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![2 J. E. Torres-Quezada and A. Torres-Avilés
1 An Energy Perspective in the Construction Sector
Climate change- one of the world’s greatest concerns today- brings with it a number
of repercussions that impact the planet and require immediate action [1]. This
phenomenon is defined as the long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns,
and has a direct relationship with the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions,
specifically of carbon dioxide (CO2). One of the factors that increases the emission
of CO2 is energy consumption [2]. The beginning of the increase of CO2 levels on
a global scale is recorded in the early nineteenth century, which coincides with the
industrial revolution. In the twentieth century, CO2 levels in the atmosphere grew
exponentially with the initial acceleration at the beginning of the century concurring
with the discovery of oil, and in the 1960s with the implementation of active air
conditioning systems [3]. The current concentration of carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere is 400-410 ppm, which represents an increase of 48% since the begin-
ning of the industrial era, when levels were around 280 ppm, and also represents an
increase of 11% since 2000, when levels were at 370 ppm [4], see Fig. 1.
Sectors such as industry, transportation, agriculture, construction, residential,
among others, contribute considerably to climate change, through energy consump-
tion, pollution and waste generation [5]. One of the largest consumers of energy is
the residential and construction sector. These sectors account for 25% to 50% of the
total energy used [6, 7]. The construction of buildings has a significant impact on the
environment, as the process of construction requires use of land and raw materials,
and generates a large amount of waste. Construction has become the main user of
non-renewable energy and consequently a significant contributor to GHG emissions.
Sustainable architecture arises as a response to the significant damage caused by
the processes of construction. It proposes passive solutions and the use of environ-
mentally friendly materials to achieve user comfort and reduce energy consumption
and thus CO2 emissions [8].
Fig. 1 Variation in the amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. Source Own elaboration with
data from https://www.co2levels.org/](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/85/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-16-320.jpg)
![The Construction Evolution and Their Energectic Impact in Andean … 3
1.1 Embodied Energy
Besides reducing water consumption and supporting alternative energy generation
systems, the sustainability paradigm of the residential sector mainly focuses on
reducing the life cycle energy (LCE) of all building. The total building LCE has two
perspectives: the energy consumed in the operation stage and the energy consumed
in the construction stage, known as Operational Energy (OE) and Embodied Energy
(EE) [9].
OE refers specifically to the energy consumed in the dwelling in its use and main-
tenance. The energy consumption in this stage is due to heating, cooling, lighting
and the use of everyday appliances [10, 11]. EE refers to the total energy spent to
produce a material, including the energy from the processes of extraction, transporta-
tion, manufacture and other services. All of these processes use energy and generate
waste- the associated burning of fossil fuels is the main cause of CO2 generation
[12, 13].
Most of the strategies worldwide have focused on the OE, principally on reducing
the energy consumption of climatization active systems. With this, the use of insu-
lating materials, double glazed windows, low emissivity glasses, and other innovative
technologies have taken a leading role in building design [14]. Nevertheless, in an
attempt to reduce the OE, the EE of building materials often tends to increase [15–17].
Furthermore, even though the EE may be equal to or greater than the OE consumed
over many years, few strategies or regulations address this issue. Therefore, the scope
of this chapter is the EE spent in the construction materials.
All materials go through a series of processes before obtaining their final form, first
in the extraction of raw materials phase, then in the production, use and maintenance
phases and finally in the abandonment phase. This is the most common process, but
it is important to close these cycles, such that the apparent waste has the capacity
to become a raw material again and thus start again another cycle without a specific
end.
According to several authors, the sum of all direct and indirect energy involved in
the processes of construction, maintenance, renovation, repair, and demolition of a
building is referred to as the life cycle EE (LCEE) of the building [18, 19]. According
to Thomas et al. [20], this energy can be classified into initial embodied energy (IEE),
recurrent embodied energy (REE), and demolition energy (DE). The initial embodied
energy corresponds to the total direct and indirect energy used during the construction
of a building. Direct energy can be defined as the energy used in the processes of raw
material extraction, on/off-site construction, manufacture, and transportation; and
indirect energy is embedded in the building materials and products installed in the
building. By contrast, REE is the energy used in maintenance, repair and renovation
activities of the building. Finally, DE refers to the energy needed to demolish and
dispose of the building [21]. Figure 2 shows different limits of the processes that a
material undergoes throughout its life cycle, from the time it is extracted until it is
discarded or recycled.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/85/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-17-320.jpg)
![4 J. E. Torres-Quezada and A. Torres-Avilés
Fig. 2 Process limits in the life cycle of materials. Source Own elaboration
1.2 Boundary Conditions
The embodied energy values of any material will depend on the different stages
involved. These stages are known as Boundary Conditions, and can be classified
into: Cradle to Gate, Cradle to Site and Cradle to Grave [22–24]. These concepts
are defined as follows:
Cradle-to-Gate: This concept refers to the energy consumed in the extraction and
transportation of raw materials, and their production in the factory.
Cradle-to-site: This boundary condition includes all the energy from Cradle to
Gate, plus the energy consumed by transportation until the material reaches the point
of use or construction site. In materials with high density and high embodied energy,
the difference in values between Cradle to Site and Cradle to Gate is negligible.
Cradle to Grave: This concept refers to the energy consumed from the extraction
of the raw material to the end of the products’ lifetime, which includes production,
transportation, heating and lighting of the factory, maintenance, disposal of materials,
etc.
Gate-to-gate: This boundary condition refers to the energy spent only in manu-
facture and production, and excludes the extraction and transportation. This concept
is not usually used- however, some authors use it for specific materials [25].
1.3 Calculation Methods and Uncertainties
With reference to the calculation of EE values, several studies highlight three
methods: (i) process-based, (ii) input–output (IO) based, and (iii) hybrid approaches
[26, 27].
The first method is a bottom-up approach that collects energy use data from manu-
facturers and from construction sites, which includes all the direct and indirect energy
flows of every upstream process [28, 29]. Since data for all upstream processes are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/85/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-18-320.jpg)
![The Construction Evolution and Their Energectic Impact in Andean … 5
usually not available, this approach excludes certain processes from its calculations-
consequently, the results present a certain degree of uncertainty. This method can
have some uncertainties related to the unavailability of data of the manufacturing
process of materials [30]. The second method, the IO-based approach, applies a top-
down approach, and uses macro-economic flows between various industry sectors in
the form of an IO model. To calculate the EE value, the economic flows are converted
into energy flows with the use of energy tariffs, price of products and energy intensity
spent in the manufacture of the product [21]. This method may also suffer from some
limitations due to the uncertainty of economic and price data. The third method is the
hybrid approach, which improves the reliability and system boundary completeness
of the EE calculations of both previous methods. The hybrid approach can be either
a process-based hybrid or an IO-based hybrid. The main difference between the two
arises due to the EE calculation framework adopted and the type of data used. The
process-based hybrid integrates IO-data into the process- based framework, whereas
the IO-based hybrid inserts process- data into the IO-model data [31].
Thus, all calculation methods face difficulties in obtaining EE values. Neverthe-
less, the three of them provide an accurate approximation in order to describe the
impact of the construction sector on the environment. The process-based method will
be used in the present work.
Furthermore, it is necessary to understand that the values obtained for EE from
different research sources or governmental databases will always present certain
discrepancies, due to the variations that may exist within the processes inherent to
the production of each material. This will depend on the calculation method, the
location, factory, type of fuel used, etc. [23]. One of the most important parame-
ters is the temporal consideration, which can affect the quality of EE calculations
[32]. This is related to the energy intensities of construction sector, manufacturing
improvements, transportation and other sectors, which are constantly changing over
time [33]. Moreover, according to results from other studies [22, 34–36], the influ-
ence of time on the dispersion of EE values is less than that of other factors such as
the origin or content of recycled material. In the case of Ecuador, both the greatest
manufacturing changes and the considerations of sustainability (such as the reno-
vation of equipment or the use of alternative energy sources) have occurred in the
last decade. Nevertheless, there is limited information on these changes to give an
accurate approximation of the EE change [37]. Moreover, EE values are more accu-
rate than the embodied carbon values, because the CO2 emission indexes are usually
estimated based on the types of fuels most commonly used at the place of origin, and
are not specific values.
In addition to this, not all countries have a detailed database of these embodied
energy and embodied carbon values [38, 39]. Such is the case for many South Amer-
ican countries including Ecuador. However, in this chapter, information on these
values has been compiled from other sources and countries, which present produc-
tion, extraction, and recycling level characteristics similar to those of Ecuador. These
values, which are specified in later sections, will be used for the analysis of this study
and may serve for future research.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/85/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-19-320.jpg)
![2 J. E. Torres-Quezada and A. Torres-Avilés
1 An Energy Perspective in the Construction Sector
Climate change- one of the world’s greatest concerns today- brings with it a number
of repercussions that impact the planet and require immediate action [1]. This
phenomenon is defined as the long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns,
and has a direct relationship with the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions,
specifically of carbon dioxide (CO2). One of the factors that increases the emission
of CO2 is energy consumption [2]. The beginning of the increase of CO2 levels on
a global scale is recorded in the early nineteenth century, which coincides with the
industrial revolution. In the twentieth century, CO2 levels in the atmosphere grew
exponentially with the initial acceleration at the beginning of the century concurring
with the discovery of oil, and in the 1960s with the implementation of active air
conditioning systems [3]. The current concentration of carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere is 400-410 ppm, which represents an increase of 48% since the begin-
ning of the industrial era, when levels were around 280 ppm, and also represents an
increase of 11% since 2000, when levels were at 370 ppm [4], see Fig. 1.
Sectors such as industry, transportation, agriculture, construction, residential,
among others, contribute considerably to climate change, through energy consump-
tion, pollution and waste generation [5]. One of the largest consumers of energy is
the residential and construction sector. These sectors account for 25% to 50% of the
total energy used [6, 7]. The construction of buildings has a significant impact on the
environment, as the process of construction requires use of land and raw materials,
and generates a large amount of waste. Construction has become the main user of
non-renewable energy and consequently a significant contributor to GHG emissions.
Sustainable architecture arises as a response to the significant damage caused by
the processes of construction. It proposes passive solutions and the use of environ-
mentally friendly materials to achieve user comfort and reduce energy consumption
and thus CO2 emissions [8].
Fig. 1 Variation in the amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. Source Own elaboration with
data from https://www.co2levels.org/](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/75/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-16-2048.jpg)
![The Construction Evolution and Their Energectic Impact in Andean … 3
1.1 Embodied Energy
Besides reducing water consumption and supporting alternative energy generation
systems, the sustainability paradigm of the residential sector mainly focuses on
reducing the life cycle energy (LCE) of all building. The total building LCE has two
perspectives: the energy consumed in the operation stage and the energy consumed
in the construction stage, known as Operational Energy (OE) and Embodied Energy
(EE) [9].
OE refers specifically to the energy consumed in the dwelling in its use and main-
tenance. The energy consumption in this stage is due to heating, cooling, lighting
and the use of everyday appliances [10, 11]. EE refers to the total energy spent to
produce a material, including the energy from the processes of extraction, transporta-
tion, manufacture and other services. All of these processes use energy and generate
waste- the associated burning of fossil fuels is the main cause of CO2 generation
[12, 13].
Most of the strategies worldwide have focused on the OE, principally on reducing
the energy consumption of climatization active systems. With this, the use of insu-
lating materials, double glazed windows, low emissivity glasses, and other innovative
technologies have taken a leading role in building design [14]. Nevertheless, in an
attempt to reduce the OE, the EE of building materials often tends to increase [15–17].
Furthermore, even though the EE may be equal to or greater than the OE consumed
over many years, few strategies or regulations address this issue. Therefore, the scope
of this chapter is the EE spent in the construction materials.
All materials go through a series of processes before obtaining their final form, first
in the extraction of raw materials phase, then in the production, use and maintenance
phases and finally in the abandonment phase. This is the most common process, but
it is important to close these cycles, such that the apparent waste has the capacity
to become a raw material again and thus start again another cycle without a specific
end.
According to several authors, the sum of all direct and indirect energy involved in
the processes of construction, maintenance, renovation, repair, and demolition of a
building is referred to as the life cycle EE (LCEE) of the building [18, 19]. According
to Thomas et al. [20], this energy can be classified into initial embodied energy (IEE),
recurrent embodied energy (REE), and demolition energy (DE). The initial embodied
energy corresponds to the total direct and indirect energy used during the construction
of a building. Direct energy can be defined as the energy used in the processes of raw
material extraction, on/off-site construction, manufacture, and transportation; and
indirect energy is embedded in the building materials and products installed in the
building. By contrast, REE is the energy used in maintenance, repair and renovation
activities of the building. Finally, DE refers to the energy needed to demolish and
dispose of the building [21]. Figure 2 shows different limits of the processes that a
material undergoes throughout its life cycle, from the time it is extracted until it is
discarded or recycled.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/75/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-17-2048.jpg)
![4 J. E. Torres-Quezada and A. Torres-Avilés
Fig. 2 Process limits in the life cycle of materials. Source Own elaboration
1.2 Boundary Conditions
The embodied energy values of any material will depend on the different stages
involved. These stages are known as Boundary Conditions, and can be classified
into: Cradle to Gate, Cradle to Site and Cradle to Grave [22–24]. These concepts
are defined as follows:
Cradle-to-Gate: This concept refers to the energy consumed in the extraction and
transportation of raw materials, and their production in the factory.
Cradle-to-site: This boundary condition includes all the energy from Cradle to
Gate, plus the energy consumed by transportation until the material reaches the point
of use or construction site. In materials with high density and high embodied energy,
the difference in values between Cradle to Site and Cradle to Gate is negligible.
Cradle to Grave: This concept refers to the energy consumed from the extraction
of the raw material to the end of the products’ lifetime, which includes production,
transportation, heating and lighting of the factory, maintenance, disposal of materials,
etc.
Gate-to-gate: This boundary condition refers to the energy spent only in manu-
facture and production, and excludes the extraction and transportation. This concept
is not usually used- however, some authors use it for specific materials [25].
1.3 Calculation Methods and Uncertainties
With reference to the calculation of EE values, several studies highlight three
methods: (i) process-based, (ii) input–output (IO) based, and (iii) hybrid approaches
[26, 27].
The first method is a bottom-up approach that collects energy use data from manu-
facturers and from construction sites, which includes all the direct and indirect energy
flows of every upstream process [28, 29]. Since data for all upstream processes are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/75/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-18-2048.jpg)
![The Construction Evolution and Their Energectic Impact in Andean … 5
usually not available, this approach excludes certain processes from its calculations-
consequently, the results present a certain degree of uncertainty. This method can
have some uncertainties related to the unavailability of data of the manufacturing
process of materials [30]. The second method, the IO-based approach, applies a top-
down approach, and uses macro-economic flows between various industry sectors in
the form of an IO model. To calculate the EE value, the economic flows are converted
into energy flows with the use of energy tariffs, price of products and energy intensity
spent in the manufacture of the product [21]. This method may also suffer from some
limitations due to the uncertainty of economic and price data. The third method is the
hybrid approach, which improves the reliability and system boundary completeness
of the EE calculations of both previous methods. The hybrid approach can be either
a process-based hybrid or an IO-based hybrid. The main difference between the two
arises due to the EE calculation framework adopted and the type of data used. The
process-based hybrid integrates IO-data into the process- based framework, whereas
the IO-based hybrid inserts process- data into the IO-model data [31].
Thus, all calculation methods face difficulties in obtaining EE values. Neverthe-
less, the three of them provide an accurate approximation in order to describe the
impact of the construction sector on the environment. The process-based method will
be used in the present work.
Furthermore, it is necessary to understand that the values obtained for EE from
different research sources or governmental databases will always present certain
discrepancies, due to the variations that may exist within the processes inherent to
the production of each material. This will depend on the calculation method, the
location, factory, type of fuel used, etc. [23]. One of the most important parame-
ters is the temporal consideration, which can affect the quality of EE calculations
[32]. This is related to the energy intensities of construction sector, manufacturing
improvements, transportation and other sectors, which are constantly changing over
time [33]. Moreover, according to results from other studies [22, 34–36], the influ-
ence of time on the dispersion of EE values is less than that of other factors such as
the origin or content of recycled material. In the case of Ecuador, both the greatest
manufacturing changes and the considerations of sustainability (such as the reno-
vation of equipment or the use of alternative energy sources) have occurred in the
last decade. Nevertheless, there is limited information on these changes to give an
accurate approximation of the EE change [37]. Moreover, EE values are more accu-
rate than the embodied carbon values, because the CO2 emission indexes are usually
estimated based on the types of fuels most commonly used at the place of origin, and
are not specific values.
In addition to this, not all countries have a detailed database of these embodied
energy and embodied carbon values [38, 39]. Such is the case for many South Amer-
ican countries including Ecuador. However, in this chapter, information on these
values has been compiled from other sources and countries, which present produc-
tion, extraction, and recycling level characteristics similar to those of Ecuador. These
values, which are specified in later sections, will be used for the analysis of this study
and may serve for future research.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24556498-250517095529-4a1bcfec/75/Energetic-Characterization-Of-Building-Evolution-Jefferson-Eloy-Torresquezada-19-2048.jpg)
Energetic Characterization Of Building Evolution Jefferson Eloy Torresquezada
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- 5. Green Energy andTechnology JeffersonEloy Torres-Quezada Editor Energetic Characterization of Building Evolution A Multi-perspective Evaluation in the Andean Region of Ecuador
- 6. Green Energy andTechnology
- 7. Climate change, environmentalimpact and the limited natural resources urge scientific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green Energy and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and technological approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustainable—technolo- gies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers “green” solu- tions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy and Tech- nology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as well as decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation spans from instructional to highly technical. **Indexed in Scopus**. **Indexed in Ei Compendex**.
- 8. Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada Editor EnergeticCharacterization of Building Evolution A Multi-perspective Evaluation in the Andean Region of Ecuador
- 9. Editor Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada UniversidadCatólica de Cuenca Cuenca, Ecuador ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic) Green Energy and Technology ISBN 978-3-031-21597-1 ISBN 978-3-031-21598-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21598-8 The translation was done with the help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
- 10. Foreword The world isfacing a global warming crisis, euphemistically referred to as climate change. This extremely serious situation for the perpetuation of life on earth as we know it today is largely due to the problems created by the fossil fuel-based economic and energy model, which originated with the industrial revolution and intensified at the beginning of the twentieth century. The implications of this model affect how we travel, produce things, air-condition our living spaces, and construct our buildings. The latter part is the one that has the largest hidden and discreet burden of energy consumption on the impact on the environment. Buildings represented 28% of global CO2 emissions in 2016. This percentage is related to direct emissions, and the energy consumption of buildings. Nonetheless, an extra 11% was produced by indirect emissions, namely, those related to the construction processes and materials used.1 Energy-saving issues have been extensively developed from the architectural point of view, by implementing standards that require the establishment of minimum insu- lation parameters for envelopes and maximum consumption of facilities. Neverthe- less, the ecological footprint of the materials we use to crystallize projects is not, for now, a priority issue. We must bear in mind that the life cycle of a material has an environmental impact in the extraction of the raw material, in its transfor- mation, transport, application, and ultimately, in the waste management that it will entail when the building reaches the end of its days. Thus, both the material and the construction system are an issue of tremendous relevance when it comes to a comprehensive analysis of the sustainability of a building. As of the industrial era and—later on—the dependence on oil, the concept of construction has clearly changed worldwide. This has led to changes in construc- tion systems, new materials, and technologies aimed at reducing construction times and improving the developer’s profitability indexes. Furthermore, after the Brunt- land report in 1987, building and habitability require new construction conditions to reducethermaldiscomfortininteriorspaces.Onceagain,thishasresultedintheinclu- sion of new, much more industrialized materials which, although they require more 1 “Global Status Report 2017”, developed by UN Environment. v
- 11. vi Foreword energy fortheir production, seek to reduce the energy demand for air-conditioning. Therefore, the trend in the change of materials in recent decades has been to reduce the energy demand of buildings at the expense of increasing the energy spent in the construction systems employed. These new materials with an energetic and industrialized approach have initially emerged in high latitudes such as Europe or North America, and applied, of course, to their own economic, environmental, and mainly climatic context. However, other countries have imported and adopted these construction typologies without consid- ering the local context of each country, which may result in an energy expenditure on materials while not contributing to the reduction of the demand for air-conditioning. This book aims to shed some light on the subject of materiality and its relationship with sustainability, focusing its discourse on Ecuador, mainly in the Andean region of this country. Based on this concept, a multipurpose discussion has been raised about the constructive changes that buildings in this region have undergone. The Energy Characterization of the Evolution of Buildings. A Multi-perspective Evaluation in the Andean Region of Ecuador, as we have named this work, gathers the implications of the change of materials in Ecuador and this region in the last decades, through an energetic-thermal look, and at the same time highlights the cause-effect phenomenon intheeconomicfield,aswellasthetechnical-sustainablelearningthatcanbeacquired from the constructive genuineness of past architectural structures. Ultimately, this paper ambitions to characterize the constructive evolution of the building in this region, from an experimental-scientific approach and, at the same time, to establish more conceptual-theoretical viewpoints. From the experimental point of view, the findings on the quality of the construction systems used in Ecuador show surprising results: we build in a more expensive, less sustainable, and less comfortable manner than it was done 100 years ago. In Andean architecture today, fashion, the reproduction of foreign models, or the pressures of international lobbies for construction materials predominate. Conceptually speaking, a reflection on the fourth, fifth, and sixth dimensions of materials is proposed, regarding them as atmosphere generators, memory containers, and opportunities to establish transcendental connections with culture and the envi- ronment. The retrospective look at vernacular architecture reveals constructive dynamics with an intrinsic attachment to sustainability and is separated by an abyss from current constructions. This book is meant to be a stimulus for the seasoned and sensitive reader who devours it, leading him or her to irremediably reassess what I build and how I do it, from a material as well as a morphological perspective. We hope from the editorial team that it will be a starting point for responsible and sustainable reflection on the materiality of the things around us, both for students, architects, engineers, and builders, as well as for public and private entities and the general public.
- 12. Foreword vii Theprocessestomakeabetterworldaresmallandmayseemtrivial,butmountains and desertsare crossed one step at a time. We firmly believe that a grain of sand is the foundation for immeasurable change. Sevilla, España Cuenca, Ecuador Guillermo Casado-López Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada
- 13. Contents The Construction Evolutionand Their Energectic Impact in Andean Region Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada and Ana Torres-Avilés The Constructive Evolution of the Envelope. The Impact on Indoor Thermal Conditions in Andean Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada and Ana Torres-Avilés Construction Development, Economic Evolution, and Environmental Impact in Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada, Tatiana Sánchez-Quezada, and Gilda Vélez-Romero Constructive Sincerity and Bioclimatic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Guillermo Casado López Materials from a Heritage Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 María del Cisne Aguirre Ullauri and Edison Maximiliano Castillo Carchipulla ix
- 14. About the Editor JeffersonEloy Torres-Quezada has a doctorate in architecture and graduated from the Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), obtaining the Cum Laude mention and the international doctorate. He has collaborated as Assistant Professor of the Official MBArch Master Program of the UPC, and as a researcher of the AiEM group since 2015 in Barcelona. He is currently a teacher-researcher at the Catholic University of Cuenca. He registers several scientific articles (Q1–Q4) and partici- pation in different international congresses as an exhibitor. He is the winner of the Extraordinary Prize of DOCTORAL THESIS of the UPC in 2019, and Principal Investigator of the Catholic University of Cuenca. In addition, he has made an inter- national stay at Keio University in Tokyo-Japan, where he was part of the research laboratory of the School of Science and Technology. His research has focused on the energy efficiency of buildings, and sustainable urban and architectural design. As an architect he has participated in different projects of a public and private nature, acquiring experience both in the field of design and construction since 2010. xi
- 15. The Construction Evolutionand Their Energectic Impact in Andean Region Buildings Jefferson Eloy Torres-Quezada and Ana Torres-Avilés Abstract The constant growth of the building sector has had a deleterious environ- mental impact across the world. Technological advances, the use of new materials and the replacement of traditional construction systems with industrialized ones have resulted in significant growth in the Total Embodied Energy of buildings in Latin American countries. In the last few decades, Ecuador and its four geographic regions too have experienced this change. In this context, this study focuses on analyzing the change in construction systems in the Andean region of Ecuador from 1980 to 2020, and studying the impact that this change has had on the Total Embodied Energy of residential buildings. The first part of this study provides a detailed conceptual framework of the subject of this study, and discusses the importance of energy, and its production and consumption, in Ecuador in the last decades. The second part anal- yses the changes in construction systems that this region has witnessed according to national censuses. This information is contrasted in the results section where 40 houses built in the period of analysis in the city of Cuenca-Ecuador are analysed. The growth of embodied energy in dwellings in this region in recent decades has been 2.15 times. Within this increase, the most significant component has been the Structure, followed by the Envelope and the Finishes. Finally, the results show that the changes in materials used have had consequences not only at the environmental level, but also for the thermal mass of the Envelope, which can affect the interior behavior of the building. Keywords Embodied energy · Construction evolution · Structure-envelope-finishes J. E. Torres-Quezada (B) · A. Torres-Avilés Catholic University of Cuenca, General Torres & Américas, 010102 Cuenca, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. E. Torres-Quezada (ed.), Energetic Characterization of Building Evolution, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21598-8_1 1
- 16. 2 J. E.Torres-Quezada and A. Torres-Avilés 1 An Energy Perspective in the Construction Sector Climate change- one of the world’s greatest concerns today- brings with it a number of repercussions that impact the planet and require immediate action [1]. This phenomenon is defined as the long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns, and has a direct relationship with the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, specifically of carbon dioxide (CO2). One of the factors that increases the emission of CO2 is energy consumption [2]. The beginning of the increase of CO2 levels on a global scale is recorded in the early nineteenth century, which coincides with the industrial revolution. In the twentieth century, CO2 levels in the atmosphere grew exponentially with the initial acceleration at the beginning of the century concurring with the discovery of oil, and in the 1960s with the implementation of active air conditioning systems [3]. The current concentration of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere is 400-410 ppm, which represents an increase of 48% since the begin- ning of the industrial era, when levels were around 280 ppm, and also represents an increase of 11% since 2000, when levels were at 370 ppm [4], see Fig. 1. Sectors such as industry, transportation, agriculture, construction, residential, among others, contribute considerably to climate change, through energy consump- tion, pollution and waste generation [5]. One of the largest consumers of energy is the residential and construction sector. These sectors account for 25% to 50% of the total energy used [6, 7]. The construction of buildings has a significant impact on the environment, as the process of construction requires use of land and raw materials, and generates a large amount of waste. Construction has become the main user of non-renewable energy and consequently a significant contributor to GHG emissions. Sustainable architecture arises as a response to the significant damage caused by the processes of construction. It proposes passive solutions and the use of environ- mentally friendly materials to achieve user comfort and reduce energy consumption and thus CO2 emissions [8]. Fig. 1 Variation in the amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. Source Own elaboration with data from https://www.co2levels.org/
- 17. The Construction Evolutionand Their Energectic Impact in Andean … 3 1.1 Embodied Energy Besides reducing water consumption and supporting alternative energy generation systems, the sustainability paradigm of the residential sector mainly focuses on reducing the life cycle energy (LCE) of all building. The total building LCE has two perspectives: the energy consumed in the operation stage and the energy consumed in the construction stage, known as Operational Energy (OE) and Embodied Energy (EE) [9]. OE refers specifically to the energy consumed in the dwelling in its use and main- tenance. The energy consumption in this stage is due to heating, cooling, lighting and the use of everyday appliances [10, 11]. EE refers to the total energy spent to produce a material, including the energy from the processes of extraction, transporta- tion, manufacture and other services. All of these processes use energy and generate waste- the associated burning of fossil fuels is the main cause of CO2 generation [12, 13]. Most of the strategies worldwide have focused on the OE, principally on reducing the energy consumption of climatization active systems. With this, the use of insu- lating materials, double glazed windows, low emissivity glasses, and other innovative technologies have taken a leading role in building design [14]. Nevertheless, in an attempt to reduce the OE, the EE of building materials often tends to increase [15–17]. Furthermore, even though the EE may be equal to or greater than the OE consumed over many years, few strategies or regulations address this issue. Therefore, the scope of this chapter is the EE spent in the construction materials. All materials go through a series of processes before obtaining their final form, first in the extraction of raw materials phase, then in the production, use and maintenance phases and finally in the abandonment phase. This is the most common process, but it is important to close these cycles, such that the apparent waste has the capacity to become a raw material again and thus start again another cycle without a specific end. According to several authors, the sum of all direct and indirect energy involved in the processes of construction, maintenance, renovation, repair, and demolition of a building is referred to as the life cycle EE (LCEE) of the building [18, 19]. According to Thomas et al. [20], this energy can be classified into initial embodied energy (IEE), recurrent embodied energy (REE), and demolition energy (DE). The initial embodied energy corresponds to the total direct and indirect energy used during the construction of a building. Direct energy can be defined as the energy used in the processes of raw material extraction, on/off-site construction, manufacture, and transportation; and indirect energy is embedded in the building materials and products installed in the building. By contrast, REE is the energy used in maintenance, repair and renovation activities of the building. Finally, DE refers to the energy needed to demolish and dispose of the building [21]. Figure 2 shows different limits of the processes that a material undergoes throughout its life cycle, from the time it is extracted until it is discarded or recycled.
- 18. 4 J. E.Torres-Quezada and A. Torres-Avilés Fig. 2 Process limits in the life cycle of materials. Source Own elaboration 1.2 Boundary Conditions The embodied energy values of any material will depend on the different stages involved. These stages are known as Boundary Conditions, and can be classified into: Cradle to Gate, Cradle to Site and Cradle to Grave [22–24]. These concepts are defined as follows: Cradle-to-Gate: This concept refers to the energy consumed in the extraction and transportation of raw materials, and their production in the factory. Cradle-to-site: This boundary condition includes all the energy from Cradle to Gate, plus the energy consumed by transportation until the material reaches the point of use or construction site. In materials with high density and high embodied energy, the difference in values between Cradle to Site and Cradle to Gate is negligible. Cradle to Grave: This concept refers to the energy consumed from the extraction of the raw material to the end of the products’ lifetime, which includes production, transportation, heating and lighting of the factory, maintenance, disposal of materials, etc. Gate-to-gate: This boundary condition refers to the energy spent only in manu- facture and production, and excludes the extraction and transportation. This concept is not usually used- however, some authors use it for specific materials [25]. 1.3 Calculation Methods and Uncertainties With reference to the calculation of EE values, several studies highlight three methods: (i) process-based, (ii) input–output (IO) based, and (iii) hybrid approaches [26, 27]. The first method is a bottom-up approach that collects energy use data from manu- facturers and from construction sites, which includes all the direct and indirect energy flows of every upstream process [28, 29]. Since data for all upstream processes are
- 19. The Construction Evolutionand Their Energectic Impact in Andean … 5 usually not available, this approach excludes certain processes from its calculations- consequently, the results present a certain degree of uncertainty. This method can have some uncertainties related to the unavailability of data of the manufacturing process of materials [30]. The second method, the IO-based approach, applies a top- down approach, and uses macro-economic flows between various industry sectors in the form of an IO model. To calculate the EE value, the economic flows are converted into energy flows with the use of energy tariffs, price of products and energy intensity spent in the manufacture of the product [21]. This method may also suffer from some limitations due to the uncertainty of economic and price data. The third method is the hybrid approach, which improves the reliability and system boundary completeness of the EE calculations of both previous methods. The hybrid approach can be either a process-based hybrid or an IO-based hybrid. The main difference between the two arises due to the EE calculation framework adopted and the type of data used. The process-based hybrid integrates IO-data into the process- based framework, whereas the IO-based hybrid inserts process- data into the IO-model data [31]. Thus, all calculation methods face difficulties in obtaining EE values. Neverthe- less, the three of them provide an accurate approximation in order to describe the impact of the construction sector on the environment. The process-based method will be used in the present work. Furthermore, it is necessary to understand that the values obtained for EE from different research sources or governmental databases will always present certain discrepancies, due to the variations that may exist within the processes inherent to the production of each material. This will depend on the calculation method, the location, factory, type of fuel used, etc. [23]. One of the most important parame- ters is the temporal consideration, which can affect the quality of EE calculations [32]. This is related to the energy intensities of construction sector, manufacturing improvements, transportation and other sectors, which are constantly changing over time [33]. Moreover, according to results from other studies [22, 34–36], the influ- ence of time on the dispersion of EE values is less than that of other factors such as the origin or content of recycled material. In the case of Ecuador, both the greatest manufacturing changes and the considerations of sustainability (such as the reno- vation of equipment or the use of alternative energy sources) have occurred in the last decade. Nevertheless, there is limited information on these changes to give an accurate approximation of the EE change [37]. Moreover, EE values are more accu- rate than the embodied carbon values, because the CO2 emission indexes are usually estimated based on the types of fuels most commonly used at the place of origin, and are not specific values. In addition to this, not all countries have a detailed database of these embodied energy and embodied carbon values [38, 39]. Such is the case for many South Amer- ican countries including Ecuador. However, in this chapter, information on these values has been compiled from other sources and countries, which present produc- tion, extraction, and recycling level characteristics similar to those of Ecuador. These values, which are specified in later sections, will be used for the analysis of this study and may serve for future research.
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- 21. 1871; “Cos ’èla Fisiologia,” Florence, 1877; “Lezione sulla digestione,” Florence, 1877; “Il Moto psichico e la Coscienza,” Florence, 1877; and in French a volume of “Récits et Nouvelles.” Hifberg (Dr.), Christiania University. His, Wilhelm. B. at Bâle, 1831; studied med. at Bâle and Berlin, under J. Müller; Prof. Anat. and Physiol. Bâle, 1857; Prof. Physiol. Leipsig, 1872. Author of “Crania Helvetica,” Bâle, 1864; “Ueber die erste Anlage des Wirbelthierliebs,” Leipsig, 1868; “Unser Körperform und das phys. Problem ihrer Einstehung,” Leipzig, 1875. Contrib. to “Archiv. für Anthropologie” and “Archiv. f. Anatomie;” “Ueber die Anfänge des peripherischem Nervensystems” Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol., 1879, p. 456; “Abbildungen ueber das Gefässsystem der menschlischen Netzhaut und derjenigen des Kaninchens,” Ibid., Vol. f., 1880, p. 224; “Die Lehre vom Bindesubstanzkeim,” Ibid., 1882, p. 62. Hitzig, Eduard. B. Berlin, 1838. Studied Berlin and Wurzburg. M.D., Berlin, 1862. Private Instructor in Internal Medicine Univ. Berlin, 1872. Prof. Mental Diseases, Zurich, and Director of the Lunatic Asylum of the Canton, 1875. Prof. of Pathology and Therapeutics of the brain, Med. Fac., Halle University. Author of “Krankheiten des Nervensystems,” in “Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie in Therapie;” “Untersuchungen ueber das Gehirn,” Berlin, 1874; “Ziele und Zwecke der Psychiatrie,” Zurich, 1876. “Experiments on the extirpation of the cerebrum, furnished the material of a work in which Goltz imagines he has refuted the opinions expressed by me on the functions of this organ. I had already made jointly with Herr Fritsch a small number of analogous
- 22. experiments, concerning theportion named by me, gyrus E; but later I carried out the experiments in a systematic manner on the whole convexity of the cerebrum. In the last series some observations are published in which I thought to have given the last and most uncontestable proof of the localisation of the brain.”—“Untersuchungen ueber das Gehirn,” neue Folger, Reichert und Du Bois Reymond’s Archiv., 1876, p. 692. Holmgrén, F. Prof. Physiol., Upsala University. Contrib. “Ueber die wirkliche Natur der positiven Stromschwankungen bei der einzelnen Muskelzuckung” to Du Bois Reymond’s Archives for 1871; “Ueber den Augenabstand der Farbenblinden,” Arch. f. Ophthalmol., Vol. XXV., p. 135; “Ueber die Retinaströme,” Untersuch. a. d. Physiol. Inst. 3d. Heidelberg, 1880. “There is a poison (curare) which lames every spontaneous movement, leaving all other functions untouched. This venom is therefore the most cruel of all poisons. It changes us instantly into a living corpse, which hears and sees and knows everything, but is unable to move a single muscle, and under its influence no creature can give the faintest indication of its hopeless condition. The heart alone continues to beat.”—Holmgrén, Physiology of present Times. Future, 1868, p. 231. Hoppe-Seyler, F. Prof. of Physiol. Med. Fac. Strasburg Univ.; Director of Physiol. Chem. Lab. Author of “Med. Chem. Untersuchungen,” Tübingen, 1871; “Physiologische Chemie,” Berlin, 1879; “Ueber die Ursache der Athembewegungen,” Centralb. f. d. Med. Weis., No. 51; “Ueber das Methämoglobin,” Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chemic, 1882. Hoppe, I. Prof. extraord. Clin. Med., Med. Fac. Bâle University.
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- 25. and Roy. Sch.of Mines; late Exam. in Phys. and Comp. Anat. Univ. Lond.; F.R.C.S. 1883. Held a License for Vivisection (no place named) in 1882. Certificate for experiments without Anæsthetics, 1882. Author of “The Oceanic Hydrozoa,” 1857; “Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature,” 1863; “Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy,” 1864; “Elementary Lessons in Physiology,” 1866-67; “An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,” 1869; “Lay Sermons,” 1870; “Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,” 1871; “Critiques and Addresses,” 1873; “Elementary Biology,” 1875; “Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals,” 1877; “American Addresses,” 1877; “Physiography,” 1878; “The Crayfish: An Introduction to the Study of Zoology,” 1880; “Science and Culture,” 1881; numerous Memoirs in Trans. Roy., Linn., Zool., and Geol. Socs., etc. “The following ‘Lessons in Elementary Physiology’ are primarily intended to serve the purpose of a text book for teachers and learners in boys’ and girls’ schools.”—“Lessons in Elementary Physiology,” London, 1866, Preface, p. 1. “If the vessels of a limb of a living animal be tied in such a manner as to cut off the supply of blood from the limb, without affecting it in any other way, all the symptoms of death will set in. The limb will grow pale and cold, it will lose its sensibility and volition, the animal will no longer have power over it; it will stiffen, and eventually mortify and decompose.”—Ibid., p. 74. “If in a living animal, the anterior roots of a spinal nerve be cut, the animal loses all control over the muscles to which that nerve is distributed, though the sensibility of the region of the skin supplied by the nerve is perfect.… On the other hand, if the end of the sensory root connected with the trunk be irritated, no apparent effect is produced, while, if the end connected with the cord be thus served, violent pain immediately follows.”—Ibid., p. 268.
- 26. Israel, James. M.D.;Chief Phys., Jewish Hosp., Berlin. “On the 26th of March this year (1883), I inserted a small portion of infected tissue out of the peripleural abscess of a patient suffering from primary aktinomykosis of the lungs through an incision into the abdomen. The rabbit showed no symptoms of illness during life; the patient died.… The rabbit was killed June 12th, 1883. In the abdomen were found a number of swellings from the size of a cherry to that of a grain of hemp seed.… This gives the first proof of the possibility of transmitting aktinomykosis from man to animals.… Evidently the rabbit is not a very favourable subject for the development of this disease.”—Centralblatt für die Med. Wiss., No. 27, July 7th, 1883, p. 481-82. Jacobson, H. Prof. Med. Fac. Berlin Univ. Lect. Dis. of Heart and Exp. Path., 1883. Jäger, S. de. Prof. Vet. Coll., Utrecht; formerly Asst. Physiol. Inst., Leyden. Author of “Over de bloedsbeweging in de Longen,” Leiden, 1879; “Die Lungen circulation und der arterielle Blutdruck,” Pflüger’s Archiv, Vol. XXVII., p. 163, &c. James, Alexander, 11, Albyn Place, Edinburgh. M.D. Edin. 1876; M.B. and C.M., 1872; F.R.C.P. Edin., 1877; (Univ. Edin.) Mem. (late Pres.) Roy. Med. Soc. Edin.; Mem. Med. Chir. Soc. Edin.; Lect. on Insts. of Med. and Clin. Med.; Edin. Sch. of Med.; late Med. Off. New Town Disp., House Surgeon Liverp. Infirm. for Childr., Res. Phys. Clin. Wards and Res. Surg. Roy. Infirm. Edin. Held a License for Vivisection at Surgical Hall, Edinburgh, Dr. James’ Room in 1879 and 1880. Certificates for Illustrations of Lectures 1879 and 1880.
- 27. Jankowski, K. W.,Moscow, M.D. Author of “Ueber die Bedeutung der Gefässnerven für die Entstehung des Oedems.”—Virchow’s Archiv., Vol. 93, Part II., Aug., 1883. “Experiment I., July 24, 1882. Morphium injected into the vein in the front paw of a large dog. Complete narcosis followed immediately. Both hind feet were bound tightly together with an india-rubber band and immersed in water warmed to 70 degrees. The feet were held under the water about two minutes till the hair could be easily pulled out of the skin; then they were taken out of the water and untied. After this, the Nervus ischiadicus on the right side was cut through. About half-an-hour afterwards both feet showed signs of inflammation. They began to swell rapidly, and pustules filled with transparent matter appeared between the toes. On both sides the lymph vessels were now dissected out, and armed with cannulæ. To excite the flow of lymph the legs were pumped up and down every ten minutes for about five minutes at a time.… Two hours after this experiment the dog died, probably from the excessive dose of morphium injected.”—“Ueber die Beudetung der Gefässnerven für die Entstehung des Oedems,” Virchow’s Archiv, Vol. XCIII., p. 269. Nineteen similar experiments on dogs were made in the Pathological Institute at Leipzig. Jennings, Chas. Egerton, London Hospital, E.; and Abbey House, Malmesbury, Wilts. L.R.C.P., London, 1881; M.R.C.S. Eng. and L.S.A., 1881 (Lond. Hosp.); Obst. Schol. 1880; Fell. Obst. Soc.; Mem. Brit. Med. Assoc.; Res. Acc. (formerly House Phys.), Lond. Hospital; late Clin. Asst. Roy. Lond. Ophth. Hosp. Author of “Transfusion; its History, Indications, and Modes of Application.” Contrib. “Treatment of Hydrophobia by Curara,” “Lancet,” 1881; “The Intravenous Injection of Fluid for Severe
- 28. Hæmorrhage,” Ibid., 1882;“The Morbid Anatomy and Pathology of Hydrophobia,” Ibid., 1882. Held a License for Vivisection, and performed experiments at the Museum, Theatre, and Lecture Rooms of Guy’s Hospital, up to 2nd December; also, at Physiological Laboratory and Museum of the University of the Durham College of Medicine, 1883. Certificate dispensing with the obligation to kill, same year. Experiments on transfusion.—Lancet, Vol. II., 1884, pp. 364-6. Jolyet, F. Prof. Med. Fac. Bordeaux, Exper. Med. 1877. Author of “Nouvelles recherches sur le nerf pneumogastrique, démontrant que les filets originaires de ce nerf, avant tout anastomoses, possèdent, chez le chien une fonction motrice propre sur l’œsophage et sur l’estomac.”—Gaz. Med. de Paris, 1879, No. 6, p. 72. Kaess, C. M.D. Prosector, Giessen. Articles in Eckhard’s Beiträge, X., 1883. Experiments on dogs. Kahler, O. Prof. extraor. Univ. Prague; Lect. Dis. of Spine. Author of “Weitere Beiträge zur Pathologie und pathologischen Anatomie des Central nervensystems” (jointly with Pick) Arch. f. Psychiat., Vol. X., p. 179, 1879; “Ueber die Noë’sche Thermosäule,” Prag. Med. Wochenschr. 1882, No. 47. Injected wax into the spinal column of dogs to study the effects of pressure on the spine.—Zeitschrift f. Heilkunde (Prague and Leipsig), Vol. III., 1882, p. 187.
- 29. Kelsch (Prof.) Prof.Path. Anat. Lille Med. Faculty. Kinberg, J. G. H., Stockholm. Prof. Med. and Chir. Inst. Klebs, Edwin. B. 1834, Königsberg. Studied univs. Königsberg, Wurzberg, Jena, and Berlin; Asst. Physiol. Lab. Königsberg; assistant to Virchow, 1861; Prof. Path. Anat., Berne, 1866; Prof. at Wurzburg, 1871; Prof. at Prague, 1873; Lect. on Path. Anat., Path. Histology and Path. Chemistry Med. Fac. Univ. Zurich, 1883. Author of “Ueber die Aufgaben und die Bedeutung der experimentellen Pathologie” (Inaugural Discourse Univ. Zurich), Leipsig, 1882; “Ueber Symbiose Ungleichartiger Organismen,” Biol. Centrabl., Vol. II., Nos. 10, 11, 13. Klein, Emanuel, M.D., F.R.S. Assist. Prof. Lab. Brown Instit., Wandsworth Road; Lect. Histol. at Med. Sch. St. Bartholomew’s Hosp.; formerly Prof. Histology Univ. of Vienna. Author of first section of “Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory;” “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Structur des Zellkernes und der Lebererscheinungen der Drüsenzellen” in Centralb. f. d. Med. Wiss. No. 17 (1879), p. 289; “Observations on the Glandular Epithelium and Division of Nuclei in the skin of the newt,” Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., No. LXXV. (1879), pp. 261-404; “On the termination of the nerves in the mammalian cornea,” Ibid., Oct., 1880, p. 459; “The organ of Jacobson in the dog,” Ibid., July, 1882, p. 299; “The Anatomy of the Lymphatic System,” 1883, London; “Atlas of Histology” (jointly with Dr. Noble Smith), London, 1879. (Chairman) (3,538): What is your own practice with regard to the use of anæsthetics in experiments that are otherwise painful? (Dr. Klein): Except for teaching purposes, for demonstration, I never use
- 30. anæsthetics where itis not necessary for convenience. If I demonstrate, I use anæsthetics. If I do experiments for my inquiries in pathological research, except for convenience sake, as for instance on dogs and cats, I do not use them. On frogs and the lower animals I never use them. (3,539). When you say that you only use them for convenience sake, do you mean that you have no regard at all to the sufferings of the animals?—No regard at all. (3,540.) You are prepared to establish that as a principle which you approve?—I think that with regard to an experimenter, a man who conducts special research, and performs an experiment, he has no time, so to speak, for thinking what will the animal feel or suffer. His only purpose is to perform the experiment, to learn as much from it as possible, and to do it as quickly as possible. (3,541.) Then for your own purposes you disregard entirely the question of the suffering of the animal in performing a painful experiment.—I do. (3,542.) Why do you regard it then when it is for a demonstration?— Because I know that there is a great deal of feeling against it in this country, and when it is not necessary, one should not perhaps act against the opinion or the belief of certain individuals of the auditorium. One must take regard of the feelings and opinions of those people before whom one does the experiment. (3,543.) Then am I wrong in attributing to you that you separate yourself entirely from the feeling which you observe to prevail in this country in regard to humanity to animals?—I separate myself as an investigator from myself as a teacher. (3,544.) But in regard to your proceedings as an investigator, you are prepared to acknowledge that you hold as entirely indifferent the sufferings of the animal which is subjected to your investigation?—Yes. (3,546.) Do you believe that that is a general practice on the Continent, to disregard altogether the feelings of the animals?—I believe so. (3,547.) But you believe that, generally speaking, there is a very different feeling in England?—Not among the physiologists; I do not think there is. (3553.)—Min. of Ev. R. Com., London, 1876. Köbner, Heinrich. Prof. in Berlin.
- 31. Author of “Uebertragungsversuchevon Lepra auf Thiere.” Experiments to give leprosy to animals.—Virchow’s Archiv., 88 vol., p. 282. “One monkey, two guinea-pigs, two young white rats, one white mouse, two rabbits, one pigeon, three eels, one mud-fish, and one frog were inoculated in several parts of the body with leprous matter, and also small portions of tissue impregnated with bacilli were engrafted. Leprosy did not break out in any of the animals.”— Note by O. Israel, Centralbl. f. Wiss. Med. No. 5, 1883, p. 79. Koch, Heinrich Hermann Robert. M.D. Geheimrath. Direct. of the Pathol. Instit. of Sanit. Med. Berlin. “You saw the dog which was injected with a minimum quantity of tubercle bacilli. The injection was made in the abdominal cavity, and produced an exquisite tubercular peritonitis. Nevertheless, the dog finally recovered entirely, and seemed perfectly well. Then the same dog was used again, and a large number of bacilli were introduced into the abdominal cavity. You will see that the dog is fatally ill. Now, if one attack conferred immunity, it ought to have been impossible to produce this second attack. Hence I do not think it possible to prevent the disease in that way, nor do I think it necessary to try it.”—“Dr. Robert Koch interviewed,” Med. Times, Aug. 26th, 1882, p. 255. “The result of Koch’s inoculation experiments he (Dr. Formad) discredited, because the successful ones had been made only on animals that have a very strong predisposition to tuberculosis, and contract it from inoculation of non-specific substances, while others, which were claimed to be successful, he regarded as cases of pseudotuberculosis. The view in regard to the bacilli tuberculosis to which Dr. Formad inclined, was that they do not cause the disease, while it is likely that they do ‘condition the fatal disease.’ The remarks were received with marked interest, and were followed by a brief discussion, participated in by Drs. Wood, Gross, Tyson,
- 32. Bartholow, Cohen, andothers. Some of the speakers seem to have adopted Koch’s views, and it was spoken of as a matter of congratulation that one so well fitted as Dr. Formad should have presented the arguments against them, since the truth would be arrived at all the more surely if the new doctrine were put upon its defence, and not allowed to establish itself without due scrutiny.”— Philadelphia Med. News, Oct. 28, 1882. (Reprinted in Med. Times, Dec. 2, 1882.) “Dr. Koch’s conclusions enjoy a very considerable succès d’estime, but that esteem would perhaps be less were it clearly understood that the original intention, and indeed the justification, of the method of dry cultivation has been quietly dropped, while the method itself has been put to a use for which it is not at all suited.”—Med. Times, July 15, 1882, p. 78. “As yet we have no certain instance of animals falling spontaneously ill of cholera in periods of cholera. All experiments also, which have hitherto been made on animals with cholera substances, have either given a negative result, or, if they were said to give a positive result, they were not sufficiently supported by evidence, or were disputed by other experimenters. We occupied ourselves, nevertheless, in the most careful and detailed manner, with experiments on animals. Because great value must be laid on the results on white-mice obtained by Thiersch. I took fifty mice with me from Berlin, and made all kinds of experiments on them,” but … “our mice remained healthy. We then made experiments on monkeys, cats, poultry, dogs, and various other animals that we were able to get hold of; but we were never able to arrive at anything in animals similar to the cholera-process.… Hence, I think, that all the animals on which we can make experiments, and all those, too, which come into contact with human beings, are not liable to cholera.… We must, therefore, dispense with them as a material for affording proofs.”—Koch’s “Address to the German Board of Health,” “Brit. Med. Journ.,” Sept. 6, 1884, p. 454.
- 33. Kölliker, Rudolph Albrecht.B. 1817, at Zurich; Studied Univs. Zurich, Bonn, and Berlin; For. Asst. to Henle, M.D., Zurich, 1843; Prof. Physiol. and Comp. Anat., Zurich, 1845; Prof. at Wurzburg, 1847. Author “Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen, für Aertzte und Studirende,” Leipsig, 1852; “Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der Höheren Thiere,” Leipsig, 1861; “Untersuchungen ueber die Letzten Endigungen der Nerven,” Leipsig, 1862 (in progress). Krabbe, H. M.D.; Prof. of Physiol. and Anat. at Roy. Vet. Coll., Copenhagen. Kraft (Dr.), Breslau. Asst. Prof. at the Path. Institute. Kries, J. Von. Prof. Univ. Freiburg in Baden; Lec. Physiol. Movement and Sensation, Physiol. Inst. Author of “Untersuchungen zur Mechanik des quergestreiften Muskels,” Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol., Vol. for 1880; “Die Gesichtsempfindungen und ihre Analyse,” Arch. f. Physiol., 1882 (Supplement). Krivoratow, M., Moscow. Medical Student Strasburg; pupil of Prof. Goltz. Kronecker, H., 35, Dorotheenstrasse, Berlin. Prof. Extraor. Physiol. Univ. Berlin; Lect. Exper. Physiol. Author of “Die Unfähigkeit der Froschherzspitze, elektrische Reize zu summiren,” Verhandl. d. physiol. Gesell. zu, Berlin, May 16, 1879;
- 34. Co-editor (with Senator)of “Centralblat für die medicinischen Wissenschaften.” Made experiments jointly with Dr. Theodore Cash in the Physiological Institute in Berlin. Kueltz, E. Prof. Med. Fac. Marburg University; Exam. in Physiol. Lect. on Physiol. of Sensory Organs, 1883. Author of “Beiträge zur Lehre von der Glycogenbildung in der Leber,” Pflüger’s Archiv., Vol. XXIV., 1880; “Ueber die Schicksale des Chloralhydrates und Butychloralhydrates im Thierkörper,” Ibid., Vol. XXVIII., 1882. Made experiments in the Physiol. Lab. Univ. of Marburg. Kühne, W. Prof. of Experimental Physiol. Med. Fac., Heidelberg University. Author of “Ueber künstlichen Diabetes bei Fröschen,” Göttingen, 1856; “Myologische Untersuchungen,” Berlin, 1860; “Ueber die peripherische Endorgane der motorischen Nerven,” Leipsig, 1862; “Untersuchungen ueber das Protoplasma und die Contractilität,” Leipsig, 1864; “Ueber das Verhalten des Muskels zum Nerven;” Untersuchungen aus dem physiol. Institute d. Universität, Heidelberg, Vol. III., 1879; “Notiz ueber die Netzhautfarbe belichteter menschlichen Augen,” Ibid., Vol. III., 1879; “Beobachtungen ueber die Absonderung des Pancreas” (jointly with Lea), Ibid., Vol. II., 1882. Kussmaul, Adolf. B. 1822, at Graben, near Carlsruhe; studied at Heidelberg and Wurzburg; Military surgeon in Baden, 1848; Prof. extraord. Univ. of Heidelberg, 1857; Prof. Med. Erlangen, 1859; Prof. Freiburg, 1863; Prof. Strasburg, 1876.
- 35. Author of “DieEntwickelungs—Phasen der exacten Medicin,” “Ueber die Ursachen und den Gang unseres Ablebens,” Freiburg, 1866; “Zwanzig Briefe über Menschenpocken und Kuhpockenimpfung,” Freiburg, 1870; jointly (with Tenner); “Untersuchungen zur Natur-Lehre des Menschen und der Thiere,” 1856; “Untersuchungen ueber Ursprung und Wesen der fallsuchtartigen Zuckungen bei der Verblutung so wie der Fallsucht überhaupt,” Frankfort, 1857. “For all those who do not hold the view that words and thoughts originate from sources above and outside the nerve substance, the localization of the functions of speech in portions of the cortex follows as a necessary postulate of logic.… Physiological Experiment, as we might expect, leaves us here in the lurch.”—Art. “Disturbances of speech,” Ziemssen’s Cyclopedia of Medicine, Vol. XIV., p. 720. Laborde, J. V., 15, Rue de l’École-de-Médecine, Paris. Prof. Pract. Physiol., Pract. Courses. Chief Editor of the “Tribune Médicale.” Experimented (30th April, 1884), with the head of the decapitated criminal, Campi, by transfusing the blood of a living dog into it, bringing back a hideous semblance of lifelike motions. Lacerda (M.) de, Rio de Janeiro. Injected snake poison under the skin of dogs, rabbits, monkeys, and guinea-pigs to try the effect of permanganate of potash as an antidote. Landois, Leonard. B. Munster, 1837; Stud. and Asst. at Physiol. Inst., Greifswald; Prof. extraord., 1868; Prof. in ord. Physiol. and Dir. Physiol. Inst., 1872; Prof. Micros. Anat., Histol., and Exper. Physiol. Med. Fac., same place, 1883.
- 36. Author of: “Lehrbuchder Physiologie des Menschen,” Vienna, 1879-80; “Ueber tönende Vocal-flammen,” Centralb. f. d. Med. Wiss. No. 18, 1880, p. 321. Lankester, Edwin Ray, M.A., F.R.S. B. 1847, London; Educated St. Paul’s School, and Christ Ch., Oxon; Fell. and Lect. Exeter Coll., Oxford, 1872; Prof. Zool. and Comp. Anat. Univ. Coll., Lon., 1875; Fellow Roy. Soc., 1875. Author of: “A Monograph of the Fossil Fishes of the old red Sandstone of Britain,” Part I., 1870; “Comparative Longevity,” 1871; “Contributions to the Developmental History of the Mollusca,” 1875; and the English Edition of Haekel’s “History of Creation.” Contrib. to “Athenæum, Academy, Nature,” Chief Editor of “Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science.” “… He has taken a prominent part in the defence of Scientific Experiment on live animals.”—Men of the Time, 10th Edit., p. 604. “If you allow experiment at all, you must admit the more of it the better, since it is certain that for many years to come the problems of physiology demanding experimental solution will increase in something like geometrical ratio instead of decreasing.”—E. Ray Lankester, Spectator, Jan. 10, 1874. Lange, O. B. 1834. Path. Lect. Univ. Copenhagen, 1877; formerly Asst. to Prof. Schiff, Physiol. Lab., Florence. Editor of “Hospital Journal.” Langendorff, Oscar. Prof. Physiol. Med. Fac. Univ. Königsberg. Author of “Versuche ueber die Pancreas-Verdauung der Vögel,” Mueller’s Archiv., 1879; Contrib. to Centralb. f. d. Med. Wiss., Archiv. fuer Anat. u. Physiol., etc.
- 37. Found by experimentthat after frogs had been immersed for several hours in oil or water, or after they had been suffocated by ligature of the aortic bulb, their muscles had an acid reaction.—Med. Centralb., 1882, No. 50. Langley, J. N. M.A., St. John’s Coll., Camb. Author of “The action of Pilocarpin on the sub-maxillary gland of the dog,” Studies from the Physiol. Lab. Camb., Part III., 1877, p. 42. “On the changes in serous glands during secretion,” Journ. of Physiol., Vol. II. (1879), p. 261; “On the structure of serous glands in rest and activity,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., 1879, p. 377; “Preliminary account of the structure of the cells of the liver and the changes which take place in them under various conditions,” Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XXXIV., 1882, p. 20. “The sub-maxillary gland of the dog was chosen for experiment, owing to its exposed condition, and the comparative ease with which its nerves can be isolated; a few experiments were made on the parotid, but these were not increased in number, since there seems little reason to doubt that that which is true for one salivary gland is also true for the rest.… In observing the flow of blood all the veins going to the jugular were tied, except the veins coming from the gland; then either the jugular was tied and cut across on the peripheral side of the ligature, and the blood allowed to run into a narrow test tube…; or a cut was made just at the division of the jugular, the jugular itself clamped, and the blood collected as before.… The pilocarpin was injected sometimes into the saphena vein, and sometimes through the facial artery direct into the gland, in the manner described by Heidenhain.… In every case the stimulus used was a Daniell’s Cell with a Du Bois Reymond’s induction apparatus.”—Studies from the Physiol. Lab. Camb., Part III. (1877), pp. 44, 45, 46. Also experiments on dogs, rabbits, frogs, and toads.
- 38. Held a Licensefor Vivisection at Cambridge University Physiological Laboratory New Museum in 1878-79-80-81-82-83. Certificates for Illustrations of Lectures in 1878-79-80-81-82-83. Certificate dispensing with obligation to kill in 1879. Lannegrace (Dr.), Montpelier. Prof. Physiol. Med. Fac., Montpelier. Lanzillotti-Buonsanti, Nicola. B. Ferrandina, 1846; Studied Salerno and Naples; Chir. Asst. Milan, 1871; Prof. 1873; Phys. and Vet. Sur. Basilicate; Direct. Chirurg. Clinic and Prof. of Surg. and Exper. Physiol. High School for Vet. Med., Milan. Author of “Sulla struttura dei tendini, ricerche istologische,” Milan, 1871; “Manuale di Ostetricia Veterinaria,” Milan, 1872; “Trattato di Patologia e Terapia chirurgica generale e speciale degli animali domestici,” Milan, 1873; “La Medicina sperimentale e le Scuole Veterinaria,” Milan, 1873, &c. Founded, 1878, the journal “La Clinica Veterinaria, Rivista di Medicina e Chirurgia practica degli Animali domestici.” Lapper, Edwin, 36, Highfield Road, Rathgar, Co. Dublin. L.K.Q.C.P. Irel., 1876 (Ledw. Sch. Dub.); Fell. Chem. Soc. Lond.; Lect. on Chem. Ledw. Sch. of Med. Contrib. to Dub. Journ. Med. Sci. 1876. Held a License for Vivisection at Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin, Physiological Laboratory and Lecture Room in 1878. No experiments returned. Lassègue, Jean Louis. B. Paris, 1800.
- 39. Author of “RecherchesPhysiologiques et Chimiques pour servir à l’histoire de la digestion,” Paris, 1825. Bound the thoracic duct of dogs, death following 50 days after the operation. Latschenberger, Joh. M.D.; Prof. extraord. Physiol. Chem. Univ. Freiburg. Joint Author, with Deahna, of “Beiträge zur lehre von der reflectorischen Erregung der Gefässmuskeln,” Pflüger’s Archiv, Vol. XII., p. 157. Made experiments jointly with Deahna. “We first set ourselves the task of studying the effects of blood pressure in long continued stimulation of the ends of sensory nerves. The animals experimented upon were rabbits, dogs and cats.… The nerves experimented upon were the N. vagus, N. depressores, and N. ischiadicus. After the nerve was cut through, the central end was stimulated. The nerves in the neck were in most cases drawn outwards and laid upon the electrodes in such a manner that the stimulated portion should be completely surrounded by air.”— Beiträge zur Lehre von der reflectorischen Erregung, &c., pp. 159, 160. Lautenbach, B. F. M.D.; Ph. D. Asst. Physiol. Lab. Geneva. Author of “On absorption without circulation,” Journ. of Physiol., Vol. II. (1879), p. 110; “The physiological action of heat,” Ibid., pp. 1 and 302; “Saponin in its relation to Physiology,” Journ. of Nerv. and Mental Diseases, Vol. IV. (1879), No. 3 (N. Series), p. 393. Made experiments, with the assistance of Prof. Schiff, by tying the portal veins of dogs, &c., which caused death in one or two hours in the dog, and less in cats and rabbits.—Philadelphia Med. Times, May 26th, 1877.
- 40. Lazarus, Moritz. B.Filehne, in Posen, 1824. Prof. Philos. Bern; Prof. Milit. Acad. Berlin, 1868. Contrib. to “Zeitschrift für Klinische Medicin.” Made experiments on dogs and sheep. Lea, A. Sheridan, Trin. College, Cambridge. Physiol. Lab. New Museum. Joint Author (with J. R. Green) of “Some Notes on the Fibrine Ferment,” Journ. Physiol., Vol. IV., p. 380. Held a License for Vivisection at University Cambridge Physiological Laboratory New Museum, 1878-79-80-81-82-83. Certificates for Illustrations of Lectures in 1878-79-80-81-82-83. No experiments returned in 1878. Lebedeff, Alexander. Physician, Moscow, Russia. Made experiments in the Physiol. Institute, Leipsig, 1882. Lebedoff, S. A. Asst. Phys., St. Petersburg. Made experiments in the Pathological Institute, Giessen, on the secretion of hæmoglobin by the kidneys.—Virchow’s Archiv., Vol. XCI., p. 2. Legg, John Wickham, 47, Green Street, Park Lane, W. M.D. Lond., 1868; M.B., 1867; M.R.C.P. Lond., 1869; Fell. Roy. Med. Chir. Soc.; Mem. Path. Soc.; Casualty Phys. and Demonstrator Morbid Anat. St. Barthol. Hosp. Author of “On the Changes of the Liver which follow Ligature of the Bile Ducts;” and various Papers in St. Barthol. Hosp. Reps., Brit.
- 41. Med. Journal, Journ.Anat. and Physiol., etc., etc. “During the past winter, I have made several observations upon the changes which follow ligature of the bile ducts in animals. The animals used were cats; these seem to survive the operation better than dogs. Most observers find that dogs live only five to ten days after. The way in which the ligature was applied was as follows:— The animal was first secured in a Czermak’s holder, and chloroform given largely, so as to secure a deep narcosis.… A cut is then made through the linea alba from the xiphoid cartilage downwards for about two inches.… Pushing aside to the left the stomach and duodenum, and raising the free edge of the liver, the bile ducts are seen coming from the liver and gall bladder.… A ligature is then put around the common duct and tied close to the duodenum; another is tied tightly on the duct, about half an inch nearer to the liver, and the duct between the two ligatures divided by a pair of scissors, the vessel being held out from the portal vein for that purpose. In two of the cats the bile found its way again into the intestine; in the later operations, therefore, I removed altogether about half an inch of the common duct as is done in making biliary fistulæ. The belly walls were then brought together with ordinary sutures. It is well to place these close together, as I lost three of the cats from the giving way of the sutures and consequent prolapse of the bowels. All the operations recorded in this paper were done in the pharmacological laboratory of my friend and colleague, Dr. Brunton.… “Exper. I., Jan. 24, 1873.—Large tabby cat, weighing 8½ lb.; very fat; bile ducts tied double and cut. The cat died probably on Jan. 26. Examined on Jan. 27. Weather frosty.… “Exper. II., Jan. 24, 1873.—Black she cat, weighing 6 lb. 6¾ oz. Bile duct tied double but not cut. Animal pregnant. The cat died on Jan. 26. Examined on Jan. 28.… “Exper. III., Feb. 3, 1873.—Large tabby cat, weighing immediately after operation 7 lb. 3½ oz. Animal very fat; bile duct tied, but not cut. Feb. 6.—Cat seems to be dying; it is unable to stand, but lies on
- 42. side mewing. Feb.7.—Found dead at 11 a.m. in the same place where left yesterday.… “Exper. VI., Feb. 3.—A cat not fully grown, very wild, scarcely any fat on body, weighing immediately after the operation 3 lb. 5 oz. Bile ducts tied double, but not cut. The animal nearly died under the chloroform, but recovered with artificial respiration. Cat last seen alive on Feb. 7.… Found dead on morning of February 12, and already much decomposed. Cause of death, prolapse of bowels.… “Exper. XVI., June 27.—Black and white cat, well nourished, full grown. Bile duct tied double and piece cut out. July 3.—As the cat was now very weak, and seemed about to die, it was determined to make the diabetic puncture. The cat was therefore laid prone, a cut made through the skin over the occipital protuberance, and the chisel applied immediately underneath this. After dividing the occipital bone, the chisel was passed in a direction downwards and forwards, so as to cut the line made by joining the two auditory meatus. The chisel was pushed on until it met with the basilar bone, and was then withdrawn. Operation was over at 12.30. Before the operation the cat had languidly taken a little milk.”—“On the changes in the Liver which follow Ligature of the Bile Ducts,” Barth. Hosp. Reps., Vol. IX., p. 161, etc. Lemoigne (Prof.), Milan. Mem. Council Milanese Società Zoophila. Author of “Relazione Sull’ Idrofobia,” 1882. Leopold, G. Prof. Univ. Leipsig. “Professor Leopold, of Leipsig, has recently carried out some experiments of the above kind, the results of which we think it well to summarise, seeing that English physicians are prevented by foolish legislation from making any such researches themselves.… Dr. Leopold therefore proceeded thus: he opened the abdomen and
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