Fundamental of Design -Elements of Machine Design
- 1. INTRODUCTION MACHINE DESIGN Prof. H. J. AHIRE Principal DNYANESHWAR POLYTECHNIC B.E. (MECHANICAL) M.Tech (MACHINE DESIGN) M.B.A. (HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT)
- 2. Machine Design Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and operation. Machine Design is the process of selection of material, shape, size and arrangement.
- 3. General Procedure in Machine Design Recognition of need. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Analysis of forces Material selection Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Modification. Detailed drawing Production
- 4. General Considerations in Machine Design Type of load and stresses caused by the load. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine Selection of materials Form and size of the parts. Frictional resistance and lubrication Convenient and economical features. Use of standard parts Safety of operation Workshop facilities Number of machines to be manufactured Cost of construction. Assembling
- 5. Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes Availability of the materials Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service (Manufacturing Consideration) The cost of the materials. Material Properties Types of Loads 1. Dead or steady load. - A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not change in magnitude or direction. 2. Live or variable load or Fluctuating load - A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes continually. 3. Suddenly applied or shock loads - A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load, when it is suddenly applied or removed. 4. Impact load. - A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity.
- 6. Stress & Strain Stress: When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal forces (equal and opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces. Strain: When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain.
- 7. Tensile Stress and Strain Tensile Stress: When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile load) then stress induced at any section of the body Tensile Stress and Strain: There will be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the body. The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.
- 8. Compressive Stress and Strain Compressive Stress: When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes Compressive Strain: The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length is known as compressive strain.
- 9. Shear Stress When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced is called shear stress.
- 10. Torsional Shear Stress When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment), then the machine member is said to be subjected to torsion
- 11. Bending Stress The machine parts of members may be subjected to static or dynamic loads which cause bending stress in the sections besides other types of stresses such as tensile, compressive and shearing stresses. M = Bending moment acting at the given section, σ = Bending stress I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis, y = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre, E = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam, and R = Radius of curvature of the beam
- 12. Bearing stress or Crushing stress Or Bearing Pressure A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine part, that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress. The bearing stress is taken into account in the design of riveted joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints d = Diameter of the rivet, t = Thickness of the plate, d.t = Projected area of the rivet, and n = Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing.
- 13. Stress-strain Diagram For Ductile Material 1. Proportional limit. (OA) 2. Elastic limit.(AB) 3. Yield point (CD) 4. Ultimate stress (E) 5. Breaking stress (F)
- 14. Stress-strain Diagram For Brittle Material 1. Proportional limit.(OA) 2. Elastic limit. (AB) 3. Yield point (AB) 4. Breaking Point (B)
- 15. Factor of Safety It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress
- 16. Stress Concentration Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface roughness or scratches etc.
- 17. Causes of Stress Concentration 1. Abrupt change of cross section – Keyway, steps, grooves, threaded holes 2. Poor Surface Finish –Surface irregularities, 3. Localized loading 4. Variation in Material Properties
- 18. Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration whenever there is a change in cross-section, such as shoulders, holes, notches or keyways and then stress concentration results The presence of stress concentration can not be totally eliminated but it may be reduced to some extent.
- 19. Fatigue Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic size.
- 20. Creep & Creep Curve Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.
- 21. Endurance limit & S N diagram Endurance limit The fatigue or endurance limit is the maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress which the standard specimen can be subjected to an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure. Fatigue life The number of stress cycles completed by a standard test specimen before the first fatigue crack appearance is called Fatigue life.
- 22. Mechanical Properties of Metals Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load permanently. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of a tensile force Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion.
- 23. Mechanical Properties of Metals Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like hammer blows. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a material can be cut or Machined Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads
- 25. Theories of Elastic Failure Machine Parts are subjected to combined stresses due to simultaneous action of either tensile or compressive stresses combined with shear stresses Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
- 26. Ergonomics in Design Consideration Ergonomics is defined as the relationship between man & Machine. Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man-machine-working environment relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological, and psychological principles to solve the problems arising from the relationship. Ergonomics is related to the comfort between the man and machine while operating the machine. Communication between man and machine The machine has a display unit and a control unit. A user receives the information from the machine display through the sense organs. User then takes the corrective action on the machine controls using the hands or feet. This man-machine closed-loop system is influenced by the working environment factors such as lighting, noise, temperature, humidity, air circulation, etc.
- 27. Aesthetic Consideration in Design When there are number of components in the market having the same qualities of efficiency, durability and cost, then the customer will naturally attract towards the most appealing product. The aesthetic and ergonomics are very important features which gives grace and lustre to product and dominates the market Aesthetics is defined as a set of principles of appreciation of beauty. It deals with the appearance of the product.. Aesthetic Considerations Shape (Forms) 1. Step form 2. Taper form 3. Shear form 4. Streamline form 5. ◦ Sculpture form Shape of designed part Symmetrical balance Colour Continuity Variety Proportion Size Contrast Impression & purpose Style Material and surface finish Tolerance
- 28. Aesthetic Consideration in Design Colour 1. Colour is one of the major contributors to the aesthetic appeal of the product. 2. Many colours are linked with different moods and conditions. 3. The selection of the colour should be compatible with the conventions.
- 29. Aesthetic Consideration in Design Symmetrical balance : The vast majority of the structures which exist in nature are around balanced about at least 2 axes. The natural eye is consequently used to see things in balanced structures and patterns to dismiss asymmetrical shapes as terrible. Continuity : An item that has a great progression of components is tastefully engaging.
- 30. Aesthetic Consideration in Design Proportion: Proportion is concerned with the relationship between parts of the product. The product which is out of proportion is not aesthetically pleasing. For e.g. the spanner in figure 1. is functional and easy to manufacture but is not aesthetically pleasing and out of proportion. .