EXPERT TOPIC 1302- COBIA

I N C O R P O R AT I N G
f i s h far m ing t e c h no l og y

March | April 2013
EXPERT TOPIC - COBIA

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EXPERT TOPIC

COBIA Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth look
at a particular species and how its feed is managed.

50 | InternAtIonAl AquAFeed | March-April 2013

EXPERT T●PIC

1

3
2
4

China
1

The vast majority of the world’s cobia is pro-
duced in China. In fact in 2004, the country
produced 80.6 percent of global exports
according to the FAO. However, despite this,
there is little available information on cobia
feeds or farming strategies used by Chinese
farmers.

Taiwan USA
3 4

Vietnam
2
Taiwan is one of the pioneers of cobia Eighty-five percent of seafood in the USA is import-
aquaculture. Initially broodstock fish ed but there is burgeoning interest in increasing
In 2008, Vietnam produced 1,500 tonnes of were caught from the wild but in the domestic aquaculture production. Cobia is a promis-
cobia, making it the third largest producer 1990s, the country became the first in ing candidate for aquaculture production due to its
behind China and Taiwan. the world to successfully spawn cobia. rapid growth rate and good flesh quality. The first
One of the largest cobia operations in the By 1997, the technology and know-how aquaculture research on the species was noted in
country is run by Marine Farms Vietnam, a was in place to raise sizeable quantities 1975 in North Carolina, USA. Cobia eggs were
subsidiary of Marine Farms ASA, Norway. The of cobia. Today, broodstock are taken collected off the coast and raised in a rearing trial.
company has a shore base facility, hatchery site from grow out cages and transported Like Taiwan, there have also been success-
and ten sea sites, which range from 20 m to to onshore ponds to spawn. Juvenile ful spawning efforts on the USA.
32 m in depth. The farms, which are located cobia (1.5-2 years) is sent to grow out While the early production cycle in Taiwan
north of Nha Trang, produce more than 1,500 ponds, nearshore cages or offshore favours outdoor ponds, juvenile cobia in the USA
metric tons of cobia per year, with the capacity cages. tend to live in fibreglass tanks. According to the
to produce more than 6,000 tons if needed. According to FAO data, cobia pro- FAO, these tanks are either operated as recircula-
Not content with only Vietnamese ducers in Taiwan use both floating tion systems, flow-through or a combination of both.
cobia production, Marine Farms also has a and sinking pellets comprised of 42-45 Research efforts have focused on extending the
cobia operation in Belize which has been percent crude protein and 15-16 per- cobia spawning season with the aim of reaching
growing cobia in offshore cages since cent lipid. The FCR is approximately year-round egg production. To date, eggs have been
2006. 1.5:1. successfully fertilized during 10 months of the year.

March-April 2013 | InternAtIonAl AquAFeed | 51

EXPERT T●PIC

Developing found (Briggs, 1960; Collette, 1999; Benetti et addressed and resolved at this juncture are
al., 2008). Cobia are recognised for their fast related to feeds and nutrition.
ecologically efficient, growth, excellent meat quality, and have been At the present time, feeds represent the
intensively farmed since the 1990s (Liao et most expensive item of the production costs
economically viable al., 2004; Benetti et al., 2007). for cobia, and the inability to provide a
sustainable, high-quality feed that meets the
and nutritionally These characteristics, along with excellent energetic and nutritional requirements of
meat quality and good market demand and these fast growing fish continues to elude
adequate feeds for price, raised enormous interest in commer- producers. Top quality diets with high inclu-
cial aquaculture development of this species. sion levels of fishmeal and fish are avail-
cobia Rachycentron Indeed, while cobia was a little known candi- able but costs are prohibitively high from
date species for aquaculture about a decade both ecological and economical perspectives.
canadum ago, today it has established itself as a top Therefore, the collective goal of researchers,
quality cultured marine fish tropical/subtropi- feed manufacturers and producers is to for-
The University of Miami and other US
institutions have teamed up with feed cal in Asia and the Americas. mulate, develop and manufacture ecologically
manufacturing companies, producers Technology for reliable broodstock spawn- efficient and economically viable diets that
and the American Soybean Association ing and mass production of fingerlings has will meet the nutritional requirements of this
to develop competitive practical feeds been mastered at the University of Miami species. This review summarises these efforts.
for this emerging aquaculture species Experimental Hatchery (UMEH) and other The evaluation of feed ingredients is crucial
private companies and government institu- to nutritional research and feed development
by Jorge A Suarez, Carlos Tudela, Drew tions around the world. However, while the for aquaculture species. In evaluating ingredi-
Davis, Matthew Taynor, Lindsay Glass, fundamental technology for cobia production ents, there are several important points that
Ron Hoenig and Daniel D Benetti from egg to market is in place (Liao et al., must be understood to enable the judicious

C
2004; Benetti et al., 2008; 2010), many years use of a particular ingredient in feed formula-
obia is the only member of the of research and development are still needed tion (Glencross et al., 2007). The determina-
family Ranchycentridae. It is a to refine the culture process, allowing cobia to tion of nutrient digestibility is the first step in
tropical and subtropical species develop on an industrial scale, especially at the evaluating the potential of an ingredient for
widely distributed worldwide grow-out stage. use in the diet of an aquaculture species (Allan
(Briggs, 1960; Shaffer and Nakamura, 1989; Those working with the species both at et al., 2000).
Ditty and Shaw, 1992; Benetti et al., 2008), the R&D and production concur that the A constraint for the expansion of cobia aqua-
except in the eastern Pacific, where it rarely most crucial remaining roadblocks to be culture is the availability of high quality formu-


EXPERT T●PIC

lated diets which reduce or eliminate fishmeal Although nutritional principles are similar acids derived from triglycerides constituting
protein. Suitable replacements are often of plant for all animals, the amounts of nutrients the major energy source for muscle in almost
origin, but the evaluation of nutrient digestibility required vary among species. There are about all animals. They are also key components of
in new ingredients should be an initial step in 40 essential nutrients in fish diets (Akiyama et cellular and subcellular membranes (phos-
evaluating its potential for fishmeal replacement. al., 1993). According to Tacón (1989), nutri- pholipids, sterols, etc.). Performing functions
Therefore, the apparent digestibility coefficients tional requirements in the diet of all cultured as biological transporters in the absorption of
(ADCs) of protein and amino acids of a novel aquatic species may be categorized under five fat-soluble vitamins are precursors of pros-
variety of non-GMO soybean meal, Navita™, different nutritional groups: proteins, lipids, taglandins and hormones (Fenucci and Haran
and an industry standard soybean meal (defatted carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. 2006). For juvenile cobia, the lipid require-
soybean meal/roasted solvent-extracted), were ment was estimated at 5.76% (Chou et al.,
evaluated at University of Miami for juvenile Major nutrient requirements for 2001). Wang et al. (2005) used three isopro-
cobia, Rachycentron canadum. Results indicated juvenile cobia teic diets (47% protein) with three lipid levels
that the Navita™ is highly bio-available to cobia, Protein: One of the most important nutri- (5%, 15% and 25% dry matter). The authors
as ADCs for protein and amino acids obtained ents in the diet of marine fish is protein. This found no significant differences in growth
for this ingredient were significantly higher for is attributed to two factors, which are the between the cobia (7.7 g) fed diets containing
nearly every analysed component of the feed high cost of the ingredient and the organisms’ 5 percent and 15 percent lipids. However the
than the ADCs of the conventional soybean high protein nutritional requirement. Excess cobia fed 25 percent lipid had a significant
meal. ADCs crude protein were 81.8% and protein not only increases feed costs but it reduction in daily diet consumption, suggest-
68.5%, respectively, for Navita™ and conven- also increases the excretion of nitrogen into ing that lipid levels above 15 percent reduced
tional soybean meal. Similarly, ADCs of selected the environment. The first article used to growth due to decreased feed consumption.
amino acids ranged from 68.3-108.6% for the determine protein requirements in cobia was Carbohydrates: Because cobia commer-
Navita™ meal, whereas the same coefficient that of Chou et al. (2001), who determined cial feeds contain starch and cereal products,
ranged from 41.4-97.8% for the conventional by regression analysis, a protein requirement related research on carbohydrate require-
soybean meal. Findings from the present experi- of 44.5%. Craig, Schwarz and McLean (2006) ments are very important. Schwarz et al.
ment highlight the potential of Navita™ as a conducted a factorial study with two levels of (2007) suggests that cobia are able to use
suitable FM replacement in cobia diets and crude protein (40% and 50%) and three lipid up to 360g/kg-1 of dietary starch from low
should help to maximize cobia growth while levels (6%, 12% and 18%). The authors found molecular weight carbohydrate such as dex-
minimising the excretion of fish metabolites a significant difference in feed efficiency of 7.4 trin. Webb et al. (2009) determined that
(Davis et al., 2012). g cobia fed with the lowest level of protein. cobia can use carbohydrates to levels of
On the contrary, when the authors used 340g/kg-1 (dry diet) with an optimum energy
Reviewing cobia nutrition larger cobia (49.3 g) no significant differences protein of approximately 34mg protein kJ-1
In their thorough review of cobia nutri- in feed efficiency were found between the metabolisable energy.
tion, Fraser and Davies (2009) pointed out different levels of protein. Vitamins: Vitamins are nutrients necessary
the importance of paying special attention to Amino acids: The nutritional value of a for growth, health, and reproduction of organ-
the amino acid requirements when replacing protein diet is influenced by the composition isms and are required in very small amounts
fishmeal with alternative protein sources. Chou of its amino acids. For this reason, the protein in fish diet. Mai et al. (2009) determined the
et al. (2004) mentions that methionine is the to be used in practical diet formulations must requirements of choline in juvenile cobia. The
primary limiting amino acid replacement in be based on digestible amino acid profile requirement determined by ‘broken line’ for
studies of fishmeal with soybean meal. Lunger and quantitative amino acid requirements weight gain was 696 mg/kg-1 choline diet as
et al. (2007) found that the amino acid taurine in the targeted species. In cobia, studies of choline chloride. Unfortunately there is not
supplementation at a level of 5g kg1 dry weight, amino acid requirements are limited, only enough information on the requirements for
increased weight gain and feed efficiency in two of the ten amino acids have been con- vitamins and minerals in Cobia.
cobia fed diets with high levels of plant protein. sidered essential (Wilson 2002). Zhou et al.
Fraser and Davies (2009) conclude that (2006) determined methionine requirements Future research areas
nutritional studies on cobia are limited because in juvenile cobia. The authors state that for For the future we propose the following
most have been conducted using juvenile fish maximum growth and lower feed conversion research in the area of cobia nutrition:
with much lower weights than harvestable ratio, the requirement of methionine is 1.19% • Determine nutritional requirements at
size. The cobia commercial weight is between (dry diet) in the presence of 0.67% cysteine, different sizes classes
4 and 10 kg; however nutritional require- corresponding to 2.64% dry weight of dietary • Further requirements of amino acids,
ments have only been examined in juvenile protein. vitamins and minerals
fish weighing 50 g. Although differences in the For lysine, Zhou et al. (2007) determined • Continue research replacement of fish-
requirements were minimal, it would still have the requirements in juvenile cobia. The result meal and fish oil to alternative sources
a high important commercial impact, especial- for lysine requirements were 2.33% and of protein and lipid
ly considering protein and lipids are the major 5.30% dry weight of dietary protein. These • Complement existing information on
dietary components in fish diets. The accuracy values of methionine and lysine are in accord- digestibility and energy balance of pro-
of the nutritional requirements would not ance with the requirement values of other tein ingredients of plant and animal
only have a positive economic impact on the important fish species in aquaculture (Wilson origin
industry, but also decrease the environmental 2002). Recently, Ren et al. (2012) determined • Monitoring the quality of commercial
pollution by decreasing nutrient loading in the the requirements of arginine on the basis of feeds, used by the industry
aquatic ecosystem. As reviewed by Welch et SGR and FER. The optimal dietary arginine • Implementation of management
al (2010), the importance of the responsible requirements of juvenile cobia were estimated practices
use of natural resources such as fishmeal, to be 2.85% of the diet and 2.82% of the diet, In conclusion, the collaborative effort of
fish oil and vegetable crops to ensure the respectively. researchers, feed manufacturers and produc-
environmental sustainability of aquafeeds is Lipids: Lipids are an important source of ers are driving steadfast progress towards
well recognised. highly digestible energy, in particular, free fatty developing practical and economical diets for


EXPERT T●PIC

Benetti, D.D., M.R. Orhun, I. Zink,
F. G. Cavalin, B. Sardenberg, K.
Palmer, B. Denlinger, D. Bacoat and
B. O'Hanlon. 2007. Aquaculture
of cobia (Rachycentron canadum)
in the Americas and the
Caribbean. Pages 57-78. In: I C.
Liao and E.M. Leaño (editors)
In: Cobia Aquaculture: Research,
Development and Commercial
Production. Asian Fisheries
Society, Manila, Philippines, World
Aquaculture Society, Louisiana, USA,
The Fisheries Society of Taiwan,
Keelung Taiwan, and National Taiwan
Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan.

Benetti, D.D., 2008. Cobia
aquaculture expanding in the
Americas and the Caribbean. Global
Aquaculture Advocate 1(2): 46-48

Benetti, D.D., B. O’Hanlon, J.A.
Rivera, A.W. Welch, C. Maxey and
M.R. Orhun 2010. Growth rates of
cobia (Rachycentron canadum) in
open ocean cages in the Caribbean.
Aquaculture 302: 195-201

Briggs, J.C., 1960. Fishes of world-
wide (circumtropical) distribution.
Copeia 3,171-180. Catacutan,
M.R. & Pagador, G.E. ,2004. Partial
replacement of fishmeal by defatted
soybean meal in formulated diets
for the mangrove red snapper,
Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal
1775). Aquacult. Res., 35, 299–306.

Chou R.L., Su M.S. & Chen
H.Y.,2001. Optimal dietary protein
and lipid levels for juvenile
cobia (Rachycentron canadum).
Aquaculture193,81-89.

Chou R.L., Her B.Y., Su M.S., Hwang
G.,WuY.H. & Chen H.Y.,2004.
Substituting fish meal with soybean
meal in diets of juvenile cobia
Rachycentron canadum. Aquaculture
229, 325-333.

Collette, B.B., 1999. Rachycentridae.
In: Carpenter, K.E., and Niem, V.H.
(Eds.), The Living Marine Resources of
the Western Central Pacific. Volume
4. Bony fishes part 2 (Mugilidae to
Carangidae). FAO. Rome.
cobia at all developmental stages. Government industry is and will continue to benefit all Craig S.R., Schwarz M.H. & McLean E., 2006.
support as well as interest and funding gener- stakeholders, from producers to consumers. Juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum) can utilize
ated by American Soybean Association and a wide range of protein and lipid levels without
its various affiliated groups have been of References impacts on production characteristics. Aquaculture
paramount importance in advancing knowl- 261,384-391.
Allan, G.L., Parkinson, S., Booth, M.A., Stone, D.A.J.,
edge and technologies the field. The industry Rowland, S.J., Frances, J., Warner-Smith, R., 2000. Davis, D., Suárez, J., Buentello, A., Benetti,
is much further ahead than it was about a Replacement of fish meal in diets for Australian D (abstract accepted in October 2012).
decade ago. It is recognised that enhanced silver pech, Bidyanus bidyanus: I. Digestibility of Apparent digestibility coefficients of
knowledge and better nutrition are allowing alternative ingredients. Aquaculture 186, 293-310 protein and amino acids of a novel non-
cobia aquaculture production to continue to GMO variety of soybean meal for juvenile
Akiyama D., 1993. El uso de productos a base de
expand exponentially worldwide while mov- cobia, Rachycentron canadum; Abstract, oral
soya y de otros suplementos proteicos vegetales en
ing away from inadequate diets and trash fish. presentation, 2013 Aquaculture America
alimentos para acuacultura. Memorias del Primer
The development of an ecologically efficient Conference, World Aquaculture Society,
Simposium Internacional de Nutrición y Tecnología
Februar y 21-25, Nashville, Tennessee.
and economically viable cobia aquaculture de Alimentos para Acuacultura, pp. 257-269.


EXPERT T●PIC
FEATURE

Fenucci J. & Harán N., 2006. Estado actual y thermal regimes:
perspectivas de la nutrición de los camarones evidence for

take a
Peneidos cultivados en Iberoamérica. subprograma compensatory growth
ii “acuicultura” red temática ii.c. pp 153 and a method for cold
banking. Journal of

CLOSER LOOK
Fraser T. & Davies S., 2009. Review article
Applied Aquaculture
Nutritional requirements of cobia, Rachycentron
19,71-84.
canadum (Linnaeus): a review. Aquaculture
Research. 1-16. Shaffer, R.V., Nakamura,
E.L., 1989. Synopsis of
Glencross, B.D., Booth, M., Allan, G.L., 2007. A feed

at Novus Aquaculture
biological data on the
is only as good as its ingredients – a review of
cobia Rachycentron
ingredient evaluation strategies for aquaculture
canadum (Pisces:
feeds. Aquaculture Nutrition. 13; 17-34.
Rachycentridae). FAO
Liao, I., Juang, T., Tsia, W., Hsueh, C., Chang, S., Leano, Fisheries Synopsis.
E., 2004. Cobia culture in Taiwan: current status and 153 (National Marine
Our success in developing sustainable
problems. Aquaculture 237, 155-165. Fisheries Service/S
153), U.S. Department
Lunger A.N.,McLean E. & Craig S.R.,2007. The knowledge
solutions evolves from a hands-on of Commerce, NOAA
efects of organic protein supplementation upon Welsh, A., R. Hoenig, J. Stieglitz, D. D. Benetti, A.
growth, feed conversion and texture quality aqua
and understanding of the global Technical Report, National Marine Fisheries Service
Tacon, N. Sims, and B. O'Hanlon 2010. From
82. Washingtion, D.C.
industry. By focusing on the needs of the
parameters of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron fishing to the sustainable farming of carnivorous
canadum). Aquaculture 264,342-352. Tacón. A, Nutricion y alimentacion de peces y marine finfish. Reviews in Fisheries Science 18(3):
animals, our team of experts will design a camarones cultivados manual de capacitación., 235-247
Mai, K., Xiao, L., Ai,Q., Wang,X., Xu, W., Zhang, W.,
solution for your operation.
Liufu, Z., Ren, M.,2009. Dietary choline requirement
1989. organización de las naciones unidas para la
agricultura y la alimentación Brasilia, Brasil.
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for juvenile cobia, Rachycentron canadum. Fish Nutrition (ed. by J. Halver & R. Hardy), pp.
Aquaculture 289,124-128. Wang J.T., LiuY.J.,Tian L.X.,Mai K.S., Du Z.Y.,WangY.
143–179.Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA.
& Yang H.J.,2005. Effect of dietary lipid level on
Mingchun Ren, Ai., Q & Mai, K., 2012. Dietary Zhou Q.C.,Wu Z.H.,Tan B.P., Chi S.Y. & Yang Q.H.,
growth performance, lipid deposition, hepatic
arginine requirements of juvenile cobia THROUGH NUTRITION | OPTIMIZED RAW MATERIALS | FUNCTIONAL FEEDS | SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
FEED COST REDUCTION | HEALTH 2006. Optimal dietary methionine requirement
lipogenesis in juvenile cobia (Rachycentron
(Rachycentron canadum). Aquaculture Research, for juvenile Cobia (Rachycentron canadum).
canadum). Aquaculture 249,439-447
2012, 1-9 Aquaculture 258,551-557.
www.novusint.com/aqua
Schwarz M.H.,Mowry D., McLean E. & Craig S.R.,
Webb, K.A.,Rawlison L.T.& Holt G.J.,2009. Effects
Zhou Q.C., Wu Z.H., Chi S.Y. & Yang Q.H.,2007.
of dietary ratio on growth and feed efficiency of
2007. trademark of Novus International, Inc., and is registered in the United States and other countries. TM SOLUTIONS SERVICE SUSTAINABILITY
Performance of advanced juvenile cobia, Dietary lysine requirement of juvenile cobia
® is a
juvenile cobia, Rachycentron canadum. Aquaculture
is a trademark of Novus International, Inc. ©2012 Novus International, Inc. All rights reserved. 2978
Rachycentron canadum,reared under diferent (Rachycentron canadum). Aquaculture 273,634-640.
IDL13-Intl Aqua Feed .pdf 1 2/19/13
Nutrition. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2009.00672.x
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