nonischemic causes Some cases of LVH or RVH (usually in leads with prominent R waves)
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