Environmental

1The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
UNIT 1:
The Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 3
1.1.1 Definition 3
1.1.2 Scope 3
1.1.3 Importance 5
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 8
1.2.1 Institutions in Environment 9
1.2.2 People in Environment 12
This course on the environment is unlike any other. It is not only a collection
of facts or information about the environment. It is about the way we all
should live. It is expected to give you information about the environment
that will lead to a concern for your own environment. When you develop
this concern, you will begin to act at your own level to protect the
environment we all live in. This is the objective of the course and the
syllabus is a framework on which we must all realign our lives.
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2 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
This textbook deals with major environmental concerns that have been
identified as important areas where background information is essential for a
better understanding of our environment. It stresses on a balanced view of
issues that affect our daily lives. These issues are related to the conflict between
existing ‘development’ strategies and the need for ‘environmental
conservation’. Unlike most other textbooks, it not only makes the reader better
informed on these concerns, but is expected to lead him or her towards positive
action to improve the environment.
There are three reasons for studying the state of the environment. Firstly is the
need for information that clarifies modern environmental concepts such as
the need to conserve biodiversity, the need to lead more sustainable lifestyles
and the need to use resources more equitably. Secondly, there is a need to
change the way in which we view our own environment by a practical approach
based on observation and self learning. Thirdly there is the need to create a
concern for our environment that will trigger pro-environmental action,
including activities we can do in our daily life to protect it.
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1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
1.1.1 Definition
Environmental studies deals with every issue that
affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an
appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science
as its seeks practical answers to making human
civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite re-
sources.
Its components include biology, geology, chem-
istry, physics, engineering, sociology, health,
anthropology, economics, statistics, computers
and philosophy.
1.1.2 Scope
As we look around at the area in which we live,
we see that our surroundings were originally a
natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a
mountain, a desert, or a combination of these
elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have
been heavily modified by human beings, in vil-
lages, towns or cities. But even those of us who
live in cities get our food supply from surround-
ing villages and these in turn are dependent on
natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands,
rivers, seashores, for resources such as water
for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus
our daily lives are linked with our surroundings
and inevitably affects them. We use water to
drink and for other day-to-day activities. We
breathe air, we use resources from which food
is made and we depend on the community of
living plants and animals which form a web of
life, of which we are also a part. Everything
around us forms our environment and our lives
depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as
possible.
Our dependence on nature is so great that we
cannot continue to live without protecting the
earth’s environmental resources. Thus most tra-
ditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother
Nature’ and most traditional societies have
learned that respecting nature is vital for their
livelihoods. This has led to many cultural prac-
tices that helped traditional societies protect and
preserve their natural resources. Respect for
nature and all living creatures is not new to In-
dia. All our traditions are based on these values.
Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that all
forms of life are important for our well being in
Fourth Century BC.
Over the past 200 years however, modern soci-
eties began to believe that easy answers to the
question of producing more resources could be
provided by means of technological innovations.
For example, though growing more food by
using fertilizers and pesticides, developing bet-
ter strains of domestic animals and crops, irri-
gating farmland through mega dams and
developing industry, led to rapid economic
growth, the ill effects of this type of develop-
ment, led to environmental degradation.
The industrial development and intensive agri-
culture that provides the goods for our increas-
ingly consumer oriented society uses up large
amounts of natural resources such as water,
minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc. Non-
renewable resources, such as minerals and oil
are those which will be exhausted in the future
if we continue to extract these without a
thought for subsequent generations. Renew-
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able resources, such as timber and water, are
those which can be used but can be regener-
ated by natural processes such as regrowth or
rainfall. But these too will be depleted if we con-
tinue to use them faster than nature can re-
place them. For example, if the removal of
timber and firewood from a forest is faster than
the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it can-
not replenish the supply. And loss of forest cover
not only depletes the forest of its resources, such
as timber and other non-wood products, but
affect our water resources because an intact
natural forest acts like a sponge which holds
water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads
to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once
the rains are over.
Such multiple effects on the environment re-
sulting from routine human activities must be
appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide
us with the resources we need in the long-term.
Our natural resources can be compared with
money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital
will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if
we use only the interest, it can sustain us over
the longer term. This is called sustainable
utilisation or development.
Activity 1:
Take any article that you use in daily life –
a bucket full of water, or an item of food, a
table, or a book. Trace its components jour-
ney backwards from your home to their ori-
gins as natural resources in our
environment. How many of these compo-
nents are renewable resources and how
many non-renewable?
Understanding and making ourselves more
aware of our environmental assets and prob-
lems is not enough. We, each one of us, must
become increasingly concerned about our envi-
ronment and change the way in which we use
every resource. Unsustainable utilization can
result from overuse of resources, because of
population increase, and because many of us
are using more resources than we really need.
Most of us indulge in wasteful behaviour pat-
terns without ever thinking about their environ-
mental impacts. Thus, for all our actions to be
environmentally positive we need to look from
a new perspective at how we use resources. For
every resource we use we must ask ourselves
the following questions:
• What is the rarity of the resource and where
does it originate?
• Who uses it most intensively and how?
• How is it being overused or misused?
• Who is responsible for its improper use –
the resource collector, the middleman, the
end user?
• How can we help to conserve it and pre-
vent its unsustainable use?
Activity 2:
Try to answer the questions above for one
of the components in the article you chose
in Activity 1. Then answer the following
questions:
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• Are you using that resource
unsustainably?
• In what ways could you reduce, reuse
and recycle that resource?
• Is there an unequal distribution of this
resource so that you are more fortunate
than many others who have less access
to it?
Once we begin to ask these questions of our-
selves, we will begin to live lifestyles that are
more sustainable and will support our environ-
ment.
1.1.3 Importance
Environment is not a single subject. It is an inte-
gration of several subjects that include both
Science and Social Studies. To understand all
the different aspects of our environment we
need to understand biology, chemistry, physics,
geography, resource management, economics
and population issues. Thus the scope of envi-
ronmental studies is extremely wide and covers
some aspects of nearly every major discipline.
We live in a world in which natural resources
are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the
products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans
and from agriculture and livestock, are all a part
of our life support systems. Without them, life
itself would be impossible. As we keep increas-
ing in numbers and the quantity of resources
each of us uses also increases, the earth’s re-
source base must inevitably shrink. The earth
cannot be expected to sustain this expanding
level of utilization of resources. Added to this is
misuse of resources. We waste or pollute large
amounts of nature’s clean water; we create
more and more material like plastic that we dis-
card after a single use; and we waste colossal
amounts of food, which is discarded as garbage.
Manufacturing processes create solid waste
byproducts that are discarded, as well as chemi-
cals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute
water, and gases that pollute the air. Increasing
amounts of waste cannot be managed by natu-
ral processes. These accumulate in our environ-
ment, leading to a variety of diseases and other
adverse environmental impacts now seriously af-
fecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to respi-
ratory diseases, water pollution to
gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants
are known to cause cancer.
Improving this situation will only happen if each
of us begins to take actions in our daily lives
that will help preserve our environmental re-
sources. We cannot expect Governments alone
to manage the safeguarding of the environment,
nor can we expect other people to prevent
environmental damage. We need to do it our-
selves. It is a responsibility that each of us must
take on as ones own.
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Activity 3:
• Think of all the things that you do in a
day. List these activities and identify the
main resources used during these ac-
tivities. What can you do to prevent
waste, reuse articles that you normally
throw away, what recycled materials
can you use?
• Think of the various energy sources you
use everyday. How could you reduce
their use?
Activity 4: Exercises in self learning about
the environment
Attempt to assess the level of damage to
the environment due to your actions that
have occurred during your last working day,
the last week, the last year. Then estimate
the damage you are likely to do in your life-
time if you continue in your present ways.
Use the following examples for the above exer-
cise:
Example – Plastic: Plastic bags, plastic ball pens
Think about all the articles you use daily that
are made from plastic. Plastic plays an impor-
tant part in our modern lives.
Make a list of the plastic articles you usually use.
How can you reduce the amount of plastic you
use?
What effects does plastic have on our environ-
ment?
Where did the plastic come from/ how is it
made?
What happens to it when you throw it away/
where does it go?
Example – Fossil fuels:
How much do you use? Can you reduce your
consumption?
What effect does it have on the air we breathe?
When we leave a motorbike or car running dur-
ing a traffic stop, we do not usually remember
that the fuel we are wasting is a part of a non-
renewable resource that the earth cannot re-
form. Once all the fossil fuels are burnt off, it
will mean the end of oil as a source of energy.
Only if each of us contributes our part in con-
serving fossil based energy can we make it last
longer on earth.
Example – Water:
How much do you really need to use, as against
how much you waste when you:
(a) Brush your teeth? (b) Have a bath? (c) Wash
clothes? (d) Wash the scooter or car?
Where did the water come from? What is its
actual source? How has it reached you?
Where will the waste water go?
Do you feel you should change the way you use
water? How can you change this so that it is
more sustainable?
Example – Food:
Where has it come from? How is it grown? What
chemicals are used in its production? How does
it reach you?
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How is it cooked?
How much is wasted? How is the waste dis-
posed off?
Example – Paper:
What is it made from?
Where does it come from and what happens
during manufacture?
How much do you use and how much do you
waste? How can you prevent it from being
wasted?
Example – Electrical Energy:
How much do you use everyday? Where does it
come from?
How do you waste it? How can you conserve
energy?
Productive value of nature: As scientists make
new advances in fields such as biotechnology
we begin to understand that the world’s spe-
cies contain an incredible and uncountable num-
ber of complex chemicals. These are the raw
materials that are used for developing new
medicines and industrial products and are a
storehouse from which to develop thousands
of new products in the future. The flowering
plants and insects that form the most species-
rich groups of living organisms are thus vital for
the future development of man. If we degrade
their habitat these species will become extinct.
If one sees being sold or used, a product that
comes from an illegally killed wild species, if we
do not inform the authorities, we become party
to its extinction. Once they are lost, man can-
not bring them back. When we permit the de-
struction of a forest, wetland or other natural
area and do not protest about it, future gen-
erations are being denied the use of these valu-
able resources and will blame us for these rash
and negligent actions towards the environment.
Thus the urgent need to protect all living spe-
cies is a concept that we need to understand
and act upon. While individually, we perhaps
cannot directly prevent the extinction of a spe-
cies, creating a strong public opinion to protect
the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in
which wild species live is an importance aspect
of sustainable living. There is a close link be-
tween agriculture and the forest, which illus-
trates its productive value. For crops to be
successful, the flowers of fruit trees and veg-
etables must be pollinated by insects, bats and
birds. Their life cycles however frequently require
intact forests.
Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: The
aesthetic and recreational values that nature
possesses enlivens our existence on earth. This
is created by developing National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed
areas. A true wilderness experience has not only
recreational value but is an incredible learning
experience. It brings about an understanding of
the oneness of nature and the fact that we are
entirely dependent upon the intricate function-
ing of ecosystems.
The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect
of the living and non-living part of our earth.
One can appreciate the magnificence of a moun-
tain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a for-
est, and the vast expanse of the desert. It is these
natural vistas and their incredible diversity of
plant and animal life that has led to the devel-
opment of several philosophies of life. It has also
inspired artists to develop visual arts and writ-
ers and poets to create their works that vitalize
our lives.
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A wilderness experience has exceptional recre-
ational value. This has been described as nature
tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one as-
pect of adventure tourism. These recreational
facilities not only provide a pleasurable experi-
ence but are intended to create a deep respect
and love for nature. They are also key tools in
educating people about the fragility of the en-
vironment and the need for sustainable lifestyles.
In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens
are vital to the pschycological and physical health
of city dwellers. It provides not only an aesthetic
and visual appeal but the ability to ensure that
each individual is able to access a certain amount
of peace and tranquility. Thus urban environ-
mental planners must ensure that these facili-
ties are created in growing urban complexes.
Another important conservation education fa-
cility in urban settings includes the need to set
up well designed and properly managed zoo-
logical parks and aquariums. These have got
great value in sensitizing school students to wild-
life. Many young people who frequented zoos
as young children grow up to love wildlife and
become conservationists.
In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a
botanical garden or a zoo, one concept that can
be developed is to create small nature aware-
ness areas with interpretation facilities at dis-
trict and taluka levels. These areas can be
developed to mimic natural ecosystems even
though they could be relatively small in size. Such
nature trails are invaluable assets for creating
conservation education and awareness. They can
be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of
grassland, a pond ecosystem, or be situated
along an undisturbed river or coastal area. This
would bring home to the visitor the importance
of protecting our dwindling wilderness areas.
The option values of nature: While we utilise
several goods and services of nature and enjoy
its benefits, we
must recognize
that every activity
that we do in our
daily lives has an
adverse impact
on nature’s integ-
rity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off
and let species of plants and animals become
extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, de-
grade land, and create enormous quantities of
waste, we as a generation will leave nothing
for future generations. Our present generation
has developed its economies and lifestyles on
unsustainable patterns of life. however, nature
provides us with various options on how we
utilize its goods and services. This is its option
value. We can use up goods and services greedily
and destroy its integrity and long term values,
or we can use its resources sustainably and re-
duce our impacts on the environment. The op-
tion value allows us to use its resources
sustainably and preserve its goods and services
for the future.
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
As the earth’s natural resources are
dwindling and our environment is
being increasingly degraded by
human activities, it is evident that
something needs to be done. We
often feel that managing all this is
something that the Government
should do. But if we go on endan-
gering our environment, there is no
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way in which the Government can perform all
these clean-up functions. It is the prevention of
environment degradation in which we must all
take part that must become a part of all our
lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is bet-
ter than cure. To prevent ill-effects on our envi-
ronment by our actions, is economically more
viable than cleaning up the environment once
it is damaged. Individually we can play a major
role in environment management. We can re-
duce wasting natural resources and we can act
as watchdogs that inform the Government
about sources that lead to pollution and degra-
dation of our environment.
This can only be made possible through mass
public awareness. Mass media such as newspa-
pers, radio, television, strongly influence public
opinion. However, someone has to bring this
about. If each of us feels strongly about the
environment, the press and media will add to
our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always
respond positively to a strong publicly supported
movement. Thus if you join an NGO that sup-
ports conservation, politicians will make green
policies. We are living on spaceship earth with a
limited supply of resources. Each of us is respon-
sible for spreading this message to as many
people as possible.
Suggested further activities for concerned stu-
dents:
• Join a group to study nature, such as WWF-
I or BNHS, or another environmental group.
• Begin reading newspaper articles and peri-
odicals such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I
newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary maga-
zine, etc. that will tell you more about our
environment. There are also several envi-
ronmental websites.
• Lobby for conserving resources by taking
up the cause of environmental issues dur-
ing discussions with friends and relatives.
Practice and promote issues such as saving
paper, saving water, reducing use of plas-
tics, practicing the 3Rs principle of reduce,
reuse, recycle, and proper waste disposal.
• Join local movements that support activi-
ties such as saving trees in your area, go on
nature treks, recycle waste, buy environ-
mentally friendly products.
• Practice and promote good civic sense such
as no spitting or tobacco chewing, no
throwing garbage on the road, no smoking
in public places, no urinating or defecating
in public places.
• Take part in events organised on World
Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc.
• Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or spend
time in whatever nature you have near your
home.
1.2.1 Institutions in Environment
There have been several Government and Non-
government organizations that have led to en-
vironmental protection in our country. They have
led to a growing interest in environmental pro-
tection and conservation of nature and natural
resources. The traditional conservation practices
that were part of ancient India’s culture have
however gradually disappeared. Public aware-
ness is thus a critical need to further environ-
mental protection. Among the large number of
institutions that deal with environmental pro-
tection and conservation, a few well-known
organizations include government organisations
such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS,
WWF-I, etc.
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS),
Mumbai: the BNHS began as a small society of
six members in 1883. It grew from a group of
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shikaris and people from all walks of life into a
major research organisation that substantially
influenced conservation policy in the country.
The influence on wildlife policy building, re-
search, popular publications and peoples
action have been unique features of the multi-
faceted society. Undoubtedly its major contri-
bution has been in the field of wildlife research.
It is India’s oldest conservation research based
NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of
the battle for species and ecosystems. The BNHS
publishes a popular magazine called Hornbill and
also an internationally well-known Journal on
Natural History. Its other publications include the
Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book
of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian
Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees.
One of its greatest scientists was Dr. Salim Ali
whose ornithological work on the birds of the
Indian subcontinent is world famous. The BNHS
has over the years helped Government to frame
wildlife related laws and has taken up battles
such as the ‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New
Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in
Mumbai after which the headquarters were
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all
over India. The early years focused attention on
wildlife education and awareness. It runs sev-
eral programs including the Nature Clubs of In-
dia program for school children and works as a
think tank and lobby force for environment and
development issues.
Center for Science and Environment (CSE),
New Delhi: Activities of this Center include
organising campaigns, holding workshops and
conferences, and producing environment related
publications. It published a major document on
the ‘State of India’s Environment’, the first of
its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on
the Environment. The CSE also publishes a popu-
lar magazine, ‘Down to Earth’, which is a Sci-
ence and Environment fortnightly. It is involved
in the publication of material in the form of
books, posters, video films and also conducts
workshops and seminars on biodiversity related
issues.
CPR Environmental Education Centre, Ma-
dras: The CPR EEC was set up in 1988. It con-
ducts a variety of programs to spread
environmental awareness and creates an inter-
est in conservation among the general public. It
focussed attention on NGOs, teachers, women,
youth and children to generally promote con-
servation of nature and natural resources. Its
programs include components on wildlife and
biodiversity issues. CPR EEC also produces a large
number of publications.
Centre for Environment Education (CEE),
Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment Edu-
cation, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989. It has
a wide range of programs on the environment
and produces a variety of educational material.
CEE’s Training in Environment Education {TEE}
program has trained many environment educa-
tors.
Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environ-
ment Education and Research (BVIEER),
Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth
Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD, a
Masters and Bachelors program in Environmen-
tal Sciences. It also offers an innovative Diploma
in Environment Education for in-service teach-
ers. It implements a large outreach programme
that has covered over 135 schools in which it
trains teachers and conducts fortnightly Envi-
ronment Education Programs. Biodiversity Con-
servation is a major focus of its research
initiatives. It develops low cost Interpretation
Centres for Natural and Architectural sites that
are highly locale specific as well as a large
amount of innovative environment educational
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material for a variety of target groups. Its unique
feature is that it conducts environment educa-
tion from primary school level to the postgradu-
ate level. The BVIEER has produced several EE
aids. It has developed a teacher’s handbook
linked to school curriculum, a textbook for UGC
for its undergraduate course on environment.
Its Director has developed a CD ROM on India’s
biodiversity published by Mapin Publishers,
Ahmedabad.
Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The
Organisation is a Nodal Agency which supports
NGOs in need of funds for their environment
related activities. Its major program is organising
and training school teachers to use its locale
specific Environment Education Workbook Pro-
gram. The main targets are linked with sustain-
able resource use at the village level through
training school children. Its environment edu-
cation program covers about 500 schools.
Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially Delhi
based, is now working from Pune and is active
in several other parts of India. Kalpavriksh works
on a variety of fronts: education and awareness;
investigation and research; direct action and
lobbying; and litigation with regard to environ-
ment and development issues. Its activities in-
clude talks and audio-visuals in schools and
colleges, nature walks and outstation camps,
organising student participation in ongoing cam-
paigns including street demonstrations, push-
ing for consumer awareness regarding organic
food, press statements, handling green alerts,
and meetings with the city’s administrators. It is
involved with the preparation of site-specific,
environmental manuals for schoolteachers.
Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing
India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan in 2003.
Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natu-
ral History (SACON), Coimbatore: This insti-
tution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream that became a
reality only after his demise. He wished to sup-
port a group of committed conservation scien-
tists on a permanent basis. Initially conceived as
being a wing of the Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS) it later evolved as an indepen-
dent organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990.
It has instituted a variety of field programs that
have added to the country’s information on our
threatened biodiversity.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun:
This Institution was established in 1982, as a
major training establishment for Forest Officials
and Research in Wildlife Management. Its most
significant publication has been ‘Planning A
Wildlife Protected Area Network for India’
(Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). The organisation
has over the years added an enormous amount
of information on India’s biological wealth. It
has trained a large number of Forest Depart-
ment Officials and Staff as Wildlife Managers.
Its M.Sc. Program has trained excellent wildlife
scientists. It also has an Environment Impact
Assessment (EIA) cell. It trains personnel in
ecodevelopment, wildlife biology, habitat man-
agement and Nature interpretation.
Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The Botani-
cal Survey of India (BSI) was established in 1890
at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. How-
ever it closed down for several years after 1939
and was reopened in 1954. In 1952 plans were
made to reorganise the BSI and formulate its
objectives. By 1955 the BSI had its headquar-
ters in Calcutta with Circle Offices at
Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra Dun.
Between 1962 and 1979, offices were estab-
lished in Allahbad, Jodhpur, Port Blair, Itanagar
and Gangtok. The BSI currently has nine regional
centres. It carries out surveys of plant resources
in different regions.
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Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI was
established in1916. Its mandate was to do a
systematic survey of fauna in India. It has over
the years collected ‘type specimens’ on the bases
of which our animal life has been studied over
the years. Its origins were collections based at
the Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was es-
tablished in 1875. Older collections of the Asi-
atic Society of Bengal, which were made
between 1814 and 1875, as well as those of
the Indian Museum made between 1875 and
1916 were then transferred to the ZSI. Today it
has over a million specimens! This makes it one
of the largest collections in Asia. It has done an
enormous amount of work on taxonomy and
ecology. It currently operates from 16 regional
centers.
1.2.2 People in Environment
There are several internationally known environ-
mental thinkers. Among those who have made
landmarks, the names that are usually men-
tioned are Charles Darwin, Ralph Emerson,
Henry Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel
Carson and EO Wilson. Each of these thinkers
looked at the environment from a completely
different perspective. Charles Darwin wrote
the ‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light
the close relationship between habitats and spe-
cies. It brought about a new thinking of man’s
relationship with other species that was based
on evolution. Alfred Wallace came to the same
conclusions during his work. Ralph Emerson
spoke of the dangers of commerce to our envi-
ronment way back in the 1840s. Henry
Thoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilder-
ness should be preserved after he lived in the
wild for a year. He felt that most people did not
care for nature and would sell it off for a small
sum of money. John Muir is remembered as
having saved the great ancient sequoia trees in
California’a forests. In the 1890s he formed the
Sierra club, which is a major conservation NGO
in the USA. Aldo Leopald was a forest official
in the US in the 1920s. He designed the early
policies on wilderness conservation and wildlife
management. In the 1960s Rachel Carson pub-
lished several articles that caused immediate
worldwide concern on the effects of pesticides
on nature and mankind. She wrote a well-
known book called ‘Silent Spring’ which even-
tually led to a change in Government policy and
public awareness. EO Wilson is an entomolo-
gist who envisioned that biological diversity was
a key to human survival on earth. He wrote ‘Di-
versity of Life’ in 1993, which was awarded a
prize for the best book published on environ-
mental issues. His writings brought home to the
world the risks to mankind due to man made
disturbances in natural ecosystems that are lead-
ing to the rapid extinction of species at the glo-
bal level.
There have been a number of individuals who
have been instrumental in shaping the environ-
mental history in our country. Some of the well-
known names in the last century include
environmentalists, scientists, administrators, le-
gal experts, educationists and journalists. Salim
Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in
India and with the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety (BNHS). He also wrote several great books
including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’. His
autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be
read by every nature enthusiast. He was our
country’s leading conservation scientist and in-
fluenced environmental policies in our country
for over 50 years. Indira Gandhi as PM has
played a highly significant role in the preserva-
tion of India’s wildlife. It was during her period
as PM, that the network of PAs grew from 65
to 298! The Wildlife Protection Act was formu-
lated during the period when she was PM and
the Indian Board for Wildlife was extremely ac-
tive as she personally chaired all its meetings.
India gained a name for itself by being a major
player in CITES and other International Environ-
mental Treaties and Accords during her tenure.
BNHS frequently used her good will to get con-
servation action initiated by the Government.
Chapter1.p65 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM12

S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest support-
ers of wildlife conservation and nature aware-
ness programs. Between 1975 and 1999, SP
Godrej received 10 awards for his conservation
activities. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan
in 1999. His friendship with people in power
combined with his deep commitment for con-
servation led to his playing a major advocacy
role for wildlife in India. M S Swaminathan is
one of India’s foremost agricultural scientists and
has also been concerned with various aspects
of biodiversity conservation both of cultivars and
wild biodiversity. He has founded the MS
Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai,
which does work on the conservation of bio-
logical diversity. Madhav Gadgil is a well-
known ecologist in India. His interests range
from broad ecological issues such as develop-
ing Community Biodiversity Registers and con-
serving sacred groves to studies on the behaviour
of mammals, birds and insects. He has written
several articles, published papers in journals and
is the author of 6 books. M C Mehta is un-
doubtedly India’s most famous environmental
lawyer. Since 1984, he has filed several Public
Interest Litigations for supporting the cause of
environmental conservation. His most famous
and long drawn battles supported by the Su-
preme Court include protecting the Taj Mahal,
cleaning up the Ganges River, banning inten-
sive shrimp farming on the coast, initiating Gov-
ernment to implement environmental education
in schools and colleges, and a variety of other
conservation issues. Anil Agarwal was a jour-
nalist who wrote the first report on the ‘State
of India’s Environment’ in 1982. He founded the
Center for Science and Environment which is
an active NGO that supports various environ-
mental issues. Medha Patkar is known as one
of India’s champions who has supported the
cause of downtrodden tribal people whose en-
vironment is being affected by the dams on the
Narmada river. Sunderlal Bahugna’s Chipko
Movement has become an internationally well-
known example of a highly successful conser-
vation action program through the efforts of
local people for guarding their forest resources.
His fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri
Dam in a fragile earthquake prone setting is a
battle that he continues to wage. The Garhwal
Hills will always remember his dedication to the
cause for which he has walked over 20 thou-
sand kilometers.
Chapter1.p65 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM13

Environmental

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