Food safety officer veterinerary question discussion

TARGET FOOD SAFETY
OFFICER
(Cat. No.: 006/2024)
III . Veterinary Sciences - ( 20 Marks)
Revision and question discussion Class 5

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Kosher law talks about dietary suitability for:
a) Jewish community
b) Muslin community
c) Hindu community
d) Christianity community

Kosher law talks about dietary suitability for:
Jewish community
Muslin community
Hindu community
Christianity community

• Kosher slaughter is performed by a qualified butcher (known as a
shochet)
• It involves continuous cutting of the esophagus and blood vessels
using a special sharp chalef knife, with the length of the straight
blade being at least twice the diameter of the animal’s neck

The shrinkage of meat is greater at pH
A. 2.0 – 2.5
B. 3.0 – 5.5
C. 7.0 – 7.5
D. 8.0 – 8.5

• Meat shrinkage is a major problem for the beef industry.
• Shrinkage (loss in weight) results from many factors: improper
chilling, low humidity, not packaging, poor sanitation, or excessive
ageing time.
• Most beef is chilled overnight (16-20 hrs.) at cooler temperatures of
25 to 40 ̊ F
• Heat makes them release juices, which makes the meat shrink
• To calculate the meat shrinkage, divide the total weight of waste by
the weight of the product, then multiply by 100.

The shrinkage of meat is greatest at pH 5.8 because
A. At this pH, rate of moisture loss is more
B. At this pH, main protein of muscle are denatured
C. At this pH, net charge on the main protein of muscle is zero
D. None of the above

• The shrinkage is greatest if the meat has a pH of 5.8, i.e., the
isoelectric point of the main protein of muscle.
• The shrinkage is less at pH 4. 0 or more than 7.0.
• The fat cells are enclosed in membranes chiefly of collagenous tissue
• “The isoelectric point is the pH at which a particular molecule carries
no net electrical charge”
• The net charge on the molecule is affected by the pH of its
surrounding environment and can become more positive or negative
due to the gain or loss of protons, respectively.

• Factors affect the cooking quality of meat
1. Types and treatment of live animal.
2. Slaughtering and carcass characteristics - the
various muscles of the carcass.
3. The composition, structure and function of the
muscles.
4. Post-mortem changes.
5. Cooking methods.
6. Processing treatment.

• Changes during Cooking: Meat is cooked to destroy any harmful
micro-organisms present in it and to improve its palatability.
• Changes brought about in meat by cooking are:
1. Change in colour - During cooking myoglobin is denatured by
heat and converted into brown or dull red globin
haemochromogen.
• The iron is in the ferrous state but the globin is denatured by heat.
• At the same time, some of the myoglobin is oxidised to
metamyoglobin which has a brown colour. The iron is in ferric
state in metamyoglobin. Hence, the cooked meat assumes a dull
red to brown colour.

2.Shrinkage (contraction) in volume and weight
• Decreases in volume and weight of meat take place as a result of
cooking.
• The temperature of cooking affects both the rate and extent of
shrinkage. Beef (450g piece) cooked under pressure at 120 0 C lost
weight to a greater extent than beef cooked in steam (at 100 0 C)
for the same period.
• The pH of the meat seems to be most important factor in
determining the loss in cooking.
• The shrinkage is greatest if the meat has a pH of 5.8, i.e., the
isoelectric point of the main protein of muscle. The shrinkage is
less at pH4.0 or 7.0.

3.Changes in fatty tissue
• The fat cells are enclosed in membranes chiefly of
collagenous tissue.
• The membranes break during cooking and melted fat
escapes from meat during cooking.
• The surface browning of fat may be due to oxidation
of fat.
• The amount of fat found in the drip varies depending on
the fat content of meat.

4.Changes in connective tissue
The connective tissue contains about 62 % water, 32
% collagen and 1.6 % elastin.
• Collagen is converted into soluble gelatine during
cooking of meat.
• The gelatine gets dissolved in the water used for
cooking.
• Elastin does not undergo any change during cooking.

5.Changes in intracellular proteins and muscle fibres
• The protoplasmic proteins found in muscle are
denatured and become insoluble in water.
• The diameter and length of the muscle fibre shrink.

6.Flavour
• The odour and taste of cooked meat arise from water and
fat-soluble substances present in raw meat and by the
liberation of volatiles formed during cooking.
• Water extract of raw meat develops a meaty flavour on
heating.
• Nucleotides (inosine-5 monophosphate) are substantially
responsible for the flavour of meat during cooking.

7. Juiciness
• The degree of shrinkage on cooking is directly correlated
with loss of juiciness depends on the ability of the meat
proteins to retain the cooked water.
• The juiciness of cooked meat is greater at PH 4.0 or at PH
7.0 than at PH 5.8

• Gelatine
• When collagen is heated, some intermolecular and few
main-chain peptide bonds are hydrolysed.
• This results in the conversion of the triple
helical structure of collagen to a more amorphous form
known as gelatin.
• Gelatin is a partially-degraded collagen.

• Gelatin forms a gel in water even at a concentration of 1%.
• Gelatin is used in canned foods, semi preserve, confectionery,
marsh mellows, ice cream and gelatin dessert such as jellies
• Gelatin is a protein of low biological value as it deficient in
essential amino acids such as tryptophan, theronine,
methionine and isoleucine

Dry heat methods of cooking meat includes
A. Braising, stewing and pressure cooking
B. Braising, frying, stewing and pressure cooking
C. Roasting, frying and broiling
D. Brasising, boiling, frying and pan broiling

Dry heat methods of cooking meat includes
A. Braising, stewing and pressure cooking
B. Braising, frying, stewing and pressure cooking
C. Roasting, frying and broiling
D. Braising, boiling, frying and pan broiling

• Broiling is a cooking technique that uses direct heat from above to cook
your food in the oven. It’s a bit like upside-down grilling.
• Broiling is a good way to cook thinner, leaner cuts of meat like butterflied
chicken breasts, pork tenderloin medallions, strip steaks, kabobs and
vegetables
• Braising, the cooking of meat or vegetables by heating them slowly with
oil and moisture in a tightly sealed vessel.
• Stewing is a slow-cooking method, similar to braising, with the key
difference being the beef is covered in liquid.
• Stewing is best done in a heavy stockpot or Dutch oven on the stovetop
or in the oven, or in a slow-cooker.

1
Methods of preservation of meat
Preservation plays a vital role in ensuring safety,
controlling spoilage and extending the shelf-life of
meat facilitates the distribution of meat to distant
places.

How to preserve meat
Deep freeze
➢easiest way to preserve meat for the short term is freezing.
➢ meat wrapped tightly in foil or in plastic package.
Salt
➢ used as a means of preserving meat.
➢either rubbed on meat or meat is dipped in brine.

Pickle the meat
➢using vinegar and spices
➢vinegar keeps parasites and bacteria away for up to six months
➢spices add taste to meat.
Jerky
➢ popular method of preserving meat
➢drying out the meat

Meat preservation
➢highly perishable due to nearly neutral pH (low acid food)
➢ high moisture and rich in nutrients.
➢good source for microbial growth
➢ various undesirable biochemical reactions leading to its
deterioration.
➢different procedures employed to stop the undesirable conditions

Variouspreservationmethods
The methods of meat preservation include
a) drying /dehydration,
b) chilling,
c) curing,
d) fermentation,
e) irradiation,
f) chemical treatment and thermal processing
(canning)

a. Drying- Drying refers to the removal of moisture from the
food Dried foods are low moisture (LM) foods containing
moisture less than 15%.
• Water activity (aw) of these foods varies between 0.50 and
0.60.
• The final moisture content should be around 4%.
•It is essential to use hygienically processed meat with a very low
microbial profile for preparing dried meat

•Storage stability of dried meats is longer at ambient temperatures. However, apart
from fungal growth as stated earlier, undesirable chemical changes may occur in dried
meats during storage.
•Oxidative rancidity is a common chemical spoilage occurring in meats rich in fats.
Meats containing reducing sugars undergo a colour change known as maillard
reaction or nonenzymatic browning. This is due to the interaction of the carboryl
groups of reducing sugars with amino group of proteins and amino acids.
These chemical changes can be minimized by keeping the moisture content as low as
possible, reducing the level of reducing sugars and by applying modern packaging
methods such as vacuum packing or modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).

•Freeze dried meats are also included under this category. The
moisture level in freeze-dried meat may be about 2 to 8%. The aw value
may be 0.10 to 0.25 .
•There is another category of shelf-stable meats where moisture
content varies from 15 – 50% and the aw is between 0.60 and
0.85.
•These are intermediate between dried and fresh foods. They are
called Intermediate Moisture Foods (IMF).

Intermediate moisture meats (IMM).
The intermediate moisture meats are shelf- stable at ambient
temperatures for different periods of time Lower aw is achieved
in these IMM products by withdrawal of water through
desorption, adsorption and through the use of permissible
additives (salts and sugars).

•Glycerol, glycol, sorbitol and sucrose are normally used as humectants to
lower the aw.
•Apart from aw, several other conditions such as alteration in pH, use of
preservatives, fermentation, irradiation and modern packaging systems are
applied as hurdles (hurdle technology) for the growth of microorganisms and to
enhance the storage stability of IMM products.
•
•The aw levels of IMM would not allow the growth of Gram-negative bacteria
and most of Gram-positive bacteria except some cocci, some spore formers,
and lactobacilli. Mold growth is a common problem in IMM.

b.Low temperature preservation(Freezing/Chilling)
• Low temperatures preserve the food material by retarding the microbial
growth, and the enzymatic and chemical reactions that deteriorate the meat
and cause spoilage.
• The most widely used methods based on this principle of preservation by low
temperatures is refrigeration (chilling or Icing) and freezing)
•
• If the temperature of the meat is reduced below - 2.5 to - 2 °C it gets
frozen changing the physical state of its tissues as well as the rate of
enzymatic and chemical changes

• Refrigeration / chilling refers to preservation of the meat by
lowering the temperature of the meat to above the freezing
point
• The chill room temperature remains between - 5 and - 2°C (before the
carcasses are loaded) and the temperature of the chilling room should
remain below 3°C at all times.
• Relative humidity inside the chill room is maintained at 88 – 92%, so
that dehydration and subsequent shrinkage of the carcasses is avoided
1. Chilling

2. Freezing.
• At chill temperature the meat is cooled to < 0°C. Meat starts
freezing at -1.5°C.
• About half of the water is frozen to ice at - 2.5°C. Three quarters
of it are frozen at -7°C and some water still remains intact at -
18°C.
• Then the meat is further cooled to its storage temperature (- 18
to - 20 or - 30°C) till such time where its thermal center reaches
the storage temperature.

c.Curing.
• Historically, curing of meat developed as an art of preservation using
salt.
• Salted meat undergoing complex ripening reactions assumed a
sensory profile of its own, establishing itself as a product of distinct
identity.
• Eventually other ingredients like nitrate, nitrite, sugar, phosphates,
etc., entered the curing mixture, each with a specific role to play in the
curing process.

• The entry of nitrate into the curing mixture was by
accidental.
• It entered the mixture as an impurity of the rock salt used
for curing.
• Its role as a colour-fixation agent (through conversion to
nitrite by bacterial reduction) was recognized later.
• Eventually it got included as an essential ingredient in the
curing mixtures.

•Myoglobin, residual haemoglobin, cytochrome-
•Of these myoglobin is the most abundant.
•Myoglobin, like haemoglobin is a heme protein, consisting of
globin (a protein) complexed to heme (an iron nucleus attached
to a porphyrin ring)
Meat pigments and stabilization of meat colour

• In uncured meat (on exposure to atmospheric oxygen) the
ferrous iron Fe 2+ present in the heme moiety absorbs oxygen
forming oxygenated myoglobin, which imparts a bright red colour
to meat.
• Eventually, the ferrous iron gets oxidized to ferric form,
resulting in the formation of metmyoglobin, which is
brownish in colour.
• Subsequent degradation of metmyoglobin leads to
discolouration of meat

Role of Nitrite in colour fixation.
The mechanism in its simplest form is as follows
•The nitric oxide (NO) provided by nitrite gets attached to Fe 2+
and blocks oxygenation of myoglobin and subsequent oxidation
to metmyoglobin.
•The nitric oxide myoglobin so formed

•Transforms into a permanent pink compound called
nitrosohemochrome which is the colour of the cured product
following heat treatment.
•Ascorbic acid or ascorbate or erythorbate added as an
ingredient in the curing mixture helps to maintain a reducing
atmosphere.
•It also reduces any nitric oxide metmyoglobin that may be
formed to nitric oxide myoglobin.

Preservative functions of components.
•Sodium chloride (salt) exerts inhibitory effect on
bacterial growth by bringing down the water activity (aw)
• Nitrite plays an important role in retarding the growth of
several bacteria, particularly Cl.botulinum.
• The phenolic constituents in smoke also have
bactericidal action.

Components which improve organoleptic qualities.
•Phosphates improve the texture by enhancing the water holding
capacity (WHC) of muscle proteins. The phosphate raises the pH.
•These result in unfolding the molecule and increasing the number
of sites exposed both of which help to bind higher amount of water.
•Salt is a major component that imparts taste.

•Sensory evaluation trials have established the role
of nitrite in producing typical cured flavour
•Smoke components, particularly phenols,
aldehydes and ketones contribute to the
development of flavour in smoke-cured products

Antioxidants.
•Lipid oxidation leading to rancidity is a major deteriorative reaction in cured
products.
•Heme compounds especially iron catalyze the autoxidation. The warmed over
flavour in cured meat has been related to oxidative rancidity.
•Nitrite acts as an antioxidant. The mechanism of its action is not fully
understood. It has been suggested that the stabilization of porphyrins by
nitrite remove the pro-oxidant action of iron.
•The smoke components, especially phenols may also act as antioxidants.
•The antioxidant activity of ascorbic acid is well known.

Toxic factors.
•Nitric oxide produced from nitrite reacts with secondary amines
in meat and produces nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic.
•Food regulations in many countries restrict the use of nitrite to
200 mg / lit in final product.
•Benzpyrine components of wood smoke are other sources of
toxins. These condensed aromatic hydrocarbons are well known
carcinogens.

Nitrite substitutes.
•Due to the nitrosamine scare, search is on for substitutes for compounds
which can emulate all the effects / functions of nitrite in cured meats.
•The potential alternatives suggested are (i) sorbic acid and sorbates, (ii)
sodium hydrophosphite and (iii) fumarate esters. These compounds may
be used with reduced nitrite levels.
• Irradiation has also been suggested with the use of lower nitrite levels.
Acidulation by lactic acid-producing bacteria is another alternative
approach in this regard.

Cured meat flavour.
•Apart from the role of nitrite, a number of volatile
compounds have been identified that are responsible
for imparting the cured flavour.
•They include ketones, aldehydes, bases and sulfur
compounds

Methods of curing. There are four methods of curing meats
(a)Dry curing. Salt mixture is applied on the surface of meat and
kept in chill room (2 - 4° C) for 7 - 10 days.
(b)Pickle curing. Meat is immersed in pickle solution (salt mixture
dissolved in water) at 60 - 65° salinometer and stored in cold room
(2 - 4°C) for 5 - 7 days.
(c)Injection brine. Pickle solution is prepared by dissolving salt
mixture at 60 - 65° salinometer and the solution is then injected into
meat and kept in chill room (2 - 4°C) for 5 – 7 days.

(d) Pickle injection and dry cover-Meat is injected with
pickle solution. This is followed by the application of dry salt
mix on the surface of meat. The meat is kept at 2 - 4°C for 5
- 7 days.
Ham (thigh portion) and bacon (sides) and sausages of pig
are the common cured meat products

The role of smoke.
•Wood contains cellulose (40 - 60%), hemicellulose (20 - 30%) and
lignin (20 - 30%).
• Smoke is generated by burning wood materials to temperatures ranging
from 200 to 400°C.
• The smoke generates two major phases : vapour and particle. All the
volatile compounds are in vapour phase and the particle phase contains
carbon, tar and the low volatile polycyclic hydrocarbons.
• The volatile fraction consists of phenols, alcohols, organic acids,
carbonyls and lower hydrocarbons. Smoke components help in
preservation and imparting a typical colour and flavour to the product.

d. Fermentation.
• Fermentation is a simple low-tech and inexpensive method of
preservation of foods that can be practiced at ambient temperatures
fermentation is a process in which chemical changes in an organic
substrate are brought about through the action of enzymes liberated
by microorganisms.
• During fermentation, microorganisms liberate lactic acid, volatile
acids (such as acetic acid), antibiotics and bacteriocins that inhibit
the growth of undesirable microorganisms and bring preservative
effect in foods.

• Microorganisms responsible for fermentation are lactic
acid bacteria (LAB),certain molds and yeasts.
• LAB are one of the major groups of microorganisms
responsible for fermentation of meat and meat
products and for making silage of offals from fish,
poultry and animals.
• The unique character of LAB is the production of lactic
acid during fermentation.

Fermentation process in meat and meat products.
•Physical, microbiological and biochemical changes take place
during fermentation process.
These are-
(1) lactic acid production resulting in lowering of pH
(2) decrease in water activity (aw),
(3) inhibition of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms,
(4) proteolytic enzymes breakdown muscle proteins (myofibrillar and
sarcoplasmic proteins), salt soluble myofibrillar proteins gelify and provide
firm consistency to the product and improve texture,
(5) development of aroma compounds and
(6) improvements in colour and nutritive value.

e. Irradiation-
In 1980 the committee on the wholesomeness of irradiated foods concluded
that
“Irradiation of any food commodity upto an overall average dose of 10 Kgy
(1mega rad = 1Mrad) causes no toxicological hazard; hence toxicological
testing of food so treated is no longer required, and irradiation of food upto 10
KGy introduce no special microbiological and nutritional problems ”
•Irradiation is cold process.
•Radiation at low energy level does not induce radioactivity in the food
constituents.

Irradiation.
• Irradiation is the controlled application of energy from
ionizing radiations.
• Irradiation destroys the biological processes that are
responsible for spoilage.
• It does not cause changes in freshness and texture of food.
• Irradiation produces very little chemical changes in food.
• None of the changes known to occur have been found to be
harmful.

The sources of ionizing radiation are
(a)Electrons produced commercially by linear accelerators at or below an
energy level of 10MeV (million electron volts).
(b)Gamma rays from the radionuclides Cobalt 60 or Caesium 137 (the
maximum energy of gamma radiation emitted is 1.3MeV and 0.66MeV,
respectively).
• Radiation from a Cobalt 60 source is cheaper and has greater penetrating
power than electrons. Gamma rays are commonly used for preservation of
foods including meat and meat products.
(c)X – Rays are generated by machines operated at or below an energy
level of 10MeV.

Units of radiation-
•Radiation energy is measured in terms of rads.
Where : 1 rad = 100 ergs of energy absorbed in 1 g of matter.
•A newly introduced standard irradiation (SI) unit is known as the Gray
(Gy)
1 Gy = 100 rads like 1metre = 100 cm ; 1 Krad = 1000 rads; 1 Mrad =
1,000,000 rads or 1000 Krad; 1 KGy = 1,000,000 rads.
Irradiation processes are broadly divided into –
high dose (> 1Mrad) and
low dose (< 1Mrad) applications

Radappertization (cold sterilization)
Radicidation
less than 1Mrad.
Radurisation.
low doses (<
1Mrad)
pathogenic and
spoilage
microorganisms
It is similar to thermal processing of
canned meatproducts.
Very few microorganisms survive
following the ionizing radiation
process.
Enhance the
keeping
quality of meat and
meat products.
viable, non-sporing
pathogenic
microorganisms 2 to
8 KGy could
effectively eliminate
these pathogens
Radicidation is also
used to destroy or
prevent reproduction
of parasites
The meat products can be kept at
ambient temperatures for years
with the application of radappertization
without affecting palatability, nutritive
quality and wholesomeness.
The doses used are in excess
of 1Mrad (10 KGy - 45 KGy).

•Radurisation is
used along with
refrigeration.
•The shelf-life
of fresh meats in
refrigeration (4°C) is
normally 3 days.
• It has been
demonstrated that
the shelflife
of radurised fresh
meats is 5 weeks at
0 - 3°C
(tape worms – Taenia
solium and Taenia
saginta; Trichinella
spiralis) and the
required dose is in
the range of 0.1 to 1
KGy.
•The product is shelf-stable (long
term storage without refrigeration).
•Products should be packed properly
to Prevent microbial recontamination
and the deleterious effects developing
on account of light, oxygen
and moisture.
• Both metal containers and flexible
packages are used under vacuum to
prevent rancidity of the lipids.

Ability of irradiation to reduce nitrite in cured meats.
•The unique role of nitrite in meat curing is colour fixation.
•It also imparts flavour to the product.
•More importantly, nitrite inhibits the growth of Clostridium botulinum and
provides protection against this organism.
•Residual nitrite in cured meats forms nitrosamines that are carcinogenic.
•Radiation destroys Clostridium botulium. Hence nitrite requirement in cured meats
can be reduced by 50% if these meats are subjected to radiation.

Salt (sodium chloride). Prevent
microorganisms, imparts flavour
solubilizing the
myofibrillar proteins
finished product containing about 2.5%.
Nitrate
Color
antimicrobial activity
The finished product should not contain more than 200 mg / lit of
nitrite ( due to nitrosamines, which are
carcinogenic.)
Smoke.
specific colour
(brownish or mahogany) and
preservative and antioxidant effects.
acids, phenols, carbonyls, alcohols and polycyclic hydrocarbons.
Of these probably the most well known is benzpyrene because it is a
carcinogen, so Liquid smoke
Sorbates
Lactate
Organic acids -Vinegar about 4% acetic acid, Lactic acid or acetic acid can be used
at 1 or 2% level

Thermal processing
f. Canning of meat products
•Containers- Steel base plate which is low in carbon, manganese, sulphur,
phosphorous and silica is the starting material for fabrication of cans. This plate is
rolled to the desired thickness.
•Tin coating is applied either by hot dipping or electrolytic plating. For meat, fish,
poultry and other foods containing sulphurous compounds in appreciable amounts,
tin cans are coated with sulphur resistant (SR) lacquer to prevent sulphur staining
(purple or bluish) in can interior.
•Sulphur resistant lacquer is made of epoxyphenolic lacquer incorporated with
zinc oxide.

Process details-
• Sterilized cans Exhausting
85° C
• Seaming-can is sealed(seaming)
• Autoclaving – 121° C, Normally the processing pressure is 15 psi
equivalent to 121°C for a duration of 50 -60 minutes.
• After processing, the cans are cooled in running water-containing
chlorine (8 mg/ lit).
• Labelling
• Storage

•Labelling.
The label should contain all the details about the date of manufacture, batch no.,
net weight, ingredients, legal declaration about whether they confirm to GRAS
(Generally Regarded As Safe), wholesale price, retail price, etc..
•Storage.
Conveyed to godowns for storage and distribution.
•Standards.
The product should conform to the standards laid down by regulatory
agencies regarding drained weight (weight of the solid content remained after
removing the liquid portion from the can), vacuum and microbiological
standards.

•The rate of destruction is a first-order reaction; that is when food
is heated to a temperature that is high enough to destroy
contaminating microorganisms, the same percentage die in a given
time interval regardless of the number present initially.
• This is known as the logarithmic order
of death and is described by
•thermal death rate curve .

•The time needed to destroy 90% of the microorganisms (to
reduce their numbers by a factor of 10) is referred to as the
decimal reduction time or D-value.
•D-values differ for different microbial species and a higher
D-value indicates greater resistance.

•The thermal destruction of microorganisms is
temperature dependent and cells die more
rapidly at higher temperature.
•By collating D-values at different temperatures, a
thermal death time (TDT) curve is constructed .

•The thermal death time or F-value is used as a basis for comparing heat
sterilization procedures.
•F-value is the time required to achieve a specified reduction in microbial
numbers at a given temperature and it represents the total time-
temperature combination received by a food.
•The slope of the TDT curve is termed the z-value and is defined as the
number of degrees Celsius required to bring about a 10-fold change in
decimal reduction time.
• F-value is quoted with suffixes indicating the retort temperature and the z
value of the target microorganism.

• For example, a process operating at 110 ◦C based on a
microorganism with a z-value of 10◦C would be expressed as
F10 110
• Hence, D-value and z-value are used to characterize the heat
resistance of a microorganism and its temperature
dependence, respectively while F-value is used for comparing
sterilizing procedures

Hurdle technology
• Hurdle technology (HT) is a new concept in the preservation of meat
and meat products.
• A combination hurdles (heat, refrigeration, preservatives, aw,
irradiation, fermentation and packaging) is applied to inhibit the growth
of microorganisms.
• Two or more hurdles are preferably used in the system.
• Intermediate moisture meats and fermented sausages are some of
the examples where HT is used.

Wrapping of meat in papaya leaves before cooking results in
tenderization because
A. Action of bromelin
B. Action of ficin
C. Action of papain
D. Action pof trypsin

Food safety officer veterinerary question discussion

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