Final DOC

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The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement in School-Aged
Children
Kristen Hurley
A Project Submitted as a Course Requirement
PHED 432
Seminar for Physical Educators and Health Educators
Gardner-Webb University
December 2013

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Abstract
This paper serves to evaluate the relationship between physical activity and academic
achievement in school-aged children, as evidenced by research and scholarly articles. This topic
is of heightened interest due to increasing amounts of overweight and obese school-aged
children, and concerns of the United States falling behind academically in terms of international
standards. The main findings of this research paper were that aerobic fitness activities at high
intensities for a certain duration and frequency produced the strongest academic results.
Research shows that physical activity may improve academic performance through cognition,
executive function, intelligence, academic achievement, and classroom behavior. These findings
would be of great use to the classroom teacher, the physical educator, and the school
administrator.
Keywords: physical activity, physical education, academic achievement, cognition,
classroom behavior

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The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Academic Achievement in School-Aged
Children
Introduction
A topic of recent interest to educators, schools, and researchers is the concept that
physical activity can have a positive effect not only on personal health and wellness, but on
academic achievement as well. This topic has been studied for nearly a century (for example, a
study was done in 1924 regarding a correlation between physical ability and health, and mental
capabilities), but in recent years has picked up interest with an increase in volume of scientific
studies dedicated to this subject. People in our nation are concerned that our children are falling
behind the rest of the world academically, but are we actually reducing our chances of catching
up by cutting Physical Education?
In many schools across the country right now, Physical Education is being reduced and
even cut due to lack of funding and a heightened demand to have students meet certain academic
standards. For example, the state of California requires a minimum of 100 minutes per week be
spent in Physical Education for elementary school children, and 200 minutes per week in
Physical Education for secondary school students. Not only is this is already a lower standard
than the nationally recommended 150 minutes and 225 minutes respectively, but a study led by
the California Endowment found that less than 50% of school districts in California met this
lowered objective (The California Endowment, 2007). The National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE), the leading national organization for the publication of standards,
goals, and guidelines for school Physical Education programs, has created benchmarks for
excellence in Physical Education. According to NASPE, a quality Physical Education program
provides, “learning opportunities, appropriate instruction, [and] meaningful and challenging

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content for all children”. Specifically, this is achieved through the 150- and 225-minute per week
guidelines, a developmentally appropriate curriculum provided by trained educators, low
teacher-to-student ratio, and appropriate equipment and facilities. The California study found
that students were falling short on the national recommendation for time in P.E. (elementary
students only received on average 84 minutes of P.E. per week). Not only are American children
not getting enough weekly time in Physical Education, but they are not spending this time being
active. For every 30 minutes in Physical Education class, only 4 were spent doing vigorous
exercise (The California Endowment, 2007). Supporting the basis for a NASPE
recommendation of a low teacher to student ratio around 1:25, the California study also found
that students in large classes of 45 students or more got half as much physical activity as students
in small class sizes, and spent less than 10% of the time being physically active (The California
Endowment, 2007). This shows just how short we are falling from the nationally recommended
standards.
In addition to the students’ opportunity to learn, NASPE also stated that a quality
Physical Education program should provide appropriate instruction, meaningful content, and
student and program assessment. The data clearly shows that we are missing the mark on amount
of time spent in Physical Education (and more specifically amount of time spent being active).
While it is more difficult to obtain objective evidence proving so, it is very likely that we are
falling short on the other three recommendations as well.
Education of children should have high priority, and the increased focus on grades and
standardized testing is not unwarranted. However, many consider physical health to be as
important as mental health, and this area of wellness should not be ignored. Our government has
recommended in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans that children and adolescents get

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at least 60 minutes of physical activity per day (U.S. Department, 2008). The majority of our
students do not even get that much physical activity per week in school (Carlson, 2008). The
problem is that school may be the only place where children will get physical activity, because
many kids go straight home and watch TV or play on the computer. Studies have shown that
obese and overweight children are extremely likely to be obese as adults (one found that children
aged 10-15 years who were obese had an 80% chance of being obese as adults) (Bellows, 2013).
In the same study, it was shown that obesity has not only been linked to an extensive list of
health problems, but also has psychological and emotional problems as well. In most schools
today, children are only getting a small amount of daily physical activity due to the scarcity of
time spent in Physical Education. The state of North Carolina does not even require any specific
amount of time be spent in Physical Education class (North Carolina Department of Public
Instruction, 2013). If there is no state mandate, there is no pressure on schools to dedicate much
time in the class schedule to Physical Education. Schools should not be merely fighting to defend
what little time is spent in Physical Education as of right now, but pushing for even more time,
so that we can meet the national health objective. Also of importance is hiring licensed Physical
and Health education professionals who will plan quality classes filled with physical activity.
If administrators and common core educators are hesitant to see the intrinsic value in
Physical and Health Education, it may pique their interest to find that the fitness activities their
students are doing in gym class may actually help them be more focused in the classroom, be less
disruptive, and earn better grades. This paper will evaluate many different studies and research
conducted related to the link between physical activity and academic achievement.
There are several reasons why this topic is of elevated importance to our country at this
time. Not only are standardized tests and academic expectations for students increasing, but so is

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the prevalence of obesity in the United States. In fact, according to the CDC, over 33% of
American children were overweight or obese in the year 2010 (CDC, 2013). If scientific research
and analysis were to prove that physical activity can lead to improved academic achievement,
our school boards and administrators would have to take notice. We could essentially tackle two
vital problems in our country at the same time- make progress towards reducing childhood
obesity while improving academic performance at the same time. Through a presentation and
analysis of recent research done in this subject area, this paper will serve to consider the data and
determine if a relationship does exist between physical activity and academic achievement, and
then examine the implications that the findings have for our schools.
Health Benefits of Physical Activity
Physical activity has been proven to have many health benefits. Not only is it an effective
way to manage and maintain a healthy weight, but it is shown to reduce high blood pressure in
people with hypertension (CDC, 1999). Physical Activity helps promote healthy bones, muscles,
and joints, while developing lean muscle and reducing body fat (CDC, 1999). Children who are
physically active will have a lower risk of developing health risk factors such as heart disease,
hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, and osteoporosis (US Department of Health and Human Services,
2008). Though these chronic diseases do not usually appear in school-age children, risk factors
for these disease do begin to appear early in life (US Department of Health and Human Services,
2008). Some of these chronic diseases, like Type 2 diabetes, actually are beginning to develop at
a young age now because of childhood obesity. Another added bonus of physical activity is the
mental health benefits. Children who are physically active are less likely to have anxiety and
depression, and will have enhanced mood and feelings of well-being (CDC, 1999).

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As proven by research mentioned earlier (such as the fact that 80% of children who are
obese will be obese as adults), habits formed during childhood will often remain throughout the
lifespan and become very hard to break as adults. If children become accustomed to eating
poorly and living a sedentary lifestyle, then they will most likely live this way as an adult. One
reason why is it so important to get children physically active when they are young is because it
will increase the likelihood of them being physically active when they get older. Schools have
children captive about 8 hours per day, 5 days per week. This is the only time that we can
guarantee that they are physically active, and right now for the most part, this opportunity is
being wasted. The majority of children in our country are not getting the nationally
recommended weekly physical activity rates in school (Carlson, 2008). To make matters worse,
when they are in physical education, they are not spending time being active (The California
Endowment, 2007). If America hopes to reduce obesity rates, we are going to have to start with
school-age children by getting them more physically active and teaching them about health.
Specificity of Physical Activity and How it Effects Academic Performance
Research revealed a very broad spectrum of studies related to physical activity, fitness,
exercise, and school-based active breaks from the classroom setting, and their respective effects
on different measures of academic achievement. The different types of physical activity had
varying effects on measures of academic achievement; some were more effective agents than
others.
For sake of clarity in this paper, physical activity will be defined as, “any bodily
movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure
above resting level” (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008). There are many

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different types of physical activity, such as exercise, participation in sports, fitness-related
activities, weight lifting, and stretching, to name a few. Most of these activities will have a more
concentrated focus on one of the five components of health-related fitness (cardiorespiratory
fitness, body composition, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility).
Among the journal articles related to physical activity and academic performance, there
were a range of activities performed that were considered “physical activity”. A study conducted
by Rasberry et al on “The association between school-based physical activity, including physical
education, and academic performance” analyzed 43 articles with 50 unique studies related to the
topic of this paper. With a total of 251 associations between physical activity and academic
performance, the majority (50.5%) found a positive association, 48% were not significant, and
1.5% were negative (Rasberry, 2011). The authors of this study offered some suggestions for
why there may have been such a high percentage with no association, such as the fact that many
of the studies had small sample sizes. Another important point, which we will examine in more
depth later, is that many of the studies measured a broad range of academic achievement factors
in order to determine which were related to physical activity and which were not. Therefore,
some of the factors would have an association but many would not, leading to the 48%. Lastly,
the variability of context in which the physical activity took place (type of physical activity,
duration, intensity) had an effect its association with academic achievement.
In this section of the paper, the different types, duration, and intensity of physical activity
will be examined, and determine which ones had the most beneficial effects on academic
performance in general. Subsequently, specific measures of academic achievement will be
analyzed to see which recognize the greatest improvement from physical activity. In general, the
most effective type of physical activity linked to academic performance was fitness-related. In

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fact, the authors of “Exercise and Children’s Intelligence, Cognition, and Academic
Achievement” recognized this in the summary of their findings from research to related studies.
According to them, “Exercise interventions are complex. Exercise training is defined as a
procedure designed to enhance a specific dimension of physical fitness; thus some interventions
may be aimed at promoting individual changes in cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength,
muscular endurance, or muscular flexibility… interventions [that] were designed specifically to
promote cardiorespiratory physical fitness, [are] seen by some researchers as the “gold standard”
to gauge impact of exercise interventions on cognitive functioning” (Tomporowski, 2008).
Greater benefits were also seen for greater intensity of activity, as well as longer duration. It is
logical to assume that greater benefits would be recognized for more time and effort put in, if any
related benefits do exist.
The majority of studies examined found positive effects on academic achievement related
to aerobic exercise. An analysis of three different studies related to this topic found that aerobic
exercise had a large effect on four different types of mental processing (Tomporowski, 2008). A
2004 intervention study involving a 6 month aerobic walking program revealed changes in the
anterior cingulate cortex which is involved in controlling behavior, and enhanced reaction times
in decision-making tasks (Tomporowski, 2008). In a another study that analyzed the relationship
between fitness and academic achievement, body mass index (BMI) was negatively related to
both reading and math test scores, while aerobic fitness, as measured by the Progressive Aerobic
Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER), was positively related (R= .23 for math, .16 for
reading) (Hillman, 2008). This data can be referenced below in Figure 1. No such correlation
was found for either muscular strength or flexibility, reinforcing the idea that aerobic fitness has
the greatest link to academic achievement improvements. Both reading comprehension and

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performing math calculations have been linked to
use of the prefrontal cortex and posterior
cingulate cortex (pictured to the right in Figure
1) of the intraparietal sulcus (Hillman, 2008).
According to other research, fitness has also been
found to activate the frontoparietal region of the
brain (Colcombe, 2004; Marks, 2007). Therefore,
it is logical to infer that there may be a link
between physical activity and enhanced academic achievement.
Another study conducted by Hillman assessed how fitness related to reaction time and
accuracy on a flanker task. The Eriksen Flanker task is used to measure an individual’s
interference control, which is the ability to ignore task-irrelevant information. This task involves
distinguishing between central (target) and peripheral (non-target/flanker) letters presented in an
array (Example: SSHSS; the “S” characters are flankers, and the “H” is the target letter). The
array of letters will be flashed upon a screen, and subjects must type in the target letter. When the
array of letters is congruent (ex: HHHHH) reaction times are lower and accuracy is much higher,
than when they are incongruent, such as in the example above. In this study, a sample of 48
preadolescent students was divided into two groups based on their fitness level, as assessed by
the PACER test. Students were put in either a “high-fit” or “low-fit” group. The high-fit group
had greater accuracy, and also had a lower median reaction time (though this factor did not vary
enough between groups to be considered significant). Because interference control is one
measure of executive control (an indicator of cognition that will be discussed in more depth
later), this is further evidence that aerobic fitness specifically is very likely linked to academic
Figure 1

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performance. Finally, Castelli’s evaluation of relationship between aerobic fitness (as measured
by the PACER) and academic achievement (as assessed by the Illinois State Achievement test),
found a positive association between fitness level and total achievement score (r=.48), math
score (r=.49), and reading score (r=.45) (Donnelly, 2008). In reference to cardiorespiratory
fitness, Castelli said, “the current study present[s] new evidence that specific components of
physical fitness are globally associated with academic performance during maturation” (Castelli,
2007, p. 248).
A series of studies focused on school-based physical activity found different results for
academic achievement based on time spent being active. One study found an increase in
frequency of PE class from two days a week to five was linked with higher math, reading, and
writing scores (Rasberry, 2011). A recess-based physical activity study found all positive
associations between more physical activity at recess and positive classroom behaviors
(Rasberry, 2011).
A 2007 study by Davis evaluated the effect of a 10-15 week aerobic exercise intervention
on executive function. This study involved a sample of overweight 7-11 year olds, and randomly
assigned the children to one of three groups: a control group, 20-minute exercise group, or 40-
minute exercise group (Tomporowski, 2008). The two latter groups participated in aerobic
exercises designed to get heart rate up above 150 bpm. These two groups would participate in
this program 5 days per week after school. The study utilized a Cognitive Assessment System
(CAS) to evaluate 4 measures of executive function: Planning (involving cognitive control,
intentionality, and self-regulation), Attention (focused, selective cognitive activity),
Simultaneous (spatial and logical processing), and Successive (processing sequential
information) (Tomporowski, 2008). In this study, no differences at all were found in the CAS

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scales between the 20-minute exercise group and the control group. However, a significant
improvement was found on the Planning measure of executive control (Effect Size= .30) for the
40-minute group in comparison to the control group. The results from this study suggest that a
certain duration of physical activity may be required in order to recognize mental health benefits.
Another study found similar results for specific groups and populations, and may
corroborate the evidence supporting the idea that duration of physical activity will improve
academics. A longitudinal study focused on time spent in Physical Education and standardized
test scores utilized a sample of 5,316 Kindergarten students in hundreds of schools across
various counties (Carlson, 2008). The study utilized a standardized test administered across five
time points, and teacher-reported time spent in Physical Education class, to examine a
relationship between PE and academic achievement through a prospective cohort design.
Teacher-reported time spent in PE was divided into three groups: low (10-35 minutes per week),
medium (36-69 min/week), and high (70-300 min/week). Teachers most commonly reported that
students had PE 1-2 times per week, for 16-30 min for kindergarten through first grade, and 31-
60 min for third through fifth grade (Carlson, 2008). Girls in the low PE group had the lowest
Item Response Theory (IRT) scale scores for math and reading, and the kindergarten and first
grade girls specifically had significantly lower scores. Fifth grade girls in the top two PE groups
had significantly higher reading scores. There were no significant differences found between any
of the groups of boys, which may be because males tend to be more physically active and
involved in sports on their own, regardless of the time they spend in PE class. This study may not
have found more significant results across the board for the different PE groups because time in
PE was self-reported by teachers (which is not the most accurate way of gathering data) and
because there was no indication of actual time spent being active in PE. Just because the students

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spend half an hour in PE class does not mean they spent half an hour in moderate to vigorous
physical activity, as noted earlier. This leads us another important factor for effectiveness of
physical activity intervention for noticeable academic improvements: intensity.
The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans states that, “youth can achieve
substantial health benefits by doing moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity for
periods of time that add up to 60 minutes or more each day” (emphasis added) (US Department
of Health and Human Services, 2008). In addition to improving physical wellbeing, participating
in moderate to vigorous physical activity is more likely to produce brain-enhancing effects than
low-intensity exercise. A study performed this year by Amadeu Martins found that moderate-
intensity exercise facilitates working memory (Martins, 2013). Not only did the exercise improve
performance on an auditory serial addition task, but also decreased reaction time in a Sternberg
recognition task. Another study examined the associations between physical activity levels and
academic achievement among 9th grade students in Sweden. Physical activity was measured
through the use of accelerometers, and data was divided into light, moderate, and intense
physical activity levels. Software was used to analyze the relationship between physical activity
and academic achievement. Similar to another study, this one only found significant relationships
among females; however, physical activity was only significantly related to physical activity in
girls when it was vigorous (Kwak, 2009).
In summary, the studies examined most frequently found the greatest positive relations to
academic achievement for aerobic fitness, for longer durations of time, and higher intensity of
effort put into the physical activity. At this time, even with great strides in scientific research and
technological advancements, the human brain remains a great enigma. None of the research
examined explains exactly how or why aerobic fitness exercises are more beneficial to the brain

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than other types of exercises, though there are several potential hypotheses. First of all, aerobic
exercise raises heart rate, which increases blood flow to the brain. The brain craves blood flow,
and a certain percentage of blood flow is always directed to the brain whether at rest or during
exercise. However, because exercise increases total cardiac output, this means that the brain will
receive a higher total amount of blood during exercise (Powers, 2012, p. 225). This means more
oxygen to the brain, which allows for cognition. When the brain is starved for oxygen, it does not
function properly (when cut off long enough from oxygen it will die). Therefore, it makes sense
that greater amounts of oxygen could improve brain function. Other types of exercise that focus
on other components of health-related fitness, such as flexibility and muscular strength, focus on
improving muscle health and function, but do not require an elevation in heart rate. Therefore, if
increased blood-flow leading to increased oxygen levels did improve brain function, stretching
exercises and weight-lifting would have no impact on this outcome. Another reason aerobic
exercise could improve academic achievement is because it is hard for people (especially
children) to sit still for extended periods of time. They will get restless and fidgety, which will
cause their mind to wander. The body craves physical activity because it is good for your health,
and the human body is designed to move. Children who are forced to sit perfectly still in a
classroom for extended periods of time will look forward to an opportunity to get up, move, and
play.
The fact that increases in duration and intensity of physical activity are more positively
related to improved academic performance is also logical. Just as longer time spent exercising
will bring about greater health benefits, so should it bring about greater academic benefits if the
association already exists. If the higher oxygen levels are in fact one of the reasons why aerobic
fitness activities improve cognition, then it follows that the more the oxygen levels rise (as

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higher-intensity exercise would cause) and the longer the oxygen levels are elevated for
(duration of exercise), the greater the mental benefits.
Physical Activity Effects Specific Aspects of Academic Performance
Physical activity has shown to improve a wide range of academic factors, from improved
classroom behavior to enhanced executive control. From the different studies related to physical
activity and academic achievement, a score of academic measures were examined, including
behavior, focus and attention, memory, cognition, brain function, executive control, intelligence,
and general academic achievement. Each of these factors will be reviewed for how much studies
suggest it to be affected by physical activity.
The first measure of academic achievement that we will examine is one of the most basic.
It is very-science based, and probably involves the least amount of variables. This factor is brain
function. First of all, exercise increases the production of neurotrophins, which are a family of
proteins responsible for keeping neurons alive (Tomporowski, 2008). Neurotrophins regulate the
survival, growth, and differentiation of neurons during development. Though neuron growth and
differentiation continues throughout life, this process is extremely important for school-aged
children, who are growing at a rapid pace and forming countless new neurons and nervous
system pathways as they age and develop. In addition to the production of neurotrophins,
exercise also stimulates synaptogenesis, a crucial factor in the formation of nervous system
pathways (Tomporowski, 2008). Synaptogenesis is the formation of a synapse, which is the
communication point between two neurons. Without the synapse, there would be no
communication through the nervous system, because the neuronal signal would stop at the very
first neuron.

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Neurons are one of the most important building blocks of brain function, because they
form the basis of all communication and connections between different parts of the brain, as well
as linking brain function to the rest of the body. Neurons are responsible for transporting
information through the brain as well as forming memories. Without neurons, learning would be
impossible. Therefore, if exercising increases the amount of proteins responsible for keeping
neurons alive and healthy, it is certainly logical to assume that exercise would promote brain
health and function.
Soshanna Vayanman, who works in the Department of Neurosurgery and Physiological
Science and Brain Injury Research Center at UCLA, suggests evolutionary origins as an
explanation for why exercise and physical health may have an impact on cognitive function.
Throughout evolution, humans have been active and dependent upon physical abilities to
survive. Therefore, she posits, it makes sense that mental growth and cognition would grow
simultaneously and interdependently with physical activity and metabolism (Vayanman, 2006).
She draws upon the current state of our health, and the fact that only recently in evolutionary
history has technology allowed for sedentary lifestyles to develop, and only recently has there
been an explosion in metabolic disorders caused by poor health. Vayanman’s argument that
physical activity improves cognition is based on her defense of energy metabolism being a
crucial part of brain development. Exercise raises hippocampal levels of Brain Derived
Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), a member of the neurotrophin family mentioned above as being
vital to neuronal survival, growth, and differentiation. Not only is this important for all the
related reasons of neuron health mentioned above, but the Hippocampus is a region of the brain
directly involved in in learning and memory (Vayanman, 2006). BDNF also plays an important
role in synaptic activity and cognitive plasticity later in life. Animal studies have revealed

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important new information about BDNF. Low levels of the protein prevent Long-Term
Potentiation (simultaneous firing of two neurons that improves their communication for an
extended period of time), making it difficult to perform spatial memory tasks (Vayanman, 2006).
Mutations in the BDNF gene have also been linked to learning disabilities.
BDNF is not only important for brain function, however; it is crucial in the maintenance
and regulation of metabolism as well. This is evidenced by the fact that dysfunction of energy
metabolism, as seen in obese, hyperglycemic, and diabetic individuals, is associated with low
levels of BDNF (Vayanman, 2006). The protein has been found to regulate eating behavior and
energy balance. The fact that a specific protein has so many direct effects on both metabolism
and brain function should hint at the close relationship between physical activity and cognitive
health.
Another link in the chain of the exercise-brain health connection is insulin. Insulin
function (which is influenced by diet and physical activity) not only influences food intake and
therefore physical health, but plays a role in autonomic function (Vayanman, 2006). The
principal site where insulin binds to its receptor is the Hypothalamus, one of them main centers
for autonomic control. Even more interesting is the fact that insulin receptors are highly
concentrated in areas of learning and memory (Vayanman, 2006). Insulin resistance has even
been implicated in a heightened risk of Alzheimer’s and general cognitive dysfunction
(Vayanman, 2006). Both Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Insulin are evidences of a close
link between exercise and cognition.
Another academic achievement factor examined in many studies in its relation to physical
activity was executive control. Briefly mentioned earlier, executive function is mental processing
“involved in planning and selecting strategies that organize goal-directed actions”

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(Tomporowski, 2008). Executive function includes the sub-processes of scheduling, response
inhibition, planning, and working memory. Characteristics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) and Autism such as lack of behavioral control, attention, and judgment are
expressions of poor executive function (Tomporowski, 2008). Colcombe and Kramer analyzed
the effect of aerobic exercise on four types of mental processing: executive function, controlled
processing, visuospatial processing, and speeded processing (Tomporowski, 2008). Overall,
there was a fairly strong relationship between physical activity and mental processing in general
(Effect Size= .47) By far, the
greatest effect was on
executive function (ES=.68),
followed by controlled
processing (ES= .46)
(Tomporowski, 2008). See
Figure 2, to the right.
Neuroimaging research has
also revealed improvements in executive function related to physical activity. The Anterior
Cingulate Cortex (ACC) in the limbic system connects to various parts of the brain involved in
sensory, motor, emotional, and cognitive information. According to Hillman, “research indicates
that physical activity exerts a substantial influence on the ACC and the concomitant executive
Figure 2

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processes that it mediates” (Hillman,
2008, p. 62). Neuroimages (see Figure 3
to left) of aerobically trained and
untrained individuals revealed a lowered
activation in the ACC of the fit
individuals, associated with less
behavioral conflict during a task involving
executive control (Hillman, 2008). The
trained individuals also had higher
activation than the untrained individuals
of the dorsal prefrontal and parietal regions of the brain, which help with inhibitory functioning
(the ability to ignore task-irrelevant stimuli). In an intervention study (mentioned earlier) with a
sample of overweight 7-11 year olds, the children in the 40-min exercise group scored
significantly higher than those in the control group on the Planning scale of the CAS, one
measure of executive function. Lastly, a study by Charles Hillman revealed that aerobically fit
children had better interference control, another subcategory of executive control. Forty-eight
preadolescent children were placed into a high- or low- fit group based on their performance on a
PACER test, and then did a flanker task. The higher-fit children had greater accuracy compared
to the low-fit group. (Hillman, 2009, “Aerobic Fitness and Cognitive Development”). In a
similar study by Hillman, children were given a flanker task before and after an acute bout of
walking on a treadmill. The children were more accurate on the flanker task after walking on the
treadmill for incongruent trials (where not all letters are the same) (Hillman, 2009, “Acute
Treadmill Walking”). Incongruent trials require the subject to be able to distinguish between
Figure 3

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target and flanker letters, and ignore the flankers (irrelevant stimuli). The fact that the students
improved accuracy on incongruent trials after walking suggests that the exercise enhanced their
inhibitory control, a measure of executive control.
Another measure of potential for academic achievement is Intelligence. This measure,
however, was not commonly used in many studies. One measure of intelligence was used in a 6-
week intervention study. Students were assigned to either an isometric exercise program or an
“activity control program”. The exercise group did various calisthenics and sprints, while the
control group recorded the times of the other group. Before and after the exercise intervention
students took a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Compared to the control group, the
exercise group had improved IQ scores after the intervention (Tomporowski, 2008).
Another area that was analyzed in consideration to how it is impacted by physical activity
is academic achievement. Though this was the general term used in the title of this paper to refer
to any factor that would improve a child’s performance in school, in this section academic
achievement will be in reference to more specific measures of classroom achievement. Though
this whole paper refers to how physical activity affects academic achievement, as evidenced by
many different measures (such as brain function and cognition, executive control, memory,
focus, and attention) this section will specifically be referencing measures of achievement that
would be used in a classroom setting, such as standardized testing scores, non-standardized
testing, and teacher-assigned grades.
In an intervention study called Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC), 90
minutes per week of physical activity was worked into a regular classroom setting. The goal of
designers of the study was to implement a, “low-cost, minimal intervention model” that
increased physical activity in the classroom Donnelly, 2009, p. 337). The schools in this study

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provided on average 60 minutes of Physical Education per week, so the goal of PAAC was to
spend 90 minutes per week being active in the classroom in order to reach the nationally
recommended goal of 150 minutes per week of physical activity in schools. The PAAC was
implemented for three years. Teachers were instructed on how to deliver physically active
academic lessons. The teachers gave feedback that the physically active lessons were practical,
and many said that they would continue to do it after the study concluded (Donnelly, 2009). The
primary goal of the study was actually to lower BMI, but a secondary outcome of the study
revealed promising results in relation to the topic of this paper. Reading, math, spelling, and
composite scores significantly improved for children in the PAAC study, while scores actually
were slightly lower for the control group (see Figure 4 below).
In another very similar study to the one above that integrated physical activity into the
classroom setting, students in the intervention scored significantly higher on the math portion of
the Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test compared to the control group (Kibbe, 2011).
Though all ethnic groups improved significantly on this portion, Hispanic children in particular
Figure 4

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showed the greatest difference (20 points higher for the physical activity group) (Kibbe, 2011).
The study mentioned earlier where improvement was shown for executive control after walking
on a treadmill also showed improvement on a reading comprehension task (Hillman, 2009,
“Acute Treadmill Walking”).
In a study on the relation between fitness level and academic achievement in 3rd and 5th
grade students, Castelli found that students at high fitness level (measured by the PACER) had
higher math, reading, and total achievement scores than students at low fitness level (Castelli,
2007). For this information, see Table 1 below.
In addition to these findings, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in
their Youth Risk Behavior Survey the relationship between academics and various health risk
factors. Among many other unhealthy behaviors, physical activity was related to academic
grades. Though the majority of students admitted to not getting the recommended 60 minutes of
physical activity daily, students who earn mostly A’s in school were physically inactive on fewer
days than those who earned D’s and F’s. This information is displayed in Figure 5 below.
Table 1

23
The last measure of academic performance that evaluated in studies of the relationship
between physical activity and academic achievement was classroom behavior. This was one
variable that seemed to have a very strong link to academic achievement, as evidenced by many
studies. For example, on study found that children who are healthy and physically active are less
likely to be absent. According to The Whole Child, absenteeism has found to be related to health
risk factors such as asthma, poor diet, lack of sleep, and being overweight (The Whole Child,
2012). This organization states that, “health-related absenteeism can be reversed by increasing
access to services and increasing physical activity” (2012, p. 4).
One academic journal analyzed many different studies which examined a relationship
between physical activity and classroom behavior. This journal cited a handful of studies that
found evidence of physical activity breaks in the classroom improving student behavior, such as
higher time-on-task, decreased fidgeting, and improved concentration (Donnelly, 2011). Another
study, called “Ten Years of TAKE 10”, was based on an intervention program that implemented
physical activity in an elementary school classroom setting. This study utilized a “systematic
observation instrument developed and field tested, with observers for inter-observer reliability”
Figure 5

24
to inspect an actual experimental classroom taking part in Take 10 as objectively as possible
(Kibbe, 2011). This system utilized time recording at four different levels- content, leader,
structure, and engagement. Content was categorized as either managerial or academic. The
leader was either the teacher or the student. Structure refers to how the students were grouped for
instruction (class, group, or individual). Finally, engagement explains how each child was
participating at any given moment (listening, working, waiting, transitioning, off-task, stretching,
checking heart rate, low exercise, and moderate exercise). The results of these systematic
objective observations of Take 10 schools found that students spent 20% less time off-task after
their physical activity breaks than before (Kibbe, 2011). A study that analyzed the effects of
recess found that students who had recess were less fidgety, less listless, more focused, and more
on-task than their peer who did not have recess (Rasberry, 2011).
In summary, a wide range of scholarly studies found a link between physical activity and
various indicators of academic achievement. These factors ranged from cognition and brain
function to classroom behavior. Many of these factors were very scientific and research-based,
while others were more practical and observation-based. However you look at these different
measures of academic achievement and their relative importance, it is clear that physical activity
can have many positive beneficial effects on academic achievement.
Conclusion
To summarize the most important themes from this research paper, it was found that
aerobic exercise is the most effective means of bringing about academic improvements, and this
type of physical activity saw greater results with increased frequency, longer duration, and
higher intensity. A range of academic performance indicators were analyzed, and concrete

25
evidence supports the idea that cognition, executive function, intelligence, academic
achievement, and behavior can be improved through participation in physical activity.
Based on this information, the national recommendations for 150 minutes per week of
Physical Education for elementary school children, and 225 minutes per week of Physical
Education in secondary schools should be upheld. Any additional physical activity in the
classroom, or through extracurricular activities would also be beneficial. In opposition to the
current trend of administrators inclined toward reducing time in Physical Education, evidence
suggests that more time should be devoted to it. It is possible for students to have Physical
Education every day if time is devoted to developing a schedule. This would certainly help
recognize improvements in health of the students, and based on the research of this paper would
hopefully help improve academic performance as well. Part of the success of improving these
two factors would depend upon the Physical Education program. If the physical Education
program is led by a highly-trained individual who is devoted to getting children as active as
possible and improving fitness, then it is likely that personal health and academic achievement
would improve.
These findings have great implications for schools. Classroom teachers should try to
implement physical activity in their lessons if they want to see improvements in classroom
behavior, and potentially improve test scores. Physical Education teachers should try to keep
students as active as possible from the beginning to end of their class, and include as much
moderate- to vigorous aerobic activity as possible. Administrators need to seriously reconsider
the amount of time devoted to Physical Education. If administrators and classroom teachers saw
that physical activity not only helped improve health but academic performance, they should be
more inclined to accommodate Physical Education and not allow it to be devalued. The positive

26
relationship between physical activity and academic achievement may be a crucial part of
simultaneously improving national health and raising America’s academic standard to
international prowess.

27
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