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- 1. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Essentials of Understanding Psychology RobertS. Feldman| TwelfthEdition
- 2. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology
- 3. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. MODULE 1 - Psychologists at Work • What is the science of psychology? • What are the major specialties in the field of psychology? • Where do psychologists work?
- 4. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Introduction • Psychology: Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- 5. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Subfields of Psychology Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Neuroscience Clinical Psychology Clinical Neuropsychology Cognitive Psychology Counseling Psychology Cross-cultural Psychology
- 6. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Subfields of Psychology Developmental Psychology Educational Psychology Environmental Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Experimental Psychology Forensic Psychology Health Psychology
- 7. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Subfields of Psychology Industrial/ organizational Psychology Personality Psychology Program Evaluation Psychology of Women School Psychology Social Psychology Sport Psychology
- 8. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Biological Foundations of Behavior • People are biological organisms • Behavioral neuroscience • Subfield of psychology • Focuses on how the brain, nervous system, and other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior
- 9. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. How do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think About the World? • Experimental psychology • Studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world • Subspecialty • Cognitive psychology - Focuses on higher mental processes, such as thinking, memory, and problem- solving
- 10. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. What are the Sources of Change and Stability in BehaviorAcross the Life Span? • Studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death Developmental psychology • Focuses on consistency in people’s behavior over time and traits that differentiate one person from another Personality psychology
- 11. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. How do Psychological Factors Affect Physical and Mental Health? • Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease Health psychology • Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders Clinical psychology • Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems Counseling psychology
- 12. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. How do our Social Networks Affect Behavior? • Social psychology • Study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others • Cross-cultural psychology • Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups
- 13. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers • Evolutionary psychology • Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors • Stems from Darwin’s On the Origin of Species • Behavioral genetics • Seeks to understand: • How we might inherit certain behavioral traits • How the environment influences whether we actually display such traits
- 14. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers • Clinical neuropsychology • Unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology • Focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors
- 15. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 3: The Breakdown of Where U.S. Psychologists Work
- 16. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychologists: A Portrait • Historically, women actively discouraged from becoming psychologists • Women now outnumber men in the field • Consequences of racial and ethnic minority underrepresentation among psychologists: • Field is diminished by lack of diverse perspectives and talents • Deters new members from entering the field • Minorities possibly underserved: people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethnic group
- 17. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Education and Careers for a Psychologist • Education • PhD – Doctor of philosophy • PsyD – Doctor of psychology • Master’s degree • Bachelor’s degree • Careers • Administrator • Serving as a counselor • Providing direct care • Education • Business • Government
- 18. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. MODULE 2 - A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future • What are the origins of psychology? • What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology? • What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? • What is the future of psychology likely to hold?
- 19. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Roots of Psychology • Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt • Study the building blocks of the mind (structure of the mind); study of conscious experience • Focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities • Introspection: Procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus
- 20. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Roots of Psychology • Criticisms of structuralism • Introspection was not a scientific technique; Can’t be confirmed by others • People had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences • These drawbacks led to the development of newer approaches
- 21. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Roots of Psychology • Functionalism - William James • Concentrated on what the mind does and how it functions • What role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments • Eg. How does the function of emotion of fear help us prepare in emergency situations? • How people satisfy their needs through behavior • How our stream of consciousness – the flow of thoughts in our conscious minds – permit us to adapt to our environment
- 22. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Roots of Psychology • Gestalt psychology - Hermann Ebbinghaus, Max Wertheimer • Focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a whole sense rather than on the individual elements of perception • “The whole is different from the sum of its parts” • Our perception or understanding of objects is greater nd more meaningful than the individual elements that make up out perception
- 23. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 2: Major Perspectives of Psychology
- 24. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood, Sweat, and Fears • Neuroscience perspective: Views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions • How hereditary and evolution affect us • How inheritance from parents and ancestors influences behavior • How the functioning of our body affects hopes and fears; which behaviors are instinctual • Contribution: drug treatments for deafness and severe mental disorders
- 25. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Understanding the Inner Person • Psychodynamic perspective - Sigmund Freud • Behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces and conflicts over which the individual has little control • Dreams and slips of tongue are indications of what the person is truly feeling
- 26. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Behavioral Perspective: Observing the Outer Person • Behavioral perspective - John B. Watson; B. F. Skinner • Suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study • Watson believed that you can bring about any type of behavior by controlling a person’s environment • Skinner focused on behavior could be learned
- 27. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying the Roots of Understanding • Cognitive perspective • Focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world • Information processing • Focus on learning how people comprehend and represent the world; and how our ways of thinking about the world influence us • How people make decisions; is multitasking possible?
- 28. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Humanistic Perspective: The Unique Qualities of the Human Species • Humanistic perspective - Carl Rogers; Abraham Maslow • Suggests individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior • Seek and reach fulfillment • Emphasis is on free will • Contrasts to determinism (behaviour is caused or determined by things beyond a person’s control)
- 29. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 3: Key Issues in Psychology
- 30. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies • Nature: genetically determined, inherited • Nurture: influences of the physical and social environments in which a person is raised
- 31. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies • Conscious: forces of which we are fully aware • Unconscious: forces that are not accessible to the conscious mind
- 32. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies • Observable behavior: objective behavior that can be seen by outside observers • Internal mental processes: unseen processes involved in thinking
- 33. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies • Free will: Idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual • Determinism: Idea that people’s behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control
- 34. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies • Individual differences: a person’s unique and special qualities • Universal principles: factors that underlie the behavior of all humans
- 35. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychology’s Future • Psychology will become increasingly specialized • Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other branches of psychology • Influence on issues of public interest will grow • Psychologists will follow increasingly strict ethical and moral guidelines • Public’s view of psychology will become more informed • Issues of diversity will become more important to psychologists
- 36. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. MODULE 3 – Research in Psychology • What is the scientific method? • What role do theories and hypotheses play in psychological research? • What research methods do psychologists use? • How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships in research studies?
- 37. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Scientific Method • Approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest
- 38. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 1: The Scientific Method
- 39. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Theories • Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest • Provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of unorganized facts or principles • Example: diffusion of responsibility • With more bystanders in an emergency situation, the smaller the share of the responsibility each person feels • Developed by Bibb Latané and John Darley
- 40. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions • Hypothesis: A prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested • Operational definition: Translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
- 41. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions • Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons • Permits them to place bits of observations within a coherent framework • Help psychologists to make deductions about unexplained phenomena • Develop ideas for future investigation
- 42. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Psychological Research • Research • Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge • Key to understanding the accuracy of hypotheses and theories • Descriptive research • Systematic investigation of a person, group, or pattern of behavior • Several types of descriptive research
- 43. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Archival Research • Existing data are examined to test a hypothesis • Census documents • College records • Online databases • Newspaper clippings • Advantage - Inexpensive • Disadvantage - Problems with using existing data • Data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully
- 44. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Naturalistic Observation • Investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior • Does not make a change in the situation • Advantage - Sample of what people do in their natural habitat • Disadvantage - Inability to control any factors of interest
- 45. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Survey Research • People are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes • Advantage - can infer how a larger group would respond, if a representative sample is surveyed • Disadvantage - results will be inconsequential if the sample is not representative • Survey respondents may not want to admit to holding socially undesirable attitudes
- 46. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Case Study • In-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or a small group of people • Often include psychological testing • Advantage - can use insights to improve our understanding of people in general • Disadvantage - unique individuals make it impossible for generalizations
- 47. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Correlational Research • Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine: • Whether they are associated, or correlated • Variables: Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way
- 48. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Correlational Research • Correlation coefficient - Represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables • Value can range from +1.00 to -1.00 • Positive - As the value of one variable increases, so will the value of the other variable • Negative - As the value of one variable increases, value of the other variable will decrease • Lack of relationship - Value near 0 indicates no relationship • Disadvantage - Inability to demonstrate cause-and- effect relationships
- 49. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 2: Aggression and TV Viewing
- 50. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Experimental Research • Experiment: Investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by: • Producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects on the second variable • Experimental manipulation: Change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation
- 51. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Experimental Research • Experimental groups and control groups • Treatment • Manipulation implemented by the experimenter • Experimental group • Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment • Control group • Group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment
- 52. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Experimental Research • Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter • Dependent variable: The variable that is measured • Expected to change as a result of changes in the independent variable • Dependent on the actions of the research participants that are taking part in the experiment
- 53. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Experimental Research • Random assignment to condition: Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance • Significant outcome: Statistically meaningful results • Makes it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses • Replicated research: Research that is repeated, in other settings and with other groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings
- 54. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 3: True Experiments
- 55. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. MODULE 4 - Critical Research Issues • What major issues confront psychologists conducting research?
- 56. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Ethics of Research • Guidelines that protect participants • Protection of participants from physical and mental harm • Right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior • Assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary • Necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures before their participation in the experiment • All experiments must be reviewed by an independent panel before being conducted
- 57. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. The Ethics of Research • Informed consent: A document signed by participants • Affirms that they have been told about the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve • Debriefing: Participants receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved
- 58. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Should Animals Be Used in Research? • Researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort, illness, and pain • Procedures that subject animals to distress are permitted: • When an alternative procedure is unavailable • When the research is justified by its prospective value • Provides greater experimental control over nonhumans • Procedures that might not be possible with people can be carried out
- 59. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias • Experimental bias: Factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable • Experimenter expectations • Participant expectations
- 60. Copyright © 2017McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias • Placebo: A false treatment without any significant chemical properties • Double-blind procedure: Keeping experimenter and participant blind to the nature of the drug administered