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![1. Winter twig, × 1.
2. Portion of twig, enlarged.
3. Leaves, × 1/2.
4. Staminate flowering branchlet, × 1/2.
5. Staminate flower, enlarged.
6. Pistillate flowering branchlet, × 1/2.
7. Pistillate flower, enlarged.
8. Fruit, × 1/2.
LAURACEAE
Sassafras
Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) Ktse. [Sassafras sassafras (L.) Karst.] [Sassafras
officinale Nees & Eberm.]
HABIT.—Usually a large shrub, but often a small tree 20-40 feet
high, with a trunk diameter of 10-20 inches; stout, often contorted
branches and a bushy spray form a flat, rather open crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-6 inches long, 2-4 inches broad; oval
to oblong or obovate; entire or 1-3-lobed with deep, broad sinuses
and finger-like lobes; thin; dull dark green above, paler beneath;
petioles slender, about 1 inch long.
FLOWERS.—May, with the leaves; dioecious; greenish yellow; on
slender pedicels, in loose, drooping, few-flowered racemes 2 inches
long; calyx deeply 6-lobed, yellow-green; corolla 0; stamens of
staminate flower 9, in 3 rows, of pistillate flower 6, in 1 row; ovary
1-celled.
FRUIT.—September-October; an oblong-globose, lustrous, dark blue
berry, 3/8 inch long, surrounded at the base by the scarlet calyx,
borne on club-shaped, bright red pedicels.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal buds 1/3 inch long, ovoid, acute, greenish,
soft-pubescent, flower-bearing; lateral buds much smaller, sterile or
leaf-bearing. Aromatic.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-56-320.jpg)
![Pyrus coronaria L. [Malus coronaria Mill.]
HABIT.—Often a bushy shrub, but frequently a small tree 15-25 feet
high, with a trunk 8-12 inches in diameter; forming a broad,
rounded crown of rigid, contorted branches bearing many short,
spur-like branchlets.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-4 inches long, almost as broad; ovate
to nearly triangular; sharply and deeply serrate, sometimes lobed;
membranaceous; bright green above, paler beneath, glabrous both
sides; petioles long, slender, often with two dark glands near the
middle.
FLOWERS.—May, after the leaves; perfect; 1-1/2-2 inches across;
very fragrant; borne on slender pedicels in 5-6-flowered umbels;
calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed, tomentose; petals 5, rose colored to
white; stamens 10-20; ovary hairy; styles 5.
FRUIT.—October; a depressed-globose pome, 1-1-1/2 inches in
diameter, pale green, very fragrant, with a waxy surface.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/8-1/4 inch long, obtuse, bright red;
lateral buds smaller.
BARK.—Twigs at first hoary-tomentose, becoming glabrous, red-
brown; thin, red-brown, breaking into longitudinal fissures on the
trunk.
WOOD.—Heavy, rather soft, close-grained, weak, red-brown, with
thick, yellow sapwood.
DISTRIBUTION.—Southern portion of the Lower Peninsula as far
north as Roscommon County.
HABITAT.—Rich, moist, but well-drained soil in thickets and along
streams.
NOTES.—An excellent ornamental tree or shrub for small gardens
and shrubberies. The fruit is sometimes gathered for making](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-63-320.jpg)
![ROSACEAE
Mountain Ash
Pyrus americana (Marsh.) DC. [Sorbus americana Marsh.]
HABIT.—A small tree 15-20 feet high, with a trunk diameter of not
over a foot; branches slender, spreading, forming a narrow, rounded
crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, compound, 6-9 inches long. Leaflets 9-17, 2-3
inches long and 1/2-3/4 inch broad; sessile or nearly so, except the
terminal; lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; finely and
sharply serrate above the entire base; membranaceous; glabrous,
dark yellow-green above, paler beneath, turning clear yellow in
autumn. Petioles slender, grooved, enlarged at the base.
FLOWERS.—May-June, after the leaves; perfect; 1/8 inch across;
borne on short, stout pedicels in many-flowered, flat cymes 3-5
inches across; calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed, puberulous; petals 5,
white; stamens numerous; styles 2-3.
FRUIT.—October, but persistent on the tree throughout the winter; a
berry-like pome, subglobose, 1/4 inch in diameter, bright red, with
thin, acid flesh; eaten by birds in the absence of other food.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud about 1/2 inch long, ovoid, acute,
with curved apex; lateral buds smaller, appressed; scales rounded on
the back, purplish red, more or less pilose above, gummy.
BARK.—Twigs at first red-brown and hairy, becoming glabrous, dark
brown; thin, light gray-brown on the trunk, smooth, or slightly
roughened on old trees; inner bark fragrant.
WOOD.—Light, soft, close-grained, weak, pale brown, with thick,
lighter colored sapwood.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-65-320.jpg)
![Black Cherry
Prunus serotina Ehrh. [Padus serotina (Ehrh.) Agardh.]
HABIT.—A medium-sized tree 40-50 feet high and 8-36 inches in
trunk diameter; branches few, large, tortuous, forming a rather
spreading, oblong or rounded crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 2-5 inches long, about one-half as
broad; oval or oblong to oblong-lanceolate; finely serrate, with teeth
incurved; subcoriaceous; dark green and very lustrous above, paler
beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, usually bearing
2 red glands near the blade.
FLOWERS.—May-June, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; 1/4
inch across; borne on slender pedicels in many-flowered, loose
racemes 4-5 inches long; calyx cup-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, white;
stamens 15-20; stigma thick, club-shaped.
FRUIT.—August-September; a globular drupe, 1/3-1/2 inch in
diameter, nearly black, with dark purple, juicy flesh; slightly bitter,
edible.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud about 1/4 inch long, ovoid, blunt to
acute; scales keeled on the back, apiculate, light brown.
BARK.—Twigs and branches red to red-brown; young trunks dark
red-brown, smooth; blackish on old trunks and rough, broken into
thick, irregular plates; bitter, aromatic.
WOOD.—Light, rather hard, strong, close- and straight-grained, light
brown or red, with thin, yellow sapwood.
DISTRIBUTION.—Frequent in the southern half of the Lower
Peninsula, rare in the northern half and the Upper Peninsula.
HABITAT.—Prefers a rich, moist soil, but grows well on dry, gravelly
or sandy soils.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-73-320.jpg)
![1. Winter twig, × 1.
2. Portion of twig, enlarged.
3. Leaf, × 1.
4. Margin of leaf, enlarged.
5. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2.
6. Vertical section of flower, enlarged.
7. Fruit, × 1/2.
ROSACEAE
Choke Cherry
Prunus virginiana L. [Padus virginiana (L.) Roemer]
HABIT.—Usually a large shrub, but sometimes a small tree 15-25
feet high, with a crooked, often leaning trunk 5-6 inches in diameter;
forming a spreading, somewhat rounded crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 2-4 inches long, one-half as broad;
obovate to oblong-obovate or oval, abruptly acuminate at the apex;
finely and sharply serrate; dull dark green above, paler beneath,
glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, glandular at the apex.
FLOWERS.—May, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; about 1/2
inch across; borne on short, slender pedicels in many-flowered
racemes 3-6 inches long; calyx cup-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, white;
stamens 15-20; stigma broad, on a short style.
FRUIT.—July-August; a globular drupe, 1/4-1/2 inch in diameter,
usually bright red, often yellow to almost black, with dark red flesh;
astringent, but edible.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/4-1/2 inch long, conical, acute;
scales rounded at the apex, light brown, smooth.
BARK.—Twigs at first light brown or greenish, becoming red-brown,
finally dark brown; thin, dark brown on the trunk, slightly fissured.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-75-320.jpg)
![Canada Plum. Red Plum
Prunus nigra Ait. [Prunus americana, v. nigra Waugh]
HABIT.—A small tree 20-25 feet high and 5-8 inches in trunk
diameter; usually divides 5-6 feet from the ground into a number of
stout, upright branches, forming a narrow, rigid crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-5 inches long and one-half as broad;
oblong-ovate to obovate, abruptly acuminate at the apex; doubly
crenate-serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, light green above, paler
beneath; petioles short, stout, bearing 2 large red glands near the
blade.
FLOWERS.—May, before the leaves; perfect; slightly fragrant; about
1 inch across; borne on slender, glabrous, red pedicels in 2-3-
flowered umbels; calyx 5-lobed, dark red; petals 5, white; stamens
15-20, with purple anthers; ovary 1-celled; style 1; stigma 1.
FRUIT.—August-September; a fleshy drupe, about 1 inch long,
oblong-ovoid, with a tough, thick, orange-red skin nearly free from
bloom, and yellow flesh adherent to the flat stone. Eaten raw or
cooked.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds 1/8-1/4 inch
long, ovate, acute, chestnut-brown.
BARK.—Twigs green, marked by numerous pale excrescences, later
dark brown; thin, gray-brown and smooth on young trunks, but soon
splitting off in large, thick plates, exposing the darker inner bark.
WOOD.—Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, light red-brown, with
thin, lighter colored sapwood.
DISTRIBUTION.—Upper Peninsula and the Lower Peninsula north of
Lansing.
HABITAT.—Prefers rich, alluvial soil along streams.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-80-320.jpg)
![1. Winter twig, × 1.
2. Leaf, × 1/4.
3. Leaflet, × 1/2.
4. Vertical section of staminate flower, enlarged.
5. Vertical section of pistillate flower, enlarged.
6. Fruit, × 1/4.
LEGUMINOSAE
Coffeetree. Kentucky Coffeetree
Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch [Gymnocladus canadensis Lam.]
HABIT.—A slender tree 50-75 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 2-3
feet; divides near the ground into several stems which spread
slightly to form a narrow, pyramidal crown; branchlets stout, clumsy,
blunt, with conspicuous leaf-scars.
LEAVES.—Alternate, bipinnately compound, 1-3 feet long. Leaflets 40
or more, 2-2-1/2 inches long and one-half as broad; short-stalked;
ovate, acute; entire; thin and firm; dark green above, pale yellow-
green and glabrous beneath. Petioles stout, terete, glabrous. Appear
late in spring.
FLOWERS.—June, after the leaves; dioecious; greenish white; the
staminate short-stalked, in racemose corymbs 3-4 inches long; the
pistillate long-stalked, in racemes 10-12 inches long; calyx tubular,
hairy; petals 5, keeled, nearly white; stamens 10; ovary hairy.
FRUIT.—Ripens in autumn, but remains closed until late in winter;
short-stalked, red-brown legumes 6-10 inches long, 1-1/2-2 inches
wide, containing 6-9 large, flat seeds.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute,
depressed, 2 in the axil of each leaf, bronze-brown, silky-pubescent.
BARK.—Twigs coated with short, dense, reddish pubescence,
becoming light brown; thick, deeply fissured and scaly on the trunk,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/85/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-83-320.jpg)
![1. Winter twig, × 1.
2. Portion of twig, enlarged.
3. Leaves, × 1/2.
4. Staminate flowering branchlet, × 1/2.
5. Staminate flower, enlarged.
6. Pistillate flowering branchlet, × 1/2.
7. Pistillate flower, enlarged.
8. Fruit, × 1/2.
LAURACEAE
Sassafras
Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) Ktse. [Sassafras sassafras (L.) Karst.] [Sassafras
officinale Nees & Eberm.]
HABIT.—Usually a large shrub, but often a small tree 20-40 feet
high, with a trunk diameter of 10-20 inches; stout, often contorted
branches and a bushy spray form a flat, rather open crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-6 inches long, 2-4 inches broad; oval
to oblong or obovate; entire or 1-3-lobed with deep, broad sinuses
and finger-like lobes; thin; dull dark green above, paler beneath;
petioles slender, about 1 inch long.
FLOWERS.—May, with the leaves; dioecious; greenish yellow; on
slender pedicels, in loose, drooping, few-flowered racemes 2 inches
long; calyx deeply 6-lobed, yellow-green; corolla 0; stamens of
staminate flower 9, in 3 rows, of pistillate flower 6, in 1 row; ovary
1-celled.
FRUIT.—September-October; an oblong-globose, lustrous, dark blue
berry, 3/8 inch long, surrounded at the base by the scarlet calyx,
borne on club-shaped, bright red pedicels.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal buds 1/3 inch long, ovoid, acute, greenish,
soft-pubescent, flower-bearing; lateral buds much smaller, sterile or
leaf-bearing. Aromatic.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-56-2048.jpg)
![Pyrus coronaria L. [Malus coronaria Mill.]
HABIT.—Often a bushy shrub, but frequently a small tree 15-25 feet
high, with a trunk 8-12 inches in diameter; forming a broad,
rounded crown of rigid, contorted branches bearing many short,
spur-like branchlets.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-4 inches long, almost as broad; ovate
to nearly triangular; sharply and deeply serrate, sometimes lobed;
membranaceous; bright green above, paler beneath, glabrous both
sides; petioles long, slender, often with two dark glands near the
middle.
FLOWERS.—May, after the leaves; perfect; 1-1/2-2 inches across;
very fragrant; borne on slender pedicels in 5-6-flowered umbels;
calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed, tomentose; petals 5, rose colored to
white; stamens 10-20; ovary hairy; styles 5.
FRUIT.—October; a depressed-globose pome, 1-1-1/2 inches in
diameter, pale green, very fragrant, with a waxy surface.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/8-1/4 inch long, obtuse, bright red;
lateral buds smaller.
BARK.—Twigs at first hoary-tomentose, becoming glabrous, red-
brown; thin, red-brown, breaking into longitudinal fissures on the
trunk.
WOOD.—Heavy, rather soft, close-grained, weak, red-brown, with
thick, yellow sapwood.
DISTRIBUTION.—Southern portion of the Lower Peninsula as far
north as Roscommon County.
HABITAT.—Rich, moist, but well-drained soil in thickets and along
streams.
NOTES.—An excellent ornamental tree or shrub for small gardens
and shrubberies. The fruit is sometimes gathered for making](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-63-2048.jpg)
![ROSACEAE
Mountain Ash
Pyrus americana (Marsh.) DC. [Sorbus americana Marsh.]
HABIT.—A small tree 15-20 feet high, with a trunk diameter of not
over a foot; branches slender, spreading, forming a narrow, rounded
crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, compound, 6-9 inches long. Leaflets 9-17, 2-3
inches long and 1/2-3/4 inch broad; sessile or nearly so, except the
terminal; lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; finely and
sharply serrate above the entire base; membranaceous; glabrous,
dark yellow-green above, paler beneath, turning clear yellow in
autumn. Petioles slender, grooved, enlarged at the base.
FLOWERS.—May-June, after the leaves; perfect; 1/8 inch across;
borne on short, stout pedicels in many-flowered, flat cymes 3-5
inches across; calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed, puberulous; petals 5,
white; stamens numerous; styles 2-3.
FRUIT.—October, but persistent on the tree throughout the winter; a
berry-like pome, subglobose, 1/4 inch in diameter, bright red, with
thin, acid flesh; eaten by birds in the absence of other food.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud about 1/2 inch long, ovoid, acute,
with curved apex; lateral buds smaller, appressed; scales rounded on
the back, purplish red, more or less pilose above, gummy.
BARK.—Twigs at first red-brown and hairy, becoming glabrous, dark
brown; thin, light gray-brown on the trunk, smooth, or slightly
roughened on old trees; inner bark fragrant.
WOOD.—Light, soft, close-grained, weak, pale brown, with thick,
lighter colored sapwood.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-65-2048.jpg)
![Black Cherry
Prunus serotina Ehrh. [Padus serotina (Ehrh.) Agardh.]
HABIT.—A medium-sized tree 40-50 feet high and 8-36 inches in
trunk diameter; branches few, large, tortuous, forming a rather
spreading, oblong or rounded crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 2-5 inches long, about one-half as
broad; oval or oblong to oblong-lanceolate; finely serrate, with teeth
incurved; subcoriaceous; dark green and very lustrous above, paler
beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, usually bearing
2 red glands near the blade.
FLOWERS.—May-June, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; 1/4
inch across; borne on slender pedicels in many-flowered, loose
racemes 4-5 inches long; calyx cup-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, white;
stamens 15-20; stigma thick, club-shaped.
FRUIT.—August-September; a globular drupe, 1/3-1/2 inch in
diameter, nearly black, with dark purple, juicy flesh; slightly bitter,
edible.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud about 1/4 inch long, ovoid, blunt to
acute; scales keeled on the back, apiculate, light brown.
BARK.—Twigs and branches red to red-brown; young trunks dark
red-brown, smooth; blackish on old trunks and rough, broken into
thick, irregular plates; bitter, aromatic.
WOOD.—Light, rather hard, strong, close- and straight-grained, light
brown or red, with thin, yellow sapwood.
DISTRIBUTION.—Frequent in the southern half of the Lower
Peninsula, rare in the northern half and the Upper Peninsula.
HABITAT.—Prefers a rich, moist soil, but grows well on dry, gravelly
or sandy soils.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-73-2048.jpg)
![1. Winter twig, × 1.
2. Portion of twig, enlarged.
3. Leaf, × 1.
4. Margin of leaf, enlarged.
5. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2.
6. Vertical section of flower, enlarged.
7. Fruit, × 1/2.
ROSACEAE
Choke Cherry
Prunus virginiana L. [Padus virginiana (L.) Roemer]
HABIT.—Usually a large shrub, but sometimes a small tree 15-25
feet high, with a crooked, often leaning trunk 5-6 inches in diameter;
forming a spreading, somewhat rounded crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 2-4 inches long, one-half as broad;
obovate to oblong-obovate or oval, abruptly acuminate at the apex;
finely and sharply serrate; dull dark green above, paler beneath,
glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, glandular at the apex.
FLOWERS.—May, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; about 1/2
inch across; borne on short, slender pedicels in many-flowered
racemes 3-6 inches long; calyx cup-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, white;
stamens 15-20; stigma broad, on a short style.
FRUIT.—July-August; a globular drupe, 1/4-1/2 inch in diameter,
usually bright red, often yellow to almost black, with dark red flesh;
astringent, but edible.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/4-1/2 inch long, conical, acute;
scales rounded at the apex, light brown, smooth.
BARK.—Twigs at first light brown or greenish, becoming red-brown,
finally dark brown; thin, dark brown on the trunk, slightly fissured.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-75-2048.jpg)
![Canada Plum. Red Plum
Prunus nigra Ait. [Prunus americana, v. nigra Waugh]
HABIT.—A small tree 20-25 feet high and 5-8 inches in trunk
diameter; usually divides 5-6 feet from the ground into a number of
stout, upright branches, forming a narrow, rigid crown.
LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-5 inches long and one-half as broad;
oblong-ovate to obovate, abruptly acuminate at the apex; doubly
crenate-serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, light green above, paler
beneath; petioles short, stout, bearing 2 large red glands near the
blade.
FLOWERS.—May, before the leaves; perfect; slightly fragrant; about
1 inch across; borne on slender, glabrous, red pedicels in 2-3-
flowered umbels; calyx 5-lobed, dark red; petals 5, white; stamens
15-20, with purple anthers; ovary 1-celled; style 1; stigma 1.
FRUIT.—August-September; a fleshy drupe, about 1 inch long,
oblong-ovoid, with a tough, thick, orange-red skin nearly free from
bloom, and yellow flesh adherent to the flat stone. Eaten raw or
cooked.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds 1/8-1/4 inch
long, ovate, acute, chestnut-brown.
BARK.—Twigs green, marked by numerous pale excrescences, later
dark brown; thin, gray-brown and smooth on young trunks, but soon
splitting off in large, thick plates, exposing the darker inner bark.
WOOD.—Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, light red-brown, with
thin, lighter colored sapwood.
DISTRIBUTION.—Upper Peninsula and the Lower Peninsula north of
Lansing.
HABITAT.—Prefers rich, alluvial soil along streams.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-80-2048.jpg)
![1. Winter twig, × 1.
2. Leaf, × 1/4.
3. Leaflet, × 1/2.
4. Vertical section of staminate flower, enlarged.
5. Vertical section of pistillate flower, enlarged.
6. Fruit, × 1/4.
LEGUMINOSAE
Coffeetree. Kentucky Coffeetree
Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch [Gymnocladus canadensis Lam.]
HABIT.—A slender tree 50-75 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 2-3
feet; divides near the ground into several stems which spread
slightly to form a narrow, pyramidal crown; branchlets stout, clumsy,
blunt, with conspicuous leaf-scars.
LEAVES.—Alternate, bipinnately compound, 1-3 feet long. Leaflets 40
or more, 2-2-1/2 inches long and one-half as broad; short-stalked;
ovate, acute; entire; thin and firm; dark green above, pale yellow-
green and glabrous beneath. Petioles stout, terete, glabrous. Appear
late in spring.
FLOWERS.—June, after the leaves; dioecious; greenish white; the
staminate short-stalked, in racemose corymbs 3-4 inches long; the
pistillate long-stalked, in racemes 10-12 inches long; calyx tubular,
hairy; petals 5, keeled, nearly white; stamens 10; ovary hairy.
FRUIT.—Ripens in autumn, but remains closed until late in winter;
short-stalked, red-brown legumes 6-10 inches long, 1-1/2-2 inches
wide, containing 6-9 large, flat seeds.
WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute,
depressed, 2 in the axil of each leaf, bronze-brown, silky-pubescent.
BARK.—Twigs coated with short, dense, reddish pubescence,
becoming light brown; thick, deeply fissured and scaly on the trunk,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21667396-250518051703-52c60a62/75/Geology-Of-India-M-Ramakrishnan-R-Vaidyanadhan-83-2048.jpg)
Geology Of India M Ramakrishnan R Vaidyanadhan
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- 5. Geology of India R.Vaidvanadhan M. Ramakrishnan India & Sri Lanka as viewed by IRS-1D WiFS BAY OF BENGAL G E O L O G I C A L S O C I E T Y O F INDIA B A N G A L O R E
- 6. GEOLOGY OF I N DI A Volume 2 R. VAIDYANADHAN and M. RAMAKRISHNAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA BANGALORE 2010
- 7. Geology of India(Volume 2) By R. Vaidyanadhan and M. Ramakrishnan Published by the Geological Society of India, PB. 1922, Gavipuram P.O., Bangalore - 560 019 Pages: xxxi+442 ISBN: 81-85867-99-1 Copyright © 2010, Geological Society of India This publication is made possible through liberal financial assistance from MSPL Limited, Hospet Printed by Offset Process by M. Nagaraju, Driti Enterprises Bangalore - 560 085
- 8. Foreword A phenomenal growthhas been achieved in our understanding of the Geology of India since India's Independence through the efforts of the Geological Survey of India and several other State Surveys, exploration agencies, research organizations, universities, institutes and scientific societies. Many of our earlier concepts of geology in relation to structure and tectonics, stratigraphy and sedimentation, magmatism and metamorphism, and metallogeny and mineral deposits have undergone drastic changes with larger inflow of data, synchronising with the evolving global concepts of earth processes. New dimensions have been added to Indian stratigraphy by detailed geological mapping on the one hand and through geochronology and to a limited extent geophysics and geochemistry. The need for a comprehensive, nevertheless succinct account of the geology of India, keeping in view the above developments, has been keenly felt and a positive step has been taken by the Geological Society of India in entrusting to two of our outstanding earth scientists, Prof. R. Vaidyanadhan and Dr. M. Ramakrishnan, the task of addressing this need. Professor Vaidyanadhan hails from an educational stream from the Andhra University and is widely known for his expertise in geomorphology and a capability for incisive synthesis and review. Dr. M. Ramakrishnan has several decades of dedicated field work in different parts of the country to his credit under the banner of the Geological Survey of India and in guiding streams of younger scientists in geological mapping and interpretation. Both the authors have published widely quoted papers of lasting value. They served the Geological Society in the challenging task of being successive editors to the Journal of the Society and have established editorial capabilities. It goes to the credit of these two earth scientists that they, in the present two volumes, provide an exhaustive and commendable synthesis of Indian geology, covering the major recent advances. They have thereby generated, perhaps, the almost up-to-date and authentic publication on the subject now available.
- 9. The authors havetaken to a central path in areas of modeling diversity. Most evolutionary models find a mention in the text. Areas of geophysics and geochemistry are emphasized, but the main focus is on structure, tectonics, stratigraphy and the geological milieu. Though the Global Stratigraphic Scale is broadly followed, formations are described keeping in view their spatial and temporal continuity. Such a presentation has the merit of ensuring a wholesome picture of the geological history behind each of these geological entities which will be lost when mutilated into the various systems in the International Time Scale. Thus the Precambrian is described in terms of cratons, mobile belts and Proterozoic platformal sediments. Precambrian stratigraphy is well integrated with petrology and chemistry. In the Phanerozoic, considerable emphasis is laid on sequence stratigraphy in different regions and life (mega and micro) preserved in fossils during different periods. The Gondwana and the Siwalik sequences are described as single entities. The write-up on the Deccan and Rajmahal volcanism emphasises the several manifestations of the riftogenic episodes of continental volcanism, their chemical stratigraphy, petrology and petrogenesis. The Precambrian of the Himalaya is described in a chapter along with other Mobile Belts in Volume 1 and the Phanerozoic of the Himalaya in the successive chapters on Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and the Cenozoic in Volume 2. Offshore basins constitute the penultimate chapter. Geomorphic evolution is appropriately reserved to the end of the book as the last chapter. The book presents a selected bibliography that lists most of the significant contributions. The authors are constrained to be brief in several sections due to limitations of space. I have been fortunate to be associated with the reviewing of several chapters at one stage or other and the final manuscript volume recently. I deem it a privilege to be requested by the Geological Society of India to write this Foreword to this book. A comprehensive treatise, the book would prove to be an up-to-date source of information on Indian continental geology. I recommend it for wide readership. T. M . MAHADEVAN
- 10. Preface to ReprintEdition There was an overwhelming response from the earth scientists to this book and all copies are sold out already. In view of this great demand, the Geological Society of India has decided to reprint the book with minimal additions/alterations so that there is no change in pagination. We have fulfilled this mandate by taking into account the suggestions from experts like O.N. Bhargava, L.S. Chamyal, G. Lakshminarayana, U.B. Mathur, A.C. Nanda, G.V.R.K. Prasad, K.N. Prudhvi Raju, D.S.N. Raju and Vishwas S. Kale. Major changes added here synoptically pertain to the Pandyan and Eastern Ghats mobile belts in Chapter 4 and 'Purana' basins in Chapter 5. The new International Stratigraphic Chart or ISC (ICS, 2009) printed in this reprint replaces the ISC 2004 included in the 2008 Edition of the book. Elsewhere, a table each has been added as folder in Chapters 6 (Palaeozoic) and 8 (Mesozoic), contents in a few tables substantially modified in Chapters 10 (Cenozoic) and 12 (Offshore basins), and ages changed in a few places based on geochronological and faunal evidence. New plate tectonics signatures such as ophiolites, eclogites and high P-T metamorphism in the Eastern Ghats and Pandyan mobile belts have been described recently and linked to global supercontinent dispersal and assembly. The time span of 'Purana' basins has been revised to Mesoproterozoic (1000 to 1600 Ma) on the basis of isotopic ages of the upper sequences at -1000 Ma (e.g. Bhander, Bhima / Kurnool, Chhattisgarh etc.) negating the earlier views of their Neoproterozoic ( -500 Ma) age. A Supplementary Bibliography has been added at the end of each volume to reflect the rapid changes happening in the geology of India. We have by and large laid emphasis on stratigraphy while making these
- 11. vi PREFACE TOREPRINT EDITION changes. The recent book "The Making of India - A Geodynamic Evolution" by K.S. Valdiya (2010), published by Macmillan (816p), is a valuable companion that deals with the geology of Himalaya and neighbouring regions (Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean) in greater detail, covers broadly the Phanerozoic geology of India and contains an exhaustive list of references. Another recent book "Cratons and Fold Belts of India" by R.S.Sharma (2009) published by Springer (304p) is a useful supplement that compares and contrasts different evolutionary models, starting with an introduction to Precambrian terrains and tectonics. We are grateful to the MSPL Limited, Hospet for liberal financial assistance for printing of this book. The series of Memoirs released by the Geological Society of India in connection with the Golden Jubilee Celebrations in 2008 that highlight the advances made in different fields of the earth sciences in India are valuable sources of reference. These developments reflect the burgeoning progress of research and we could only provide a glimpse of it given the time and space constraints. We thank the Geological Society of India for its pro-active role. 31st May 2010 R.VAIDYANADHAN M.RAMAKRISHNAN
- 12. Preface Geology came tooccupy the pride of place in the country following Independence and rapid industrialization based on Five Year Plans of the Nehru era. Geological Survey of India, the premier earth science organization in the country, was considerably expanded and decentralized to the various States of India. National Research Institutes like the NGRI, PRL, CESS, WIHG, BSIP etc. were encouraged to develop rapidly, and the Universities urged to become centers of excellence. The net result of the combined activity was the production of wealth of new data, forming the backbone for industrial advancement. The dissemination of new information was originally confined to specialist publications of limited circulation. The classical textbooks by D.N. Wadia and M.S. Krishnan, which met the requirements until the seventies, were fast becoming obsolete. The few books that appeared later had limited size and scope, and did not meet the popular demand. E.H. Pascoe's Manual in four volumes as well as the Revised Fourth Edition of the Manual of Geology of India by G S I are too big for general use. Specialized publications on the Precambrian of India and on the Indian plate as a whole mainly catered to specific sections of the geological community. The need for a textbook suitable for teaching, research and search for economic minerals was sorely felt soon. The present volume containing the collated and condensed data is designed to meet these needs. Its target readership is not only students, but also research scholars and professional scientists. The Geological Society of India, which pioneered the publication of textbooks on the States of India, has taken the lead to publish this volume also. Classical geology is firmly rooted in stratigraphy, in conjunction with structural geology in deformed terrains. Stratigraphy is fundamental for building models of metamorphism, tectonics and crustal evolution, and is therefore the prime focus of this book. The scheme follows the recent (2004) International Stratigraphic Scale. The Code of Stratigraphic
- 13. Nomenclature is notrigorously adopted in India, and therefore some deviations are noticed in the correlation tables reproduced here from authors, who worked in different terrains in different periods. In some cases the names of the stages given earlier are different from those in vogue now. The most popular and widely quoted stratigraphic schemes are used in the book to maintain an even balance. The geology of India is a rich tapestry of geological history from the Archaean to the present day, of which the Himalaya as a classical example of continental collision, the Deccan Volcanic Province as an important Large Igneous Province of global importance, the 'Purana' Basins, a variety of greenstone belts and the typical granulite terrain forming the type area of charnockites have been the recent focus of international attention. In order to do reasonable justice to its complex geology and flood of new data, the book is organized into two volumes, broadly dealing with the Precambrian (Volume 1) and the Phanerozoic (Volume 2). R. Vaidyanadhan has written the Chapter 1 and the Phanerozoic part of Chapter 2 in Volume 1; and the Inter-trappean part of Chapter 9, and the Chapters 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12 and 13 in Volume 2. M. Ramakrishnan has written the Precambrian part of Chapter 2 and the Chapters 3, 4 and 5 in Volume 1; and the Deccan Trap part of Chapter 9 in Volume 2. The Precambrian of India has been dealt with in terms of tectonic divisions like cratons, mobile belts and flat-lying cratonic basins. It is our belief that such genetic divisions are more durable than the ones based on geographical regions, chronostratigraphic schemes or those based on crustal evolution. The latter two criteria are subject to frequent change due to revolutionary changes in geochronology or the emergence of new paradigms like plate tectonics or its variant of plume tectonics. The core of the book has, however, the flexibility to accommodate any foreseeable new developments. In the case of the Phanerozoic, the stratigraphy is presented in the conventional manner giving importance to sequence, lithology, life and broad correlation within each era. Gondwana and Siwalik are, however, dealt with separately since they occupy conspicuous special range in time and space in Indian stratigraphy with overlaps in time when
- 14. PREFACE ix compared withthe standard International Stratigraphic Scale (Gondwana from part of Palaeozoic to Mesozoic era and Siwalik from Miocene to Pleistocene epochs within the Cenozoic era). A brief presentation is made from the voluminous data published by ONGC on Offshore basins over the past half-a-century. Morphology and evolution of sections of Indian subcontinent come at the end to complete the story of the geology of India. The Selected Bibliography at the end is not exhaustive and is largely limited to reviews or overviews, and to some of the recent ones that make any specific new viewpoint or present new data. Any omission in this regard is not intentional. Similarly, the references are not cited in the text at frequent intervals in order that the flow of the narrative is least interrupted. A substantial part of the text is drawn from the textbooks and memoirs of the Geological Society of India, regular and Special Publications of the Geological Survey of India and Proceedings of Seminars, besides important articles from the national and international journals. Geological Map of India on 1:5 M scale published by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) in 1993 is included in this book for reference. The 'Legend' in the map may not correspond with the scheme used in the book, but the geological units in the map will form a useful guide. For additional information, the geological, tectonic, geomorphological and other thematic maps on 1:2 M scale published by GSI may be consulted. We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi for a generous grant for publication of the book. Padmashree (Dr.) B.P. Radhakrishna is the main source of inspiration for this volume. Without his constant goading and monitoring, it would not have been possible to complete this book. R. VAIDYANADHAN M. RAMAKRISHNAN
- 15. Acknowledgements Padmashri B.P.Radhakrishna, thedoyen of Indian geology, has been a great source of inspiration and constant guidance in our endeavour. We owe a deep debt of gratitude to Prof. T.M.Mahadevan, who perused the manuscript critically and patiently, and offered very valuable suggestions for improvement. His sound geophysical understanding of geological problems was a great asset to us in his incisive review. He is also thanked for the Foreword to this book. He and Dr.S.M.Naqvi of the National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, have made the final appraisal of the manuscript volume, on behalf of the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. Almost all the chapters of the book have been reviewed by at least two experts in the respective fields and we are grateful to them for sparing their valuable time. The experts in the alphabetical order are: O.N. Bhargava, L.S.Chamyal, A . Govindan, Jai Krishna, A.K. Jain, Vishwas S. Kale, Vivek S. Kale, G Lakshminarayana, A.C. Nanda, K.N.Prasad, D.S.N.Raju, K.N.Prudhvi Raju, GN.Rao, P.K.Saraswati, S.V.Srikantia, K.V.Subbarao, S.K.Tandon, R.C.Tewari, S.Viswanathan (Hyderabad), S.Viswanathan (Mumbai) and P L . Zutschi. K.V. Subbarao is particularly thanked for help with the illustrations and literature on Deccan Traps. It must be admitted, however, that due to constraints of space, some of the well-meaning suggestions of the experts could not be incorporated in the book. A host of friends and well-wishers have been of valuable help in providing us with notes, reprints, manuscripts, drawings, photographs, imagery, fossil plates and photocopies. Among them mention may be made of the following persons in the alphabetical order: Abhinaba Roy K . Ayyasamy, S.Balakrishnan, PK.Banerji, N.P Bhatt, A. Bhattacharyya, T.K. Biswal, GCh. Chennaiah, R.K. Ganjoo, N.C. Ghose, H.K. Gupta, M . Hanuma Prasad, A.K. Jaitley, M. Jayananda, V.K. Jha, G Lakshmi- narayana, C.Leelanandam, Y.V.N. Krishnamurthy, S. Madabhushi, Mahadev, U.B. Mallikarjuna, R.K.Mazari, N.C. Mehrotra, K.S. Misra,
- 16. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi V.P. Mishra,P.M. Mohan, A.C. Nanda, S.M.Naqvi, R.K.Nigam, B.S. Paliwal, A.K. Pandey, C.C.Pant, G.V.S. Poornachandra Rao, GV.R. Prasad, K.N. Prudhvi Raju, P.Rama Rao, K.L.V. Ramana Rao, S. Sachi Devi, A.V. Sankaran, H.S. Sharma, M.C. Sharma, S. Shivanna, J. Simhachalam, M.P. Singh, A.K. Sinha, S.V. Srikantia, J. Srinivasan, R. Srinivasan, S.K. Subramanian, V.N. Vasudev, T. Vasudevan, G G Vaz, B.S. Venkatachala, M.N. Viswanatha and P. Yadagiri. It was not found possible to thank many individuals by name due to space limitations. Any omission in this regard is not intentional and the authors may be condoned for any lapse. We are thankful to Mahaveer and Siddu Kalagudi of MSPL Ltd. (Baldota), Bangalore, R.H. Rajiv of Geomysore Services, Bangalore, and Naga Murari and Madan Mohan of Mumbai for digitization of some figures. We are thankful to R.H. Sawkar, V.N. Vasudev and K.V. Subbarao for coordinating the digitization of some figures. M.Nagaraju of Driti Enterprises, Bangalore is thanked for undertaking the task of printing and binding with customary zeal. We are grateful to a host of publishing houses listed under "Permissions" in each volume and copyright holders who have generously granted us permissions to reproduce illustrations from various publications. The main sources are the Geological Society of India, Geological Survey of India, Elsevier Scientific Publishers, Current Science, Prof. A.B.Roy and Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, and Gondwana Geological Society, Nagpur. Many other sources, which have enriched the book, are listed under Permissions. We are grateful to the Geological Society of India, Bangalore for acceding to our request for publication of the book. B.P. Radhakrishna, H.K. Gupta, M.S. Rao and R.H. Sawkar have evinced keen interest in speedy publication. The following staff of the Geological Society of India are thanked for their prompt help in many ways in the preparation of the book: Subhash Chandra, Jitendra Kumar, S. Shivanna, Nagabhushana, Venkataramaiah, Dharmaraju, Meera, Nalini, Veena, Govindaraju and Seetharamiah.
- 17. xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authorswould like to express their gratitude to their spouses Lakshmi Vaidyanadhan and Saroja Ramakrishnan and their sons Sridhar and Ravi Vaidyanadhan and Anand and Kartik Ramakrishnan and their families, who have been a great source of strength during the trying times on this seemingly endless journey towards our goal, spanning many years. M.Ramakrishnan offers his obeisance to Agastya Mahamuni, Lopamudra Devi and Pradhanacharya of Gnana Kendra (A.N.Shankar) in Bangalore for their blessings in this project. We are grateful to K.R. Gupta, S.K. Tandon, Ch.Sivaji and M. Prithviraj and the Scientific Committee Members of the Department of Science and Tehnology, Government of India, for their enthusiastic support. R . VAIDYANADHAN M. RAMAKRISHNAN
- 18. Contents Foreword m Preface toReprint Edition Preface Acknowledgements Permissions List of Figures List of Tables xxvin xvii xix Vll X V Volume 1 Chapter 1. Introduction and Physiography Introduction - Physical Features - Glaciers - Rivers - Lakes Coastal Features - Seas - Volcanoes - Seismicity - Climate - Soils - Natural Vegetation - Ground Water. Chapter 2. Geology of India: A Synopsis Introduction - Previous Studies -Tectonic Framework of India -Cratons (Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand, Aravalli) - Mobile Belts (Eastern Ghats, Pandyan, Satpura, Precambrian of Himalaya)- Proterozoic ('Purana') Sedimentary Basins - Supercontinental Cycles - Phanerozoic (Palaeozoic, Gondwana Supergroup, Mesozoic, Deccan Volcanic Province, Inter-trappeans, Cenozoic, Siwalik Group, Offshore Geology, Morphology and Evolution). Chapter 3. Cratons Dharwar Craton - Introduction - Regional Stratigraphy - Western Dharwar Craton - Eastern Dharwar Craton - Mafic Dyke Swarms - Regional Structure - Regional Metamorphism and Charnockites - Geophysical Studies - Tectonic Evolution. Bastar Craton - Introduction - Regional Stratigraphy - Description of Stratigraphie Units (including Kotri-Dongargarh Orogen) - Mafic Dykes - Tectonic Evolution 1-37 39-97 99-333 99-180 181-209
- 19. Singhbhum Craton -Introduction - Supracrustals and Granitoids - Volcanic Successions - North Singhbhum Orogen - Younger Granitoids - Kolhan Group - Newer Dolerite - Tectonic Evolution Bundelkhand Craton - Introduction- Supracrustals - Gneisses— Bundelkhand Granite (including Mohar Cauldron) - Quartz Reefs - Mafic Dyke Swarms - Tectonic Evolution Aravalli Craton - Introduction - Tectono-Stratigraphic Units - Proterozoic Aravalli - Delhi Orogen (Palaeoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt and Mesoproterozoic Delhi Fold Belt) - Neoproterozoic Marwar Craton (including Malani Igneous Suite, Marwar Basins) - Regional Metamorphism - Geophysical Studies - Tectonic Evolution. Chapter 4. Mobile Belts Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt - Introduction - Zonation of EGMB - Marginal or Transition Zone - Western Charnockite Zone - Western and Eastern Khondalite Zone - Central Migmatite Zone - Tectonic Evolution. Pandyan Mobile Belt - Introduction - Zonation of PMB - Marginal Zone - Madurai Block - Trivandrum Block - Metamorphism - Igneous Intrusions - Geophysical Studies - Tectonic Evolution. Satpura Mobile Belt - Introduction - Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) - Chhotanagpur Gneiss - North East India - Correlation of Different Sectors of Mobile Belt. Precambrian of Himalaya - Introduction - Stratigraphy - Structure - Metamorphism - Magmatism - Tectonic Evolution. Chapter 5. Proterozoic (Purana) Sedimentary Basins Introduction - Palaeoproterozoic Basins - Meso-proterozoic Basins - Igneous Intrusions - Evolution of Purana Basins Selected Bibliography (Supplementary Bibliography) Subject Index
- 20. CONTENTS xv Volume 2 Chapter6. Palaeozoic 557-614 Introduction - Tethyan Basin - Palaeozoic Life - Precambrian/ Cambrian Boundary - pC/C Boundary in Himalayan Basins - Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian - Devonian - Carboniferous - Permian Chapter 7. Gondwana Supergroup 615-661 Introduction - Stratigraphy and Structure - Life in Gondwana - Coastal Gondwana Basins - Gondwana in Extra-Peninsular India - Environments of Deposition - Palaeocurrents - Climate - Coal - Classification and Age - Gondwana in Southern Continents Chapter 8. Mesozoic 663-732 Introduction - Fauna and Flora - Triassic - Permo/Triassic Boundary— Jurassic - Cretaceous - Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) Boundary Chapter 9. Deccan Volcanic Province 733-784 Introduction - Field Features of Basalt Rows - Regional Stratigraphy (Lithostratigraphy, Chemostratigraphy, Magnetostratigraphy) - Volcano-Plutonic Complexes (Girnar, Mundwara, Sarnu-Dandali, Ambadongar, Murud-Jhanjira, Phenai Mata etc.)— Mafic Dyke Swarms - Petrology and Pedogenesis (Tholeiites, Picrites, Alkaline Lavas & Plugs) - Age and Duration of Volcanism - Geophysical Studies - Structure and Tectonics— Economic Minerals. Inter-trappean Beds - Introduction - Distribution - Palaeobiogeography - Age
- 21. Chapter 10. Cenozoic785-888 Introduction - Distribution - Tectonics - Magmatic Activity - Climate- Correlation - Fauna and Flora - Classification - Stratigraphy: Paleogene (Introduction, Fauna and Flora, Stratigraphy); Neogene (Introduction, Fauna and Flora, Stratigraphy); Quaternary (Introduction, Distribution, Tectonic Activity, Climatic Change, Sea level Change, Laterite, Early Man in India) Chapter 11. Siwalik Group 889-906 Introduction - Stratigraphy and Sedimentation - Fauna - Trend of Life— Tectonic Setting and Structure - Correlation and Age Chapter 12. Geology of Offshore Basins 907-932 Introduction - Stratigraphy and Structure - Bengal Basin- Mahanadi Basin - Krishna-Godavari Basin - Penner Basin - Palar Basin - Cauvery Basin - Konkan-Kerala Shelf - Bombay Offshore Basin - Kutch and Saurashtra Basins - Andaman- Nicobar Basin Chapter 13. Morphology and Evolution 933-960 Introduction - Peninsular India - Extra-Peninsular India - Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain Selected Bibliography 961-980 Supplementary Bibliography 981-983 Subject Index 984-992 Fossil Index 993-997
- 22. Permissions The various agenciesthat have generously granted permissions for reproduction of figures are thanked under Acknowledgements. Some sources are also acknowledged under the captions to figures as per stipulation.The sources and the corresponding figure numbers in the text are listed below under the agency granting the permission. The figure numbers follow the pattern of numerals denoting the Chapter, followed by the serial number indicating the figure. Name of the Organisation/Agency Figure No. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U K 7.2 Elsevier, Kidlington, U K 6.8, 6.12, 9.34, 10.8, 10.21, 13.10 Balkema Publishers, Lisse, Netherlands 7.11 Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado,USA 7.10 John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U K 8.11 Geological Society of London, London 9.33 Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany 10.13 American Assn. of Petroleum Geologigists, Tulsa, USA 12.5, 12.6 Editor, Cretaceous Research, Aberystwyth, Wales, U K 8.15 Geological Survey and Mines Bureau, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka 11.2 American Association of Advancement of Science (AAAS) 9.10a Palaeobotanical Society, Lucknow Plate 7.3 Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Paleobotany, Lucknow Plates 7.1,7.2. 7.3; Fig. 7.9. Universities Press (India) Private Ltd., Hyderabad 10.22, 11.6, 13.9
- 23. Name of theOrganisation/Agency Figure No. Current Science, Bangalore 6.9, 9.4a ,b,c; 9.5a, 10.18 Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi 6.2 International Assn. for Gondwana Research, Tiruvananthapuram 6.16, 7.6, 7.7 Pilgrim Publishing, Varanasi 13.4 Executive Director, KDMIPE, ONGC, Dehra Dun 8.5, 12.2, 12.3 Director, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun 8.2 Gondwana Geological Society, Nagpur 9.7a, 9.14, 9.21, 10.10 The Palaeontological Society of India, Lucknow 8.10, 8.12, 10.6, 10.7 Indian Journal of Earth Sciences, Kolkata 10.17, 13.2, 13.3 Indian Petroleum Publishers, Dehra Dun 8.3, 12.8, 12.18 National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 8.14, 12.4, 12.9, 12.13, 12.17 Editor, Gyanodayan Prakasan, Nainital 11.1, 11.5 Editor, Gangetic Plain: Terra Incognita, Lucknow 13.12, 13.13, 13.14 Director General, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata 6.4, 6.5, 6.10, 6.11,6.14, 6.15, 7.12, 8.1,8.4, 8.9, 9.10b, 9.21, 10.3, 10.11, 10.14, 11.3, 13.5, 13.11. Figs. 2.19 and 4.3 in GSI Spl. Publ. No.67 Geological Society of India, Bangalore (Journal, Memoir, Penrose Deccan Volume) 6.3, 6.6, 6.7, 6.13, 7.3, 7.4, 7.8, 8.8, 8.13, 8.16, 8.17, 9.1,9.2, 9.31,9.4, 9.5b,c, 9.8, 9.11a,b, 9.15a,b, 9.16a,b,c, 9.17, 9.19, 9.23, 9.25, 9.26, 9.27, 9.29, 9.30, 9.32, 10.2, 10.4, 10.5, 10.12, 10.15, 10.16, 10.19, 10.20, 11.4, 12.7, 12.10, 12.11, 12.12, 12.15, 12.16, 13.1, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8 New Age International (Wiley Eastern) 9.12, 9.24 Taylor and Francis Group (Balkema) 9.18 Springer Wein, New York 9.22
- 24. List of Figures Fig.No.Title Page No. Chapter 6: Palaeozoic 6.1 Tethyan Basins of the Himalaya. 558 6.2 Geological sketch map of the Kashmir Himalaya showing various tectonic and stratigraphic units. 561 6.3 Geological cross-section across Lidder Anticline in Walorama sector, Kashmir. 561 6.4 Geological map (a) and section (b) of part of Spiti- Kinnaur area, Himachal Pradesh. 564 6.5 Litholog of the Tethyan sequence, Spiti-Kinnaur area, Himachal Pradesh. 565 6.6 Geological map of part of the Mussoorie Syncline, Uttarakhand. 574 6.7 Fossiliferous horizons in Mussoorie section, Uttarakhand. 576 6.8 Biostratigraphy of the Cambrian of Kashmir from various sections in the Pohru Valley. 580 6.9 Biostratigraphic scheme for the Himalayan Cambrian. 584 6.10 Relative stratigraphic position of the Takche/Manchap Formation, Himachal Pradesh. 586 6.11 Geological sketch map of Spiti-Kinnaur area, Himachal Pradesh. 587 6.12 Geological map of the Sumna-Rimkhim area of the Tethyan Zone of the higher Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand. 589 6.13 Schematic tectonostratigraphic traverse column of eastern Karakoram, Jammu and Kashmir. 595 6.14 Lithocolumn of the Panjal Volcanics of Sonamarg, Lar and Bandipura sections of northwestern Kashmir. 600 6.15 Litho- and chrono-stratigraphic correlation of Phanerozoic sequence, Tethyan belt, Northwest Himalaya. 608 6.16 Marine incursions in the southern belt of the Himalaya and Peninsular India during the Early Permian. 611 Plates 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 Fossils of the Palaeozoic. 567-569
- 25. XX LIST OFFIGURES Fig.No. Titie Page No. Chapter 7: Gondwana Supergroup 7.1 Major Gondwana strata in India. 617 7.2 Geological map showing the distribution of Gondwana rocks in the Son-Mahanadi and Koel Damodar Valley basins. 620 7.3 Geology and palaeocurrent map, Satpura basin, Madhya Pradesh. 623 7.4 Stratigraphy of Satpura basin, Madhya Pradesh 624 7.5 Geological map of the Pranhita-Godavari valley, Andhra Pradesh (folder). 628-629 7.5a Major structural elements in the Godavari rift. 629 7.6 A. Location map of the Godavari Triple Junction. B. Geological map of the Godavari Triple Junction, Andhra Pradesh. 631 7.7 Schematic geological cross section across the the Godavari Triple Junction. 631 7.8 Distribution of basalt and Gondwana sediments as exposed in the Rajmahal Hills, Jharkhand. 633 7.9 Trends in the distribution of morphographic characters of spores and pollen, considered important, from Talchir to Lower Panchet, in terms of relative abundance. 640 7.10 Block diagram and profiles of depositional environments of (A) Talchir Formation, (B) Karharbari and Barakar Formations, (C) the Barren Measures and Raniganj Formations and (D) the Panchet and Supra-Panchet (Mahadeva) Formations. 652 7.11 Gondwana basins of India, showing paleo-currents in some of the formations. 654 7.12 Semidiagrammatic representation of the relation between the floras of the Lower, Middle and the Upper Gondwana and other attributes. 657 Plates 7.1 and 7.2: Reconstruction of some of the plant fossils of Lower and Upper Gondwana. 636-637 Plate 7.3: Lower and Upper Gondwana Plant Microfossils (spores and pollens). 639 Plate 7.4: Mesozoic vertebrates. 642
- 26. Fig.No. Title PageNo. Chapter 8: Mesozoic 8.1 Distribution of marine Triassic of India in the Himalaya. 664 8.2 Main Jurassic-Cretaceous localities of the Tethyan Himalayan Belt. 665 8.3 Geological map of Kachchh Basin, Gujarat. 666 8.4 Sketch map of the Indian subcontinent showing major tectonic elements and the position of various marine Cretaceous basins. 667 8.5 Index map: West Rajasthan basins. 668 8.6 Representative septal sutures of Mesozoic ammonoids. 670 8.7 Stages in the evolution of important/major dinosaurs. 676 8.8 Map showing various dinosaur fossil localities in India. 677 8.9 Triassic sequence, Tindara hillock, northwest of Pastannah, Tral valley, Kashmir. 680 8.10 Lithocolumn of the Lilang Group in Himachal Pradesh showing lithostratigraphic subdivisions against biostratigraphic subdivisions. 683 8.10A Summary of alternative lithostratigraphic nomenclature for the Triassic of Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. 685 8.11 Exotic blocks of the Malla Johar Kiogad 1 Peak, Uttarakhand. 687 8.12 Lithostratigraphic framework of Middle Jurassic and lower Upper Jurassic rocks of the Kachchh Basin, Gujarat. 695 8.13 Tectonic map of Kutch, Gujarat. 696 8.14 Correlation of lithostratigraphic units of western Rajasthan Basins. 699 8.15 Geological map of the Ariyalur district showing the distribution of Cretaceous and Tertiary Formations, Tamil Nadu. 712 8.16 Outcrops of Bagh Group along Narmada river valley in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. 718 8.17 Map showing different inferred inland basins of Lameta sedimenataion in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. 721 8.18 Geological map of Andaman-Nicobar islands in Bay of Bengal. 731 Plates 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3: Fossils of the Mesozoic. 672-674
- 27. xxii LIST OFFIGURES Fig.No. Title Page No. Chapter 9: Deccan Volcanic Province 9.1 Flood basalt forming Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) of the world along with genetic links to hotspots. 734 9.2 Section across the DVP from Mysore Plateau to Laccadive Basin showing the exposed and concealed extent of the Deccan Trap. 735 9.3 Map of Peninsular India showing distribution of both surface and subsurface volcanics. 736 9.4 (a) Lobe of a simple pahoehoe flow (b) Outcrop of a compound pahoehoe flow (c) Schematic vertical section of a compound lava flow. 737 9.5 (a) Features of inflation of a pahoehoe lobe. Sketch (b) and photograph (c) of flow lobe tumuli with radial cracks. 738 9.6 Columnar jointing of Deccan basalts near Andheri, Mumbai. 739 9.7 (a) Schematic diagram of a lava channel, (b) Sinuous parallel ridges of levees in a lava channel near Ahmednagar. 740 9.8 (a) Photomicrograph giving typical textural and mineralogical characters of Giant Plagioclase Basalt (GPB), Thalghat. (b) Red bole horizon at the flow contact between two flows of Poladpur Formation, Simhagad Fort, Pune. (c) Photomicrograph of red bole. 741 9.9 Zeolite in Deccan basalt. 742 9.10 (a) Aerial view of Lonar Lake in Maharashtra, (b) Panoramic view of Lonar Lake. 743 9.11 (a) Stratigraphie column showing delineation of formations using field and pétrographie criteria. Note GPB s marking the formation boundaries (b) Stratigraphie correlation log. 745 9.12 Chemical stratigraphy based on elemental abundances and ratios. 746 9.13 Distribution of subprovinces of the DVP. 748 9.14 Lithostratigraphic Map of Western Maharashtra. 750 9.15 (a) Chemostratigraphy of the Western Deccan Province, (b) Areas dominated by simple and compound pahoehoe flows and dyke swarms. 752
- 28. Fig.No. Title PageNo. 9.16 (a) A generalised cartoon showing the three subgroups of Deccan Basalt Group (b) E-W cross-section of DVP from Ratnagiri to Gulbarga (c) N-S cross- section of DVP from Narmada River to Belgaum (Belagavi). 753 9.17 Deccan basalts and volcano-plutonic complexes of Saurashtra arch. Note the dyke swarms trending nearly E-W. 758 9.18 Geological map of Girnar Igneous Complex. 759 9.19 Geological map of Mundwara Igneous Complex. 761 9.20 Pillow lava near Mumbai. 762 9.21 Columnar jointed rhyodacite of St. Mary's Islands, off Malpe near Udupi on the west coast of Karnataka. 762 9.22 Simplified geological map of Amba Dongar alkaline carbonatite complex. 763 9.23 Deccan basalts and volcanic plugs of Kachchh. 764 9.24 Mafic dykes in the Deccan basalts of Narmada valley 766 9.25 Common microscopic textures in Deccan basalts. 768 9.26 Distribution of rifts and gravity highs in DVP. 771 9.27 DSS profile across Saurashtra showing Girnar horst marking the site of Girnar Igneous Complex. 772 9.28 Heat flow values in DVP. 772 9.29 Isopach contour map of DVP based on DSS profiles. 773 9.30 Origin of large plumes from core-mantle boundary. 774 9.31 Movement of India over the Reunion plume. 775 9.32 Regional dips of Deccan lavas support doming due to underplating of magmas forming large magma chambers. 776 9.33 Map showing the distribution of infra- and inter-trappean beds in peninsular India. 778 9.34 Schematic representation of possible relationships between infra- and inter-trappean sequences and the associated lava flows and the rifted basement lithologies. 778 Chapter 10: Cenozoic 10.1 Chart showing the Cenozoic succession in Western Sub-Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic foredeep including age, generalised lithology, depositional environment, energy sequence and conventional lithostratigraphy. 788
- 29. xxiv LIST OFFIGURES Fig.No. Title Page No. 10.2 Geological and tectonic map of the Jaisalmer basin and the adjoining areas, western Rajasthan. 798 10.3 Generalised stratigraphic sucession in Assam-Arakan Basin, Northeastern India. 800 10.4 (A) Regional setup and various lithotectonic units of Kargil area, Ladakh Himalaya. (B) Detailed geological map of the area. 809 10.5 An idealised profile of different segments of a basin on the subducting plate near collision zone. 814 10.6 Neogene/Quaternary boundary in Indian basins. 836 10.7 Quaternary sedimentaries of India. 837 10.8 Physical stratigraphy of the exposed Late Pleistocene sediments (SI and S2 surfaces) in the lower Narmada valley and the adjacent Mahi and Sabarmati valleys. 838 10.9 Geological map of the Kathiawar Peninsula, Gujarat. 840 10.10 Map showing subsurface terraces (ST,, S T 2 and ST3 ) and structural framework of the Central Narmada Valley. 843 10.11 Detailed geomorphological map of the Narmada-Tawa river confluence area showing distribution of depositional terraces, Madhya Pradesh. 845 10.12 Quaternary geological map of Sambhar lake, Rajasthan. 851 10.13 Thar dunefield showing dune types and their locations. 853 10.14 Lithostratigraphic map of Karewa Group, Kashmir valley, Jammu and Kashmir. 856 10.15 Geological and geomorphological map of parts of Ghagara Rapti-Gandak sub-basins, Uttar Pradesh (folder). 862-863 10.16 Tectonic map of Ganga Basin. 864 10.17 Morphogeologic map of the area around Burdwan, West Bengal (folder). 866-867 10.18 Geomorphological map of Krishna-Godavari deltas. 869 10.19 Holocene sea level curve for western Indian continental margin relative to present sea level. 880 10.20 Landforms along the seaward margin of the hillock southeast of Reva Polavaram, Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh. 882 10.21 Schematic illustration of relative sea level change of the east coast of India during Middle to Late Holocene. 883
- 30. Fig.No. Title PageNo. 10.22 Sites of settlements of Stone-Age people in the Himalayan province and neighbouring regions. 886 Plates 10.1 and 10.2: Foraminifera of the Cenozoic. 792-793 Plate 10.3: Foraminifera and other fossils of Cenozoic. 794 Chapter 11: Siwalik Group 11.1 Siwalik belt of northwest Himalaya showing important stratigraphie localities. 890 11.2 Stratigraphy and mammalian fauna of the Upper Siwalik of the Jammu region. 896 11.3 Distribution of the Siwalik Group and older Cenozoic rocks in the zone of the Punjab re-entrant and adjoining areas. 898 11.4 Geological cross-section across Mohand and Mussoorie area, Uttarakhand. 900 11.5 Lithological column through a sequence of multistoried sandstones of the Middle Siwalik Subgroup in the Dehra Dun region, Uttarakhand. 901 11.6 Structural architecture of the Siwalik terrane. 904 Plate 11.1. Vertebrate animals and Primates of Cenozoic. 895 . Chapter 12: Geology of Offshore Basins 12.1 Offshore basins of India. 908 12.2 Cretaceous and Cenozoic biochronostratigraphy (Stages and biochrons): Standard and Indian (folder). 910-911 12.3 Lithostratigraphy of Bengal Basin. 912 12.4 Lithostratigraphic nomenclature of sedimentary sequences penetrated in the East Godavari basin. 914 12.5 Seismic line across the East Godavari subbasin, S E part of Tanuku horst (Mandapeta trough). 915 12.6 Tectonic framework of Krishna-Godavari Basin. 916 12.7 Stratigraphy of Palar and Pennar basins. 918 12.8 Stratigraphy of Cauvery Basin. 919 12.9 Tectonic map of Cauvery Basin. 920 12.10 Stratigraphie succession, established biozones in the outcrop and subsurface Cauvery Basin (Tiruchirapalh area) Tamil Nadu, India. 921
- 31. xxvi LIST OFFIGURES Fig.No. Title Page No. 12.11 Representative transverse seismic section across the northern part of the Konkan deepwater basin showing the rifts and tilt blocks off the west coast of India. 922 12.12 Lithostratigraphic units of Kerala-Konkan Shelf. 924 12.13 Bombay Offshore Basin. 925 12.14 Stratigraphy of Bombay Offshore Basin. 926 12.15 Generalised palyno-stratigraphy and litho-stratigraphy of Bombay Offshore Basin. 927 12.16 Rock stratigraphic succession of Kutch Basin. 928 12.17 Geological section across south Andaman. 930 Plate 12.1. Cenozoic Flagellate cysts. 910 Chapter 13: Morphology and Evolution 13.1 Schematic NNW-SSE sections through the upper reaches of the south Indian piedmont benchlands, parallel to the strike of the Western Ghats. 938 13.2 (a) Generalised morphological map of Kutch showing cyclic denudational surfaces (b) Profile across Kutch mainland showing cyclic landsurfaces. 941 13.3 Geomorphic map of Keonjhar region, Jharkhand and Orissa. 943 13.4 A North-South cross-section from the Himalaya to the Bay of Bengal. 944 13.5 Physiographic variation in the southern, central and northern segments of Orissa. 946 13.6 Subsurface structural features superimposed over the drainage map of Gujarat Alluvial Plains. 948 13.7 Major palaeochannels in Rajasthan and adjacent areas. 949 13.8 River deltas of India showing major ancient channels, beach ridges and possible stages of progradation. 950 13.9 Evolution over a long period of time of the four major thrusts defining the boundaries of the Himalayan terranes. 952 13.10 Geomorphological and geological setting of the Pleistocene Lamayuru lake in Himalaya. 953 13.11 Quaternary geological and geomorphological map of Kailash-Mansarovar route, Pithoragarh district, Uttarakhand. 954
- 32. Fig.No. Title PageNo. 13.12 Generalised cross-section of the planation surfaces (longitudinal and transverse) in Western India. 956 13.13 Schematic geomorphic map of Gangetic plain showing major geomorphic features. 957 13.14 Traces of abandoned channels and channel belts in Ganga-Gomti interfluve, Uttar Pradesh. 958
- 33. List of Tables Tableno. Title Page no. Chapter 6: Palaeozoic 6.1 Lithostratigraphic classification of the Palaeozoic, sequence of the Kashmir Tethys Himalayan sequence in the Lidder Valley, Jammu and Kashmir. 562 6.2 Upper Palaeozoic succession in Kashmir showing plant-bearing horizons. 570 6.3 Permian in Kashmir faunal zones. 598 6.4 Correlation of some marine Lower Permian Beds of India. 613 6.5 Palaeozoic sequences in various sectors (folder) 614-615 Chapter 7: Gondwana Supergroup 7.1 Stratigraphie correlation of different peninsular Gondwana basins. 618 7.2 General stratigraphie succession of Son-Mahanadi Graben. 627 7.3 Lithostratigraphy of the Rajmahal Formations. 634 7.4 Stratigraphie range of Mega Plant fossils in Lower Gondwana. 635 7.5 Lithostratigraphy and fossils in P-G Valley. 641 7.6 Stratigraphie succession of the Upper Gondwana sediments in the Krishna-Godavari coastal tract. 645 7.7 Classification of strata in Palar Basin. 647 7.8 Palynoforms and Zones in the coal-bearing Gondwana of Peninsular India. 655 7.9 Comparative (tentative) stratigraphie sequence in some of the major Gondwana sedimentary basins in southern continents. 660 Chapter 8: Mesozoic 8.1 Biostratigraphic classification of the Triassic System ofSpiti (folder). 682-683 8.2 Permian-Jurassic formations of Painkhand (Niti area). 688-689 8.3 Mesozoic stratigraphy of Kachchh. 694 8.3a Lithostratigraphy of Kutch (folder) 694-695
- 34. LIST OF TABLESxxix Table no. Title Page no. 8.4 Update on Kachchh Jurassic ammonoid chronology and sequence stratigraphy (folder). 698-699 8.5 Ammonoid biostratigraphy of Spiti Formation around Chichim and Gaitey-Spiti Tehsil, Himachal Pradesh (folder). 702-703 8.6 Classification of Upper Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks of Malla Johar Area, Kumaun Himalaya. 710 8.7 Stratigraphy of Trichinopoly Area. 713 8.8 Stratigraphy of Bagh Formation. 719 8.9 Lithostratigraphic succession of Lameta rocks in Narmada basin. 722 8.10 Biota of Infra-trappean (=Lameta) beds. 724-726 Chapter 9: Deccan Volcanic Province 9.1 Lithostratigraphy of western Maharashtra. 749 9.2 Chemical Stratigraphy of Western Deccan Province. 751 9.3 Comparative table of lithostratigraphy and chemostratigraphy. 755 9.4 Biota of subsurface Infra- and Intertrappean localities in Krishna-Godavari Basin. 783 9.5 Fossiliferous Deccan Inter-trappean outcrops (folder). 784-785 Chapter 10: Cenozoic 10.1 Cenozoic Linear Time Scale. 786 10.2 Correlation of Cenozoic formations in Gujarat. 797 10.3 Classification of Cenozoic succession of Andaman- Nicobar Islands. 802 10.4 Tertiary stratigraphy of Kutch. 804 10.5 Palaeogene formations of the sub-Himalayan belt and Sindhu-Tsangpo valleys. 808 10.6 Characteristic features of Kargil Molasse. 810 10.7 Stratigraphy of Subathu in the Himalayan foot-hills. 812 10.8 Lithostratigraphic classification of the Sirmur Group. 813 10.9 Composite palynostratigraphy of Mikir Hills, Dhansiri valley and Upper Assam. 816
- 35. XXX LIST OFTABLES Table no. Title Page no. 10.10 Section in Um Sohryngkew River near Therria exposing an uninterrupted succession of Late Cretaceous-Paleogene strata. 817 10.11 Stratigraphic correlation of Neogene sediments of the Indian subcontinent. 821 10.12 Surma-Tipam succession in Assam and adjoining regions. 827 10.13 Lithostratigraphic classification of sedimentary sequence in Kerala. 832 10.14 Comparison of planktonic foraminiferal datum levels between Andaman-Nicobar/DSDP site 214 and DSDP site 289. 834 10.15 Stratigraphy of the Quaternary deposits of Saurashtra. 839 10.16 Lithostratigraphy of the Quaternary deposits of Okhamandal. 841 10.17 Quaternary stratigraphic succession of Central India. 844 10.18 Distribution of Fauna in Indian Pleistocene deposits and their probable ages. 846 10.19 Chronological sequence of fossils in Narmada Valley. 848 10.20 The litho- and biostratigraphy of the Narmada Valley based on recent data. 848 10.21 Summary of major lithofacies characteristics, archaeo- stratigraphy and luminescence dates of Quaternary alluvial sequences, Luni basin. 850 10.22 General Quaternary lithostratigraphy of the Thar desert. 852 10.23 Scheme of sub-division of the Karewa sequence. 855 10.24 The Quaternary succession in Himachal Pradesh. 858 10.25 Lithostratigraphy and morphostratigraphy of Quaternary sediments in Kali valley. 860 10.26 Quaternary stratigraphy of the Indo-Gangetic plain and Sub-Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh. 862 10.27 Correlation of Quaternary Formations in coastal plain of West Bengal. 866 10.28 Quaternary lithostratigraphic sequence in coastal Orissa. 868 Chapter 11: Siwalik Group 11.1 Chronostratigraphic division of the Siwalik Group. 891 11.2 Lithostratigraphy of the Siwalik Group. 892 11.3 Generalised Siwalik stratigraphy in Uttarakhand. 900
- 36. LIST OF TABLESxxxi labié no. Title Page no. Chapter 12: Geology of Offshore Basins 12.1 Generalised lithostratigraphic column of Mahanadi Offshore Basin. 913 12.2 Generalised stratigraphie chart for the Palar Basin. 917 12.3 Lithostratigraphy of Andaman Basin. 931 12.4 Age, Source rock, Reservoir rocks and Traps in Petroliferous Basins in India. 932 Chapter 13: Morphology and Evolution 13.1 Synopsis of published landscape morphologies and/or development histories for south India. 936 13.2 Planation surfaces of Kachchh. 940 13.3 Tentative correlation of palaeosurfaces of south Bihar, i.e. present Jharkhand. 942 13.4 Geomorphic units of Punjab and Haryana-Rajasthan plains. 955
- 38. Palaeozoic I N TR O D U C T I O N Rocks of the Palaeozoic era covering a span of about 290 Ma occur mainly in the Himalayan region and that too most of them in the Tethyan basin, extending from Kashmir in the northwest to Bhutan in the east (Fig.6.1). A detailed study of the stratigraphy and structure of the formations in these basins has been made for over a century and the lithological and chronostratigraphic correlation of Palaeozoic sequences of the Higher Himalayan Tethyan belt are well established. The conspicuous features in this are the hiatuses at Late Cambrian, Late Carboniferous and Middle Permian. Some Early Cambrian strata are reported to be present in Peninsular India as well. In the early days, the stratigraphy of the Himalayan terrain was worked out mainly based on the observations made during traverses along the river sections across the mountain ranges. Among others Greisbach, Middlemiss, Hayden, Heim and Gansser, and Wadia contributed to the geology of different areas in the Himalayan terrain, while Stoliczka and Reed contributed to our knowledge of the fossils of the Palaeozoic. Later, attempts were made to correlate the different horizons named after local places along these sections. However, during the last few decades, traverses were made (aided by aerial photographs) along the strike of the formations as well and detailed lithological mapping was done after recognizing marker beds. This necessitated change in nomenclature and a need to conform as far as possible to the Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature of India (GSI, 1971). Still one comes across new names for formations of the same age and lithology in some parts of Himalaya and new classifications are emerging. This is partly due to (i) the nature of the terrain being not easily accessible, (ii) lack of habitations with names to be utilized for naming the formations and (iii) thickness of the formations not provided as required by the Code. Some of the designated formations, even if based on the find of some fossils in them, are not mappable. Therefore, only those classifications based on regional lithostratigraphical mapping have validity and
- 39. Fig.6.1. Tethyan Basinsof the Himalaya. 1 - Tertiary; 2 - Lesser Himalayan Sequences; 3 - Crystalline Thrust Sheets; 4 - Eocambrian-Palaeozoic; 5 - Mesozoic; 6 - Ophiolite Nappe; M C T - Main Central Thrust; M B T - Main Boundary Thrust. (Courtesy: O.N. Bhargava).
- 40. are adopted. Itmay also be noted that there is an emerging attempt to refine the classifications in the final presentation of geology of regional belts in the Himalaya. This is naturally to be expected, as the areas get to be mapped on larger and larger scales by geologists with wider and longer experience. In the final analysis the facts gathered by rigorous fieldwork and regional mapping, provide the lead tb our expanding knowledge. T E T H Y A N BASIN The term Tethyan basin, by long usage, has come to be applied to the thick Palaeozoic and younger sediments in the Himalayan domain, north of the Main Central Thrust and its analogues, extending from Kashmir in the NW to Arunachal Pradesh in the SE. The Kashmir, Bhadarwah-Chamba, Zanskar- Spiti-Kinnaur, Garhwal-Kumaun, Nepal-Sikkim-Bhutan-Arunachal Pradesh are the individual segments or sub-basins in the vast spread of the Tethyan basin (Fig. 6.1). Therefore these segments are referred to as sub-basins. Kashmir Sub-basin The Phanerozoic in the Tethys Himalayan basin of Kashmir (Fig.6.2) trends NW-SE and covers an area of about 18,000 km2 . It is separated from the Spiti-Zanskar sub-basin by the Kishtwar-Giambal-Nunkun-Suru crystalline zone. In the southwest, it is tectonically delimited by the Panjal thrust, along which the rocks have been transported over the Lower Himalayan tectogen. On the northeast, the Kashmir Tethyan belt overrides the Indus tectonic zone along the Sunko thrust. The Lidder valley forms a part of the southeast zone of the basin. It displays an excellent section of the Palaeozoic sequence of the Tethys Himalayan basin. The sequence earlier classified by Middlemiss, however, offers scope for revision in respect of lithostratigraphy and nomenclature (Table 6.1). In the Lidder Valley, the Palaeozoic rocks together with the Triassic sequence are folded as NW-plunging overturned anticline designated as Lidder Anticline, with its main closure located in Walorama sector (Fig.6.3). South of the Panjal thrust is the "Autochthonous Zone" representing a folded and imbricated belt. This extends from Uri in the Jhelum valley in the west to Chauhra in the Ravi valley in the east, into the Jammu and Kashmir (J & K), and further east links up with the Shali structural belt of Lesser Himalayan tectogen of Himachal Pradesh. This is bound to the south by the Murree Thrust, separating it from the Tertiary rocks, mainly Murree and Siwalik Formations, whereas the Panjal Thrust marks its northern limit with the 'Nappe Zone' made up of older rocks forming the basement of the Tethyan sediments.
- 41. The Panjal thrustis a high angle major tectonic lineament dipping towards north and is traceable from Jhelum valley to Ravi valley in the east and beyond into the Satlej valley in Himachal Pradesh. The tectonic plane, considered earlier to be the trace of 'Panjal Thrust' in the Chenab valley, is found to be a major fault - the Sudh Mahadev Fault - within the Autochthonous Fold Belt. Bhadarwah-Chamba Sub-basin This lies to the southeast of the main Kashmir sub-basin. It exposes the Permo-Triassic sediments overlying the Panjal volcanics, which unconformably overlie the Precambrian-Eocambrian rocks. The Outer and Lesser Himalaya can be divided into the tectonic units from south to north as shown below. Tectonic setting of Lesser Himalaya of Jammu (modified after Shah, 1980, p. 153) South Outer Siwalik Belt Jammu Fault Murree Belt, with Jammu Limestone capped by Eocene (Subathu facies) in basement high regions and Siwalik rocks in the synclinal areas Murree Thrust "Paraautochthonous" zone containing Shali Formation, Mandi Trap, Agglomeratic Slate and Eocene (Hazara facies) showing a younging of succession westwards Panjal Thrust North Kashmir Synclinorium, with the southern limb bearing rocks of the mixed Tethyan and "Lesser Himalayan" affinities Spiti-Zanskar and Kinnaur Sub-basins The Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sequences in the south Ladakh of J&K and Spiti and Kinnaur area of Himachal occur in two isolated synclinoria having comparable lithostratigraphic and faunal contents. They possibly represent part of the same basin, now separated due to erosion along a structural high. The Kinnaur sub-basin links up with the Garhwal-Kumaun Tethyan sub-basin of Uttarakhand across south Tibet. These segments together constitute the Spiti- Zanskar basin in the Indus Himalaya, exposing a spectacular, almost uninterrupted Proterozoic-Palaeozoic-Mesozoic-Tertiary succession in the Indian Himalaya (Figs. 6.4 and 6.5). It is bound by the Vaikrita Group of Central Crystalline Zone on the southwest side and by the Indus Tectonic Zone on the northeastern side. The geology of this region has been worked out in considerable detail and a part of the geological map of this region together
- 42. with a sectionis presented in Figs.6.4a and 6.4b. The overall stratigraphie sequence is shown in Fig.6.5. Garhwal-Kumaun Tethyan Sub-basin The Garhwal-Kumaun Tethyan sub-basin is mainly seen in the Malla Johar and northern Kumaun areas. This zone comprises a thick sequence of sedimentary rocks of Proterozoic-Phanerozoic formations. BASEMENT Fig.63. Geological cross-section across Lidder Anticline in Walorama sector, Kashmir (after Srikantia and Bhargava, 1983, p.374).
- 43. Table 6.1. Lithostratigraphicclassification of the Palaeozoic sequence of the Kashmir Tethys Himalayan sequence in the Lidder Valley, Jammu and Kashmir (modified after Srikantia and Bhargava, 1983) Age Group Formation Thickness (m) Middlemiss (1910) Triassic Sonamarg Upper Permian Lower Permian Panjal Volcanics Zewan upper lava flows lower volcanogenic association 2000 250 Lowermost Permian to Carboniferous Lidder Pindobal Ganeshpur Aishmuqam 700 1800 700 Agglomeratic slate Fenestella Shale Passage Beds Syringothyris Lst. Devonian Chorgali Wazura Muth 500 1000 Muth Quartzite Cambrian to Middle Silurian Hapatnar Rishkobal Rangamal Shumahal Base not exposed 500 400 3500 Though almost close to each other, the thickness of the various stratigraphic horizons in the adjoining basins across the Himalaya differ considerably from Kashmir in the northwest through Spiti-Zanskar in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and at the other end in Nepal-Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Detailed descriptions of these formations follow under different periods of the Palaeozoic. PALAEOZOIC L I F E Invertebrates Early life seems to have been essentially marine and practically most of the invertebrate fauna known now, existed in some part or other of the Palaeozoic. Unicellular organisms were quite common. Foraminifera (Protozoa) were present right from the Cambrian times though they assumed some importance in the Carboniferous. Sponges (Porifera), one of the simplest multicellular organisms and essentially marine, increased in number only in the Carboniferous. However, there are not many reports of sponges from India. Corals came into prominence in Ordovician and Silurian and continued in other
- 44. succeeding eras aswell. They are among the main carbonate builders. The exclusively marine echinoderms, which persisted almost through the entire geological column of the Phanerozoic, were mostly represented by cystoids in the Palaeozoic right from Cambrian, becoming prominent in Ordovician- Silurian and became extinct by Permian. Blastoids were also mainly confined to the Palaeozoic. Crinoids were more abundant in the Paleozoic era than the other echinoderms. Bryozoans, which were dominantly marine in habit, generally are found as encrustations on foreign bodies like shells. These are seen occurring as colonies and are termed 'coralline crags' though they are not strictly corals in their structure. Though known to have appeared in Ordovician, a majority of them are known in India from the Permian only. Brachiopods, which are exclusively bivalved species, are known to have one of the longest ranges of existence among the invertebrates right from Cambrian to Tertiary. Even in India, Lingulella, Obolus wastonia and Obolella atlantica have been reported from the Cambrian of Spiti. Since most of them are made up of calcareous matter, they are very well preserved and hence are in a position to be used in stratigraphic classification. Within the Palaeozoic, their occurrence in the Permo-Carboniferous strata of Kashmir and Spiti is well known and so also in the Salt Range in neighbouring Pakistan, productids being the most important. Mollusca perhaps represent one of the largest groups of invertebrate fossils that have worldwide distribution. Pelecypods, also known as Lamellibranchiata, live in fresh, brackish and marine waters. These also range in time from Cambrian to Holocene. Except in a very few cases, these cannot be considered as constituting important zone fossils in the Palaeozoic. The gastropods can thrive in all types of environments from the waters of great depths in the oceans (5000 m) to over the tops of the mountains in the lakes of Himalaya (6000 m). They do appear in Cambrian, are represented by a few species in Ordovician- Silurian and occur in considerable numbers in the Permian. Cephalopods, which are exclusively marine, are represented by a few species in the Ordovician and a few more in the Permian. Ostracodes are known from the Palaeozoic. However, the fossils that are of considerable importance as index fossils in the Lower Palaeozoic are trilobites, which became almost extinct by the end of Permian. Conodonts were described and illustrated about 150 years ago. Their lack of facies restriction and worldwide distribution has helped in their use for correlation. They extend from Cambrian to Triassic. They are reported from some of the Palaeozoic strata in the Himalaya. Graptolites do not seem to have made their presence in India. In Plates 6.1 to 6.3 are presented some of the important fossils of the Palaeozoic era from the Himalayan terrain.
- 45. B i» 17 B' SCHEMATIC SECTIONS Fig.6.4. Geological map (a) and section (b) of part of Spiti-Kinnaur area, Himachal Pradesh (after Bhargava and Bassi, 1999). (see Fig.6.5 for explanation of the numbers in the map and the section)
- 46. T I LEGEND ~" CARBONATE °oDIAMICTITE SANDSTONE, SILTSTONE l---= ---l SHALE F^T7 ! CRYSTALLINES L%* GRANITES Fig.6.5. Litholog of the Tethyan sequence, Spiti-Kinnaur area, Himachal Pradesh (after Bhargava and Bassi, 1999).
- 47. Vertebrates Perhaps it isin the Devonian that primitive vertebrates came into being. Amphibians perhaps evolved from the fishes of the earlier Silurian period and made their presence. Plant Life Acritarcha are unicellular microphytoplankton of organic composition of an unknown life cycle. They are mainly marine in nature and occur in rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to the Recent. They attain their acme period during Ordovician-Devonian time. At present, it is believed that most acritarcha are derived from either unicellular green algae, dinoflagellates or from precursor organisms in the evolutionary lineage of dinoflagellates. Algae are known from even the Precambrian strata in India. Vascular plants came up in the Cambrian. An advance in the plant life can be seen in Devonian with Charophyta and Algites, and there were quite a few representatives of the plant kingdom. It was in the Carboniferous that luxuriant vegetation thrived in other parts of the world (ultimately giving rise to extensive coal seams), but with only a few representatives in the Himalayan region. It was, however, in Peninsular India that we come across plants belonging to many families in the Gondwana strata of Permian. The discovery of plant-bearing beds from the Lower Carboniferous sequence of Kashmir region has opened up a new field of palaeobotanical study involving Carboniferous or Pre-Gondwana flora in Kashmir. The earlier knowledge of Pre-Gondwana flora in the Indian subcontinent was negligible and restricted to Spiti in Himachal Pradesh. Six horizons (Table 6.2) have been recognised at distinct stratigraphic levels, out of which four show presence of Pre-Gondwana or Devonian- Carboniferous flora and two Permian floras. The latter are somewhat similar to the Lower Gondwana flora of Peninsular India. In the Upper Devonian the plant fossils are extremely rare and very badly preserved. The Lower Carboniferous flora show a remarkable resemblance with those known from the Lower Carboniferous flora from other parts of the world. MAGMATIC ACTIVITY There was invasion of granitic magma on a large scale throughout the Himalayan province from Manshera in northern Pakistan to Manaslu in Nepal and beyond. The climax of this granitic activity occurred 525 to 475 Ma ago. This seems to have affected the older Proterozoic rocks, which it invaded, causing low grade metamorphism of those sediments.
- 48. Plate 6.1. 1.Phycodes pedum (Early Cambrian); 2. Redlichia noetlingi (Early Cambrian); 3. Redlichia noetlingi (Early Cambrian); 4. Oryctocephalus indicus (Early-Middle Cambrian); 5. Oryctocephalus salteri (Late Middle Cambrian); 6. Diplagnostus planicauda (Late Middle Cambrian); 7. Damesops sheridanorum (Late Middle Cambrian); 8. Hyolithes (Orthotheca) aff. plicatus (Early Cambrian); 9. Lingulella spitiensis (Early Cambrian); 10-11. Maldeotaia bandalica (Early Cambrian); 12. Protohertzina anabarica (Early Cambrian); 13. Olivooides multisulcatus (Early Cambrian); 14. Spirellus shankeri (Early Cambrian); 15. Apiduim indicum (Late Ordovician); 16. Orthis aff. spitiensis (Silurian); 17. Orthoceras commutatum (Ordovician); 18. Phycodes circinatum (Early Ordovician); 19. Leptaena trachealis (Ordovician). (Courtesy: O.N. Bhargava).
- 49. Plate 6.2.1. Pentamerusoblongus (Silurian); 2. Halysities catenularia var. kanurensis (Silurian); 3. Radiastraea sp. (Silurian); 4. Calceola sandalina (Devonian); 5. Atrypa reticularis (Silurian); 6. Atrypa aff. spinosa (Silurian); 7-8. Icriodus difficilis (Devonian); 9-10. Icriodus arkonensis (Devonian); 11-12. Pseudopolygnatnus primus (Devonican); 13. Bispathodus aculeatus anteposicordus (Devonian); 14. Bispathodus aculeatus plumulus (Devonian); 15. ? Hindeodus cristulus (Devonian)', 16. Clydagnatus cavusformis (Devonian); 17. Modiola liderensis (Early Carboniferous); 18. Syringothyris cuspidata (Early Carboniferous). (Courtesy: O.N. Bhargava).
- 50. Plate 6.3. 1-2.Eurydesma cordatum (Early Permian); 3. Lonsdaleia salinaria (Permian); 4. Clydagnathus unicornis (Early Carboniferous); 5. Clydagnathus gilwernensis (Early Carboniferous); 6. Neoprioniodus confluence (Early Carboniferous); 7. Lamnimargus himalayaensis (Late Permian); 8-9. Cyclolobus oldhami (Late Permian); 10. Xenodiscus carbonarius (Late Permian); 11. Xenaspis carbonaria (Late Permian); 12. Zaphrentis beyrichi (Late Permian). (Courtesy: O.N. Bhargava).
- 51. Table 6.2. UpperPalaeozoic succession in Kashmir showing plant-bearing horizons Age Stratigraphie Unit Main Lithology Upper Formation Member D Zewan C B A Calcareous sandstone with bands of limestone Arenaceous and calcareous shale Limestone shale intercalation Massive limestone with shale partings Permian - /////// Mamal ////// Novaculite, limestone, tuffaceous shale Carbonaceous shale, purple and pinkish shale with arenite Panjal Volcanics Lower Mainly basic rocks - basalt and andesitic basalt and a few intermediate and acidic rocks ////// Nishatbagh ////// Black shale/slate, siltstone and bands of arenite D Upper Agglomerane Slate B Ash colour tuffaceous shale with volcanic bombs, lapillae etc. Oasts rare Dominantly quartz-arenite with lenticular conglomerates and clasts Dominantly shale and siltstone with abundance of clasts Dominantly quartz-arenite with lenticular conglomerates and clasts Carboniferous - D Dominant shale-siltstone with bands of quartz arenite IICII Dominant quartz arenite with bands of shale and siltstone B Dominant shale/siltstone with bands of arenite IIAll Dominant quartz-arenite with inter- calation of shale siltstone Fenestella Shale Lower IICII Syringothyris Limestone B Limestone shale/siltstone/arenite intercalations Massive and thickly bedded limestone Limestone and arenite IIBII Yellowish-green siltstone-shale with Devonian Upper Wazura bands of quartz-arenite A Quartz-arenite with intercalation of blotchy siltstone Muth-quartzite Milky white orthoquartzite //////// indicates plant-bearing horizon (modified after Gopal Singh et al. 1982)
- 52. PRECAMBRIAN/ CAMBRIAN BOUNDARY Precambrian-Cambriantransition is marked by major biotic changes, viz. emergence of soft-bodied Ediacaran fauna and their subsequent extinction, emergence of fauna with hard parts or chemical changes, particularly variations in the C and Sr isotopic compositions of the carbonates. All of them provide significant stratigraphic information, which may be used for the correlation of Terminal Proterozoic and Early Cambrian strata. Nutrient enriched water masses (NEW) with high levels of dissolved phosphate and silica, with low levels of oxygen have left a clear imprint of the history of fossil records of the latest Proterozoic - Early Cambrian. Study of ratio of 1 3 C and 1 2 C helps in deciding the organic or inorganic origin of the carbon in samples. Based on this study, strong evidence of life has been established on the earth even as early as 3850 Ma ago. Explosion of life at pC/C boundary saw varieties of animals emerging as builders, binders and encrusters in various build-ups. Around 544 Ma ago during the Early Cambrian period, there was an evolutionary explosion, referred by palaeontologists as the Cambrian "Big Bang" which extended up to the middle of Ordovician (460 Ma). But some on the basis of nucliotide (an organic compound consisting of Purine and Pyrimidine base) sequence studies put the origin and diversification of the major phyla between 1000-2000 Ma. Lack of fossils may be due to preponderance of soft-bodied forms, and due to unsuitable fossilization conditions. Trace Fossils Trace (or Ichnofossil) fossil studies have begun to play an increasing role in understanding of the nature of early metazoan life and also as stratigraphic indicators particularly in the uppermost Precambrian-Cambrian sequences. The DNA studies had modelled the evolution to higher metazoans from simple forms thus: sponges to a diploblastic (2 germ layered forms like jelly fishes, sea anemones) to a triploblastic acoelomate forms to-a triploblastic coelomates having distinct three-layered bodies plan (arthropods, molluscs, annelids). The studies related to labenspurren (sedimentary structures left by a living organism) are of immense use in interpreting the palaeoenvironment. Almost towards the end of the Precambrian, when 90% of geologic time was over, metazoans or the multicellular life forms began evolving around 600 Ma ago. This period was well marked by the enigmatic ediacaran fauna, whose precise age as well as origin, whether animals or plants, were matters of long controversy. The ediacaran fauna of soft -bodied metazoans was discovered in 1947 in Australia.
- 53. An examination ofall the recent worldwide studies on ichnology (study of trace fossils, especially the study of fossil tracks) seems to result in the following generalised stratigraphic sequence from Proterozoic to Lower Palaeozoic. L. Palaeozoic - (a) Rocks with trilobite, brachiopods, archaeocyathids and abundant trace fossils (at the top) (b) Trilobites with other trace fossils (c) Soft-bodied metazoans (Ediacaran and alike fauna) Proterozoic - (d) Rare trace fossils with stromatolites (at the bottom) (Plate 2.1 in vol.1). Traditionally, Lower Cambrian and Precambrian were placed at the levels (a) and (d) respectively. The transition was conceived at levels (b) and (c). The boundary was placed right below the lowest record of trilobite body fossils, though it is now being placed at the first appearance of trilobite traces. The Late Precambrian (Vendian) traces are very simple horizontal burrows, trails and resting excavations (Plagiogmus, Cochilichnus, Helmenthopsis, Astropolichnus). The base of the Cambrian (Tommotian) is marked by the sudden increase in diversity and density of traces owing to the development of phyla Annelida, Arthropoda and Mollusca.The beginning of the Tommotian is precisely indicated by the first appearance of trilobite traces and not trilobite body fossils. Most of the primitive trilobites are thought to have had soft bodies. Hard-bodied forms appeared somewhere in the Lower Cambrian. Thus, the first appearance of traces of trilobite origin such as Cruziana, Diplichnites, Monomorphichnus, Dimorphichnus and Rusophycus, besides a few non-trilobite traces, is considered to indicate the base of the Cambrian. Since the beginning of Cambrian is indicated by the first appearance of trilobites or arthropo-grade organisms, the base of the Cambrian is recommended to be placed below the oldest level of trilobite traces and not body fossils. Both the Vendian and Tommotian successions with rich biota are developed in continuous sections in many parts of the world, especially in Russia, Mongolia, China, India, Pakistan, Canada and Australia. Stromatolites In India stromatolites are reported from Lower Proterozoic of Udaipur area and Upper Proterozic of Chittaurgarh and Bundi areas in Rajasthan; they are also known from rocks of Sandur, Shimoga and Chitaldurga belts extensively in Karnataka, dated around 2.9 b.y. Stromatolites are not "body fossils" but
- 54. traces of lifeactivity. They are sedimentary structures built by bacteria, cyanophytus and microscopic algae, and only rarely do they contain remains of organisms that formed them. Yet, the biologically and environmentally informative shapes and fabrics of these microbial colonies are well recorded. Stromatolites have also been recorded from Raisi Group of Jammu Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya: Larji/Shali/Deoban Groups, Garhwal-Kumaun Himalaya: Calczone of Pithorgarh, Nepal Himalaya and Sikkim-Bhutan- Arunachal: Buxa Group - Carbonate Formation. In all reported occurrences of stromatolites, both in Peninsular India as well as in Himalaya, the stromatolites always belong to Precambrian sequences except in the Tal Formation in the Mussoorie Hills in Uttarakhand where the upper age limit may be Early Cambrian. Record of Collumnaefacta vulgaris is an important discovery, which also supports Lower Cambrian age to the Tal. pC/C BOUNDARY I N HIMALAYAN BASINS The sedimentation of the terminal Proterozoic-Cambrian succession commenced with a widespread marine transgression in what is now the northwestern Himalaya, in response to global warming after the Varangian glaciation about 610 to 590 Ma. Salkhala Group and part of Haimanta Group (Batal Formation) represented Neo- and Terminal Proterozoic in Lahaul-Spiti- Kinnaur in Himachal Himalaya. The transgression got terminated with Pan- African orogeny in late Upper Cambrian. These sediments are now exposed in the Krol belt, Lesser Himalaya, in Kashmir basin in Higher Himalaya, and Spiti-Zanskar and Kumaun basins (Fig.6.1). The sequence shows considerable variation in lithology due to variable conditions of depositional environment and climate. Though similar fossils belonging to different phyla, algae, and acritarchs occur in all the three basins, they do not necessarily occur in the same sequence, but a limited degree of contemporaneity is indicated which permits fixing tentatively the pC/C boundary in the three basins. Most Proterozoic and Cambrian acritarchs occur in all kinds of marine shelf deposits. The lowest record of trilobite is not necessarily at the commencement of Cambrian, but just at late Lower Cambrian with trace fossils Treptichnus, Cruziana and trilobite Redlichia noetlengi (Plate 6.1). Rapid evolution and diversification of biota leading to the appearance of hard parts or skeleton in animals is noticed above what is termed as the fourth depletion in 81 3 C values, i.e. above the ediacaran fossiliferous horizon in the Blaini-Krol-Tal sequence in the Krol belt. Blaini-Krol-Tal sequence is considered by some as one of the standard Terminal pC/C sequences in global correlation. The Blaini-Krol-Tal (BKT) succession was believed for a long time to be Mesozoic
- 55. Another Random Documenton Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 56. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaves, × 1/2. 4. Staminate flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 5. Staminate flower, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 7. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Fruit, × 1/2. LAURACEAE Sassafras Sassafras variifolium (Salisb.) Ktse. [Sassafras sassafras (L.) Karst.] [Sassafras officinale Nees & Eberm.] HABIT.—Usually a large shrub, but often a small tree 20-40 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 10-20 inches; stout, often contorted branches and a bushy spray form a flat, rather open crown. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-6 inches long, 2-4 inches broad; oval to oblong or obovate; entire or 1-3-lobed with deep, broad sinuses and finger-like lobes; thin; dull dark green above, paler beneath; petioles slender, about 1 inch long. FLOWERS.—May, with the leaves; dioecious; greenish yellow; on slender pedicels, in loose, drooping, few-flowered racemes 2 inches long; calyx deeply 6-lobed, yellow-green; corolla 0; stamens of staminate flower 9, in 3 rows, of pistillate flower 6, in 1 row; ovary 1-celled. FRUIT.—September-October; an oblong-globose, lustrous, dark blue berry, 3/8 inch long, surrounded at the base by the scarlet calyx, borne on club-shaped, bright red pedicels. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal buds 1/3 inch long, ovoid, acute, greenish, soft-pubescent, flower-bearing; lateral buds much smaller, sterile or leaf-bearing. Aromatic.
- 57. BARK.—Twigs glabrous, lustrous,yellow-green, spicy-aromatic, becoming red-brown and shallowly fissured when 2-3 years old; thick, dark red-brown and deeply and irregularly fissured into firm, flat ridges on old trunks. WOOD.—Soft, weak, brittle, coarse-grained, very durable in the soil, aromatic, dull orange-brown, with thin, light yellow sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Southern portion of Lower Peninsula as far north as Grayling. HABITAT.—Prefers well-drained, stony or sandy soil; woods; abandoned fields; peaty swamps. NOTES.—Rapid of growth. Suckers freely. Difficult to transplant. Propagated easily from seed.
- 58.
- 59. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, side view, × 1. 3. Vertical section of twig, summer bud and leaf petiole, enlarged. 4. Leaf, × 3/8. 5. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 6. Staminate flower, enlarged. 7. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Fruit, × 3/8. 9. Achene, enlarged. PLATANACEAE Sycamore. Button-wood. Buttonball-tree Platanus occidentalis L. HABIT.—A large tree 70-100 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 3-8 feet; commonly dividing near the ground into several large secondary trunks, forming a broad, open, irregular crown of massive, spreading branches. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 5-10 inches long and broad; broadly ovate in outline; more or less 3-5-lobed by broad, shallow sinuses, the lobes sinuate-toothed; thin and firm; bright green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles stout, puberulous, 1-2 inches long. FLOWERS.—May, with the leaves; monoecious; borne in dense heads; the staminate dark red, on short, axillary peduncles; the pistillate greenish, on long, slender, terminal peduncles; sepals 3-6, minute; petals 3-6, minute; stamens 3-6, usually 4; styles long, incurved, red. FRUIT.—October, persistent on the limbs through the winter; brown heads about 1 inch in diameter, on slender, glabrous stems 3-6 inches long.
- 60. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent;lateral buds 1/4-3/8 inch long, conical, blunt, lustrous, pale brown; forming in summer within the petiole of the leaf. BARK.—Twigs pale green and tomentose, becoming smooth, dark green, finally grayish; thick, red-brown on the trunk and broken into oblong, plate-like scales, separating higher up into thin plates which peel off, exposing the greenish or yellowish inner bark. WOOD.—Heavy, tough, hard, rather weak, coarse-grained, difficult to split, light red-brown, with thick, darker colored sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Lower Peninsula as far north as Roscommon County. HABITAT.—Prefers rich bottom-lands along the borders of rivers and lakes. NOTES.—Rapid of growth. Bears transplanting well. Often planted as a shade tree. Fungous diseases disfigure it seriously.
- 61. ROSACEAE SUMMER KEY TOTHE SPECIES OF PYRUS a.Leaves simple; fruit a light green pome an inch or more in diameter; branches contorted, bearing many short, spur- like branchlets. P. coronaria, p. 145. aa.Leaves compound; fruit berry-like, 1/4 inch in diameter, bright red; branches not contorted, not bearing many short, spur-like branchlets. P. americana, p. 147. WINTER KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PYRUS a.Bundle-scars 3 or in 3 compound, but distinct groups; buds 1/8-1/4 inch long; branches contorted, bearing many short, spur-like branchlets; fruit a pome an inch or more in diameter, light green. P. coronaria, p. 145. aa.Bundle-scars 4-many in a single U-shaped line, not forming 3 distinct groups; buds about 1/2 inch long; branches not contorted, not bearing many short, spur-like branchlets; fruit berry-like, 1/4 inch in diameter, bright red. P. americana, p. 147. Sweet Crab. American Crab
- 62. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 3/4. 4. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 5. Vertical section of flower with petals removed, × 1/2. 6. Fruit, × 1/2. ROSACEAE Sweet Crab. American Crab
- 63. Pyrus coronaria L.[Malus coronaria Mill.] HABIT.—Often a bushy shrub, but frequently a small tree 15-25 feet high, with a trunk 8-12 inches in diameter; forming a broad, rounded crown of rigid, contorted branches bearing many short, spur-like branchlets. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-4 inches long, almost as broad; ovate to nearly triangular; sharply and deeply serrate, sometimes lobed; membranaceous; bright green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles long, slender, often with two dark glands near the middle. FLOWERS.—May, after the leaves; perfect; 1-1/2-2 inches across; very fragrant; borne on slender pedicels in 5-6-flowered umbels; calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed, tomentose; petals 5, rose colored to white; stamens 10-20; ovary hairy; styles 5. FRUIT.—October; a depressed-globose pome, 1-1-1/2 inches in diameter, pale green, very fragrant, with a waxy surface. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/8-1/4 inch long, obtuse, bright red; lateral buds smaller. BARK.—Twigs at first hoary-tomentose, becoming glabrous, red- brown; thin, red-brown, breaking into longitudinal fissures on the trunk. WOOD.—Heavy, rather soft, close-grained, weak, red-brown, with thick, yellow sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Southern portion of the Lower Peninsula as far north as Roscommon County. HABITAT.—Rich, moist, but well-drained soil in thickets and along streams. NOTES.—An excellent ornamental tree or shrub for small gardens and shrubberies. The fruit is sometimes gathered for making
- 64. preserves. Mountain Ash 1. Wintertwig, × 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1/3. 4. Vertical section of flower, enlarged. 5. Portion of a fruiting cyme, × 1.
- 65. ROSACEAE Mountain Ash Pyrus americana(Marsh.) DC. [Sorbus americana Marsh.] HABIT.—A small tree 15-20 feet high, with a trunk diameter of not over a foot; branches slender, spreading, forming a narrow, rounded crown. LEAVES.—Alternate, compound, 6-9 inches long. Leaflets 9-17, 2-3 inches long and 1/2-3/4 inch broad; sessile or nearly so, except the terminal; lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed; finely and sharply serrate above the entire base; membranaceous; glabrous, dark yellow-green above, paler beneath, turning clear yellow in autumn. Petioles slender, grooved, enlarged at the base. FLOWERS.—May-June, after the leaves; perfect; 1/8 inch across; borne on short, stout pedicels in many-flowered, flat cymes 3-5 inches across; calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed, puberulous; petals 5, white; stamens numerous; styles 2-3. FRUIT.—October, but persistent on the tree throughout the winter; a berry-like pome, subglobose, 1/4 inch in diameter, bright red, with thin, acid flesh; eaten by birds in the absence of other food. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud about 1/2 inch long, ovoid, acute, with curved apex; lateral buds smaller, appressed; scales rounded on the back, purplish red, more or less pilose above, gummy. BARK.—Twigs at first red-brown and hairy, becoming glabrous, dark brown; thin, light gray-brown on the trunk, smooth, or slightly roughened on old trees; inner bark fragrant. WOOD.—Light, soft, close-grained, weak, pale brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood.
- 66. DISTRIBUTION.—Ludington and northward,principally along the shore of L. Michigan, but common throughout the Upper Peninsula. HABITAT.—Prefers rich, moist soil on river-banks and on the borders of cold swamps; rocky hillsides and mountains. NOTES.—More often a shrub. Easily transplanted, but slow of growth. One of the most beautiful trees of our northern forests. Serviceberry
- 67. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1. 4. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 5. Vertical section of flower, enlarged. 6. Fruiting branchlet, × 1/2. ROSACEAE Serviceberry
- 68. Amelanchier canadensis (L.)Medic. HABIT.—A small tree 25-40 feet in height, with a tall trunk 6-12 inches in diameter; forming a narrow, rounded crown of many small limbs and slender branchlets. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-4 inches long and about one-half as broad; ovate to obovate; finely and sharply serrate; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath; petioles slender, about 1 inch long. FLOWERS.—April, when the leaves are about one-third grown; perfect; large, white, borne in drooping racemes 3-5 inches long; calyx 5-cleft, campanulate, villous on the inner surface; petals 5, strap-shaped, white, about 1 inch in length; stamens numerous; styles 5, united below. FRUIT.—June-August; globular, berry-like pome, 1/3-1/2 inch long; turning from bright red to dark purple with slight bloom; sweet and edible when ripe. WINTER-BUDS.—Yellow-brown, narrow-ovoid to conical, sharp- pointed, 1/4-1/2 inch long; bud-scales apiculate, slightly pubescent. BARK.—Twigs smooth, light green, becoming red-brown; thin, pale red-brown on the trunk, smoothish or divided by shallow fissures into narrow, longitudinal, scaly ridges. WOOD.—Heavy, very hard, strong, close-grained, dark red-brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Common throughout the state. HABITAT.—Prefers rich soil of dry, upland woods and hillsides. NOTES.—Hardy throughout the state. Grows in all soils and situations except in wet lands.
- 69. Dotted Haw Crataegus punctataJacq. 1. Winter twig, × 1. 2. Leaf, × 1. 3. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 4. Vertical section of flower, enlarged. 5. Fruit, × 1. ROSACEAE
- 70. The Haws, Thorns,Hawthorns or Thorn-apples Crataegus L. Owing to the complexity of the various forms in this group, the present state of uncertainty as to the value of certain characters, and the questionable validity of many of the assigned names, it is thought to be beyond the scope of this bulletin to give more than a general description of the group as a whole, recommending the more ambitious student to the various manuals and botanical journals and papers for more detailed information. The Crataegi are generally low, wide-spreading trees or shrubs, with strong, tortuous branches and more or less zigzag branchlets usually armed with stiff, sharp thorns. The bark varies from dark red to gray and is shallowly fissured or scaly. The leaves are alternate, simple, generally serrate, often lobed, with short or long petioles. The flowers appear in May or June, with or after the leaves, in simple or compound corymbs, whitish or pinkish, perfect. The fruit is a red to yellow, sometimes blue or black pome, subglobose to pear-shaped, with usually dry and mealy flesh and 1-5 seeds. The winter-buds are small, nearly globose, lustrous brown. Crataegus produces wood which is heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, red-brown, with thick, pale sapwood. The Haws are trees of the pasture-lands, the roadside, the open woods and the stream-banks, and are more common in the southern than in the northern portions of the state. Some of the species are desirable as ornaments in parks and gardens on account of their beautiful and abundant flowers and showy fruits. SUMMER KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PRUNUS a.Leaves oblong-ovate to obovate, abruptly acuminate at the apex; marginal teeth not incurved.
- 71. b.Margin of leavessharp-serrate with spreading teeth; leaves not rugose, the veins not prominent; fruit 1/4-1/2 inch long, bright red, racemose, July- August; bark of trunk brown, smooth or only slightly fissured; usually a large shrub. P. virginiana, p. 157. bb.Margin of leaves crenate-serrate; leaves more or less rugose, the veins prominent; fruit about 1 inch long orange-red, clustered, August-September; bark of trunk gray-brown, early splitting off in large, thick plates; a small tree. P. nigra, p. 161. aa.Leaves oval to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex; marginal teeth incurved. b.Fruit light red, clustered, July-August; twigs usually less than 1/16 inch thick; pith of twigs brown; tree northern. P. pennsylvanica, p. 139. bb.Fruit black, racemose, August-September; twigs usually more than 1/16 inch thick; pith of twigs white; tree southern. P. serotina, p. 155. WINTER KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PRUNUS a.Terminal bud present; bark of young trunks rather smooth. b.Buds clustered at the tips of all shoots; twigs usually less than 1/16 inch thick; pith of twigs brown. P. pennsylvanica, p. 159. bb.Buds not clustered, or clustered only on short, spur-like branchlets; twigs usually more than 1/16 inch thick; pith of twigs white. c.Buds usually 1/4 inch or less in length; bud-scales uniform in color, apiculate at the apex; bark on old trunks blackish, rough-scaly; small to large tree. P. serotina, p. 155. cc.Buds usually 1/4-1/2 inch long; bud-scales grayish on the margins, rounded at the apex; bark on old trunks brown, smooth or only slightly fissured; usually a large shrub. P. virginiana, p. 157. aa.Terminal bud absent; bark of young trunks early splitting off in large, thick plates. P. nigra, p. 161.
- 72. Black Cherry 1. Wintertwig, × 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 3/4. 4. Margin of leaf, enlarged. 5. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 6. Vertical section of flower, enlarged. 7. Fruiting branchlet, × 1/2. ROSACEAE
- 73. Black Cherry Prunus serotinaEhrh. [Padus serotina (Ehrh.) Agardh.] HABIT.—A medium-sized tree 40-50 feet high and 8-36 inches in trunk diameter; branches few, large, tortuous, forming a rather spreading, oblong or rounded crown. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 2-5 inches long, about one-half as broad; oval or oblong to oblong-lanceolate; finely serrate, with teeth incurved; subcoriaceous; dark green and very lustrous above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, usually bearing 2 red glands near the blade. FLOWERS.—May-June, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; 1/4 inch across; borne on slender pedicels in many-flowered, loose racemes 4-5 inches long; calyx cup-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, white; stamens 15-20; stigma thick, club-shaped. FRUIT.—August-September; a globular drupe, 1/3-1/2 inch in diameter, nearly black, with dark purple, juicy flesh; slightly bitter, edible. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud about 1/4 inch long, ovoid, blunt to acute; scales keeled on the back, apiculate, light brown. BARK.—Twigs and branches red to red-brown; young trunks dark red-brown, smooth; blackish on old trunks and rough, broken into thick, irregular plates; bitter, aromatic. WOOD.—Light, rather hard, strong, close- and straight-grained, light brown or red, with thin, yellow sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Frequent in the southern half of the Lower Peninsula, rare in the northern half and the Upper Peninsula. HABITAT.—Prefers a rich, moist soil, but grows well on dry, gravelly or sandy soils.
- 74. NOTES.—Grows very rapidlyin youth. Choke Cherry
- 75. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1. 4. Margin of leaf, enlarged. 5. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 6. Vertical section of flower, enlarged. 7. Fruit, × 1/2. ROSACEAE Choke Cherry Prunus virginiana L. [Padus virginiana (L.) Roemer] HABIT.—Usually a large shrub, but sometimes a small tree 15-25 feet high, with a crooked, often leaning trunk 5-6 inches in diameter; forming a spreading, somewhat rounded crown. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 2-4 inches long, one-half as broad; obovate to oblong-obovate or oval, abruptly acuminate at the apex; finely and sharply serrate; dull dark green above, paler beneath, glabrous both sides; petioles short, slender, glandular at the apex. FLOWERS.—May, when the leaves are half grown; perfect; about 1/2 inch across; borne on short, slender pedicels in many-flowered racemes 3-6 inches long; calyx cup-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, white; stamens 15-20; stigma broad, on a short style. FRUIT.—July-August; a globular drupe, 1/4-1/2 inch in diameter, usually bright red, often yellow to almost black, with dark red flesh; astringent, but edible. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/4-1/2 inch long, conical, acute; scales rounded at the apex, light brown, smooth. BARK.—Twigs at first light brown or greenish, becoming red-brown, finally dark brown; thin, dark brown on the trunk, slightly fissured.
- 76. WOOD.—Heavy, hard, close-grained,weak, light brown, with thick, lighter colored sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Common throughout the entire state. HABITAT.—Prefers a deep, rich, moist loam, but is common on less favorable sites. NOTES.—The most widely distributed tree of North America, extending from the arctic circle to Mexico, from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. Wild Red Cherry. Pin Cherry
- 77. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1. 4. Margin of leaf, enlarged. 5. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 6. Flower, enlarged. 7. Fruit, × 1. ROSACEAE Wild Red Cherry. Pin Cherry
- 78. Prunus pennsylvanica L.f. HABIT.—A slender tree, seldom over 30 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 8-10 inches; crown rather open, narrow, rounded, with slender, regular branches. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-5 inches long, 3/4-1-1/4 inches broad; oblong-lanceolate; finely and sharply serrate; bright green and shining above, paler beneath; petioles slender, 1/2-1 inch long, glandular near the blade. FLOWERS.—May-June, with the leaves; perfect; about 1/2 inch across, borne on slender pedicels in 4-5-flowered umbels, generally clustered, 2-3 together; calyx 5-cleft, campanulate; petals 5, white, 1/4 inch long; stamens 15-20. FRUIT.—July-August; a globular drupe, 1/4 inch in diameter, light red, with thick skin and sour flesh. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud 1/8 inch long, broadly ovoid, rather blunt, brownish, smooth. BARK.—Twigs at first lustrous, red, marked by orange colored lenticels, becoming brownish; red-brown and thin on the trunk, peeling off horizontally into broad, papery plates; bitter, aromatic. WOOD.—Light, soft, close-grained, light brown, with thin, yellow sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Throughout the northern portion of the state, extending southward to Ionia County. HABITAT.—Abundant on sand-lands; roadsides; burned-over lands; clearings; hillsides. NOTES.—Rapid of growth. Short-lived.
- 79. Canada Plum. RedPlum 1. Winter twig, × 1. 2. Portion of twig, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1/2. 4. Flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 5. Vertical section of flower, × 1. 6. Fruiting branchlet, × 1/2. ROSACEAE
- 80. Canada Plum. RedPlum Prunus nigra Ait. [Prunus americana, v. nigra Waugh] HABIT.—A small tree 20-25 feet high and 5-8 inches in trunk diameter; usually divides 5-6 feet from the ground into a number of stout, upright branches, forming a narrow, rigid crown. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-5 inches long and one-half as broad; oblong-ovate to obovate, abruptly acuminate at the apex; doubly crenate-serrate; thick and firm; glabrous, light green above, paler beneath; petioles short, stout, bearing 2 large red glands near the blade. FLOWERS.—May, before the leaves; perfect; slightly fragrant; about 1 inch across; borne on slender, glabrous, red pedicels in 2-3- flowered umbels; calyx 5-lobed, dark red; petals 5, white; stamens 15-20, with purple anthers; ovary 1-celled; style 1; stigma 1. FRUIT.—August-September; a fleshy drupe, about 1 inch long, oblong-ovoid, with a tough, thick, orange-red skin nearly free from bloom, and yellow flesh adherent to the flat stone. Eaten raw or cooked. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds 1/8-1/4 inch long, ovate, acute, chestnut-brown. BARK.—Twigs green, marked by numerous pale excrescences, later dark brown; thin, gray-brown and smooth on young trunks, but soon splitting off in large, thick plates, exposing the darker inner bark. WOOD.—Heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, light red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Upper Peninsula and the Lower Peninsula north of Lansing. HABITAT.—Prefers rich, alluvial soil along streams.
- 81. NOTES.—Suckers freely, forminglow, broad thickets.
- 82.
- 83. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Leaf, × 1/4. 3. Leaflet, × 1/2. 4. Vertical section of staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Vertical section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Fruit, × 1/4. LEGUMINOSAE Coffeetree. Kentucky Coffeetree Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch [Gymnocladus canadensis Lam.] HABIT.—A slender tree 50-75 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 2-3 feet; divides near the ground into several stems which spread slightly to form a narrow, pyramidal crown; branchlets stout, clumsy, blunt, with conspicuous leaf-scars. LEAVES.—Alternate, bipinnately compound, 1-3 feet long. Leaflets 40 or more, 2-2-1/2 inches long and one-half as broad; short-stalked; ovate, acute; entire; thin and firm; dark green above, pale yellow- green and glabrous beneath. Petioles stout, terete, glabrous. Appear late in spring. FLOWERS.—June, after the leaves; dioecious; greenish white; the staminate short-stalked, in racemose corymbs 3-4 inches long; the pistillate long-stalked, in racemes 10-12 inches long; calyx tubular, hairy; petals 5, keeled, nearly white; stamens 10; ovary hairy. FRUIT.—Ripens in autumn, but remains closed until late in winter; short-stalked, red-brown legumes 6-10 inches long, 1-1/2-2 inches wide, containing 6-9 large, flat seeds. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, depressed, 2 in the axil of each leaf, bronze-brown, silky-pubescent. BARK.—Twigs coated with short, dense, reddish pubescence, becoming light brown; thick, deeply fissured and scaly on the trunk,
- 84. dark gray. WOOD.—Heavy, somewhatsoft, strong, coarse-grained, very durable in contact with the soil, light red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Southern Michigan as far north as the Grand River. Infrequent. HABITAT.—Prefers bottom-lands and rich soil. NOTES.—The seeds in early days were used as a substitute for coffee. Honey Locust. Three-thorned Acacia
- 85. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Vertical section through lateral buds, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1/4. 4. Leaflet, × 1. 5. Staminate flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 6. Staminate flower, enlarged. 7. Pistillate flowering branchlet, × 1/2. 8. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 9. Fruit, × 1/3. 10. Spine from trunk, × 1/2.
- 86. LEGUMINOSAE Honey Locust. Three-thornedAcacia Gleditsia triacanthos L. HABIT.—A tree usually 50-75 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 2-3 feet; dividing near the ground into several large, upright branches which divide again into long, slender, horizontal branchlets; both trunk and large branches armed with stout, rigid, simple or branched spines. LEAVES.—Alternate, pinnately or bipinnately compound, 7-12 inches long. Leaflets 18 or more, 3/4-1-1/2 inches long, one-third as broad; lanceolate-oblong; remotely crenulate-serrate; thin; lustrous, dark green above, dull yellow-green beneath. Petioles and rachises pubescent. FLOWERS.—May-June, when the leaves are nearly full grown; polygamo-dioecious; the staminate in short, many-flowered, pubescent racemes; the pistillate in slender, few-flowered racemes; on shoots of the preceding season; calyx campanulate, hairy 3-5- lobed; petals 3-5, greenish; stamens 3-10; ovary 1-celled, woolly. FRUIT.—Autumn, falling in early winter; flat, pendent, twisted, brown legumes, 12-18 inches long, short-stalked in short racemes; seeds 12-14, oval, flattened. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds minute, 3 or more superposed, glabrous, brownish. BARK.—Twigs lustrous, red-brown, becoming gray-brown; thick on the trunk, iron-gray to blackish and deeply fissured into long, narrow ridges roughened by small scales. WOOD.—Hard, strong, coarse-grained, durable in contact with the ground, red-brown, with thin, pale sapwood.
- 87. DISTRIBUTION.—Indigenous to theextreme southern portion of the state, but is planted as far north as Bay City. HABITAT.—Prefers deep, rich loam, but grows on a variety of soils. NOTES.—Grows rapidly and is long-lived and free from disease. Easily transplanted. The leaves appear late in spring and fall early in autumn. The stiff spines and long pods which litter the ground make the tree unsuitable for street or ornamental use. Redbud. Judas-tree
- 88. 1. Winter twig,× 1. 2. Portion of twig, front view, enlarged. 3. Portion of twig, side view, enlarged. 4. Leaf, × 1/2. 5. Flowering branchlet, × 1. 6. Vertical section of flower, enlarged. 7. Fruit, × 1/2. LEGUMINOSAE Redbud. Judas-tree
- 89. Cercis canadensis L. HABIT.—Asmall tree 20-30 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 10-15 inches; divided near the ground into stout, straggling branches to form a broad, flat crown. LEAVES.—Alternate, simple, 3-5 inches long and broad; heart-shaped or rounded; entire; thick; glabrous, dark green above, paler beneath, turning bright yellow in autumn; petioles slender, terete, enlarged at the base. FLOWERS.—April-May, before or with the leaves; perfect; 1/2 inch long; borne on short, jointed pedicels in fascicles of 4-8; calyx campanulate, 5-toothed, dark red; petals 5, rose color; stamens 10, in 2 rows. FRUIT.—June-July, remaining on the tree until early winter; a short- stalked legume 2-1/2-3 inches long, pointed at both ends, rose color; seeds 10-12, brownish, 1/4 inch long. WINTER-BUDS.—Terminal bud absent; lateral buds 1/8 inch long, obtuse, somewhat flattened and appressed, brownish. BARK.—Twigs lustrous, brown, becoming dark or grayish brown; red- brown, deeply fissured, with a scaly surface on old trunks. WOOD.—Heavy, hard, coarse-grained, weak, dark red-brown, with thin, lighter colored sapwood. DISTRIBUTION.—Valleys of the Grand and Raisin Rivers and southward. HABITAT.—Prefers the borders of streams and rich bottom-lands, often in the shade of other trees. NOTES.—A rapid grower. Hardy within its range. Can be transplanted with success only when very young. Plants begin to produce flowers freely when 4-5 years old. Much used in landscape gardening.
- 90. Locust. Black Locust 1.Winter twig, × 1. 2. Vertical section through lateral buds, enlarged. 3. Leaf, × 1/2. 4. Raceme of flowers, × 1/2. 5. Flower, with part of corolla removed, enlarged. 6. Fruit, × 1/2.
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