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FUNCTIONAL
ENGLISH NOTES
‘NOSHEEN ZAFER’
[The notes in your hand covers the syllabus of
Grammar & easy to learn. We have tried you
explain the concepts in simple English to facilitate
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According to ‘BZU’new syllabus
2014-2015
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Functional English baseon “grammar” and grammar isbased on
“Semantics and syntax”
The chainofEnglish is
‘Grammar’
 Semantics:
Semantics is the study of meaning of words, (e.g. Synonyms, homonyms, etc.)
 Syntax:
Syntax is the study of structure of a sentence, (e.g. part of speech, direct/indirect, active/passive.)
Alphabets
An essay or
topic
Word
Phase
Paragraph
Clause
Sentences

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Syntax (Traditional Grammar)
‘Parts of speech’
 Definition:
Words are divided into various categories according to their meaning.
Theyare11 in numbers.
 Note:
Modern Grammarians have included three more items in Minorclass. As such, now
there are six
Theyaredividedinto two classes.
1. Major class.
2. Minor class.
Major class
i) Noun iv) Verb
ii) Pronouns v)Adverb
iii) Adjective
Minor class
i) Preposition
ii) Conjunction
iii) Interjection
iv) Auxiliaryverbs
v) Determiners
vi) Finite, on-finiteverbs
‘Major class’
 Noun:
Noun is a word used forgiving name to some person (e.g. place, thing, or idea etc.)
* There arefivekinds ofnoun*
I) Propernoun. ii)Common noun.
iii)Collective noun. iv) Materialnoun.
v)Abstractnoun.
 Propernoun is a noun that denotes one particular person or thing as distinct fromevery
other. They start witha capital latter.[e.g. Shahid(person); Pakistan(Country)]
 Commonnoun:
Common noun is a noun whichis used forevery person, place or thing of the same class or kind
(.e.g. Pen, Man, Booketc.)
*Thereare two kinds ofcommonnoun*
Countablenoun: Uncountablenoun:
These are nouns that we These are nouns that we cannot
We can count and that, consequently, count. (e.g. ‘water’ is an
uncountable

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Have both singular and plural forms. (e.g. Noun; we cannot count it)
Bookis a countable noun; we can countit.)
 Collective Noun:
Collectivenoun is the name of a group or collectionof similar persons or thing considered as one
complete whole. (e.g. Team, Class, Army, etc.)
 Materialnoun:
Material noun is the name of material or matter or substance out of which something is made, (e.g.
Gold, Silver, and Milk etc.)
 Abstractnoun:
Abstract noun is name of is name of a quality, action or state. (e.g. Love, Hate, Pain, Tear, etc.)
‘Genders of noun’
*Thereare fourtypes of genders of nouns*
i)Masculinegender ii)Faminegender
ii)Commongender iv)Neuter gender
 Masculinegender:
A gender whichis used for male sex is said to be the masculine gender, (e.g. Sheheryar is
hardworking, etc).
 Femininegender:
A noun whichis used forfemale sex is said to be the feminine gender. (e.g. this girl is hardworking,
etc.)
 Commongender:
A gender whichis used for male & female sex is said to be the commongender. (e.g. Child, etc.)
 Neuter gender:
A gender whichis used for lifeless objectsis said to be the neuter gender. (e.g. Table, Chair, Pen,
etc.)
‘Case of noun’
‘Case’ is that form of a noun or a pronoun whichshows its relation to some other or wordin a
sentence.
Therearefourtypes ofcases:
 Nominativecase:-
Noun or Pronoun used as a subject of a verb is in the nominative case. [e.g. Rain fall (nominative of
subject)]
 Possessive case:-
A noun or Pronoun that is possessor or owner of something is in the possessive or genitive case.
(e.g. Man’s, Men’s)
 Objectivecase:-
A noun or pronoun that is (i)object of a verb or (ii) the object of a preposition is in objective
case. (This can also be called Accusative or Dative Case).
(e.g. Shahid gave Islam’s pen to Riaz
Riaz is ‘O.C’
Islam’s is ‘P.C’
Shahid is ‘N.C’)
Note: The Accusativeis the case of the DirectObject. [e.g. The man killed the rat (Accusative)].The
Dative is the case of Indirect Object.[e.g. He gave the man a rupee. (DirectObject)]
 Vocativecase:-
A noun that denotes the person addressed is in the Vocativecase [e.g. Look her, Aslam (Vocative)

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 Adjective:
 Definition:
An ‘Adjective’ isa word that qualifies or tells more about a noun or a pronoun.
 “Kinds”
‘Thereare eight in numbers’
i)Adjective of Quality ii)Adjectiveof Quantity
iii)Adjectiveof Numbers iv)DemonstrativeAdjective
v)InterrogativeAdjective vi)PossessiveAdjective
Vii)ProperAdjective viii) DistributiveAdjective
 ProperAdjective:
These are adjectives that describe a thing by some proper noun. (e.g. The Englishlanguage = The
language of England, The Pakistani city = A city of Pakistan.)
 Adjectiveof Quality:
These are adjectives that show of what sort in whatstate a thing is. (e.g. A braveboy;a pretty girl;
hot water)
 Adjectiveof Quantity:
These are adjectives that shows how of a thing is meant. (e.g. Much, little, no, some, any, enough,
sufficient,all, whole,half)
 Adjectiveof Number:
These are adjectives that show how many things there are, or in what numerical order any of them
stands. (e.g. One, two,three, four)
 DemonstrativeAdjective:
These are adjectives that shows whichor what thing is meant. In modern grammar, they are called
“determiners” (e.g. this, that, these, those).
 PossessiveAdjective:
These are adjectives that are used with nouns to show the possession of a thing. (e.g. My,our, your,
her, his, their, its)
(a) A possessive adjectiveappears before its noun, and is called attributive adjective. (e.g. This
largehouse belongs to me.)
(b) Possessive adjectives appears in the predicate of the sentence, after the verbs like “be”,
“look”,“seem”, or “appear” and is called predicative adjective. (e.g. This house is large)
 InterrogativeAdjective:
These are adjectives that are used with nouns to ask questions. (e.g. What bookis this? Whichway
e.g. What bookis this?, Whichway will yougo?).
 DistributiveAdjective:
These are adjective that shows that things are taken separately or in separate lots. (e.g. every, each,
(e.g. every, each, either, neither).
‘Degrees of Adjective’
i)PositiveDegree
ii)ComparativeDegree
iii)SuperlativeDegree
 PositiveDegree:
The positive degree of an adjectiveshows the simple quality of an objectwithout reference to any
other. [e.g. He is a tall boy. (“Tall” express a quality in simple form)].

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 ComparativeDegree:
The comparative degree of an adjective shows a higher degree of the quality, and is used when two
objects of the same kind or class are compared together. [e.g. He is tallerthan his brother. (One
person compared with another)].
 SuperlativeAdjective:
The superlative degree of an adjective shows the highest degree of the quality, and is used when
object is compared withall other things of the same is used when objectis compared with all other
things of the same class. [e.g. He is tallest of all his brothers. (One compared with all)].
 Pronoun:
 Definition:
A pronoun is a wordthat we use for a noun. The noun that is replaced by a pronoun is called its
antecedent. Word used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she it, etc.
 Pronouns:
He, she, it, they,May, your, our, his, him, her, etc.
‘Kinds of pronoun’
a) Personal pronoun.
b) Possessive pronoun.
c) Distributivepronoun.
d) Demonstrative pronoun.
e) Interrogative pronoun.
f) Indefinitepronoun
f) Relativepronoun.
g) Reflexivepronoun.
h) Emphaticpronoun.
 Personalpronoun:
A personal pronoun is used for the name of a person. He; she, it, they,etc are all pronouns. They are
called personal pronoun.
‘Personalpronoun table’
Case First
person(Always
commongender)
Second
person(Always
common
gender)
Thirdperson
Singular
Thirdperson
Plural
Singular Plural Singular Plural Masculine
Gender
Feminine
Gender
Neuter
Gender
Always
Common
Gender
Nominate
Case
I We You
Thou
You
Thou
He She It They
Possessive
Case
My
Mine
Our
Ours
Your
Yours
Thy,
Thine
Your
Yours
Thy,
Thine
His Her
Hers
Its Their
Theirs
Objective
Case
Me Us You,
Thee
You,
Thee
Him Her It Them

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 Firstperson:
It stands for the person speaking as, I, and we.
 Second person:
It stands for the person with whom the speaker is speaking of the person spoken to, as, with whom
the speaker is speaking of the person spoken to, as, you.
 Third person:
It stands for the person or thing spoken of,as, he, she, it, and they.
 Possessivepronoun:
Possessive pronoun shows ownership of a person. They fall into twosets: one called Possessive
pronouns, the other of a person. They fall into twosets: one called Possessive pronouns, the other
called possessive adjectives. The difference lies in their use:
First set:(also called possessive adjectives) Secondset(alsocalled possessive pronouns)
My
Your
His
Her
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Our
Your
Their
Its
Ours
Yours
Theirs
Its
 Examples:
This is my book;that is yours.
(My---used beforethe noun ‘book’)
This book is mine. Possessive adjective)
This book is mine. (Possessive pronouns)
 Distributivepronouns:
Each,either, neither are called distributive pronouns because they refer to persons and things one
at a time. They are alwayssingular and are followedby a singular verb. (e.g. each of the boys was
punished, either of yourservants is a liar, neither of the two sisters is beautiful).
 Demonstrativepronouns:
These pronouns are used in place of nouns of which they point. OR A wordthat points to things, a
particular object or concept. (This, these, that, that, those). (e.g. this is my book,these are flowers).
 Interrogativepronoun:
They are pronouns whichare used forasking questions. They are used in place of the noun which
we get to answer in the question. (What,who, whom,which).(e.g. whatis this?)
 Indefinitepronoun:
‘Indefinite pronouns’ are those whichrefer to persons or things in general (not in particular). Some,
few,many, all, much, none, one, little, any, others, enough, less, each, either, neither. These
pronouns may be arranged as: (Some (body,one, thing), any (body, one, and thing), no (thing, one,
body),every (body,one, and thing).
 Note:
(i) Many, few are used to express numbers.
(ii) Some, any, all express toboth quantity and number.
(iii) Some is used in affirmativeand any in negative sentence.
Word that refers to a person (or A word that refers to a person (or person) or a thing (or things) in
a general way (all, somebody, nobody,and one). . .
 Relative pronoun:

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A word that relates the idea backto some noun (which,who, whom). [(e.g. The man who is honest
is trusted.)(The word‘who’ relates the ides backto the noun ‘man’.So ‘who’ is a relative pronoun?
Important relative pronoun relates pronoun. Important relative pronouns are these:
Who
Which
Whose
Whose
Whose
That
Whom
Whom
That
 Examples:
Theman who is honest, is honest, is trusted.
Theynever fall who die in a great cause.
 Reflexive pronoun:
A word that refers to the ‘self’ of a person: something done by the done by the person himself. They
are used forsake of emphasis; they are also used in certain verbs.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself Themselves
Herself Themselves
Itself
 Difference between Reflexive & Emphaticpronouns:
Both Reflexive and Emphatic pronouns are called compound personal pronoun (self-formof
Emphatic pronouns are called compound personal pronoun (self-formof pronouns).But they used
for differentpurpose:
(i) They are called Reflexive pronouns when the action done by the pronouns are the
subject of the verb: (e.g. He willsoon ruin himself)
(ii) They are called Emphatic pronouns when they are used for the sake of emphasis. In
such cases, the emphasis in on the such cases, the emphasis in on the subject: (e.g. He
will do it himself)
 Emphaticpronoun:
They have same the form as the reflexive pronoun, but their use of functionis different.They are
used to lay emphasis on the object of the sentence. Therefore, they are placed after objects. (Nadia
himself open the door.)
 Verb/Main Verb:
 Definition:
A verb is a word that shows some action or some action or state. Itis used for saying something
about the activity or state of a person or a thing. OR These are words that are used to indicate some
action. They are an essential part of a sentence .No sentence consider complete withoutthe main
verb. They are unlimited in numbers. (e.g. go, come, see, buy,catch, write, etc.)
 Note:
Verbs whichare not used in all moods and tenses are called Defective.They may be Transitive,
Intransitive or Auxiliary.
Therearethree types ofverb.
a) Transitiveverbs.
b) Intransitiveverbs.
c) AuxiliaryorHelpingverbs.
 Transitiveverbs:
Transitive means ‘Passing Over’.Transitive verbs are verbs whichtell us of an action which passes
over to an object. In other words transitive verbs are verbs whichneed object tocomplete their
sense. (e.g. We eat rice, I killed a snake).
 Intransitiveverb:

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Intransitive means ‘not passing over’. Intransitive verbs are verbs which tell us of an action which
does not pass over to an object. In other words, intransitive verbs do not need an object to complete
their sense. (e.g. Dogs bark the boy run).
 Auxiliary/Helpingverb:
They are also called “Helpingverb” becausethey help the main verb in conveying(complete)their
meaning, and in the formationof tenses. They are also called “defectiveverbs”.They are limited in
number. e.g. be(is,are
am,was,were,been),do(does,did),have(has,had),shall,should,will,can,could,may,might,must,
ought(to)
Theyare two innumbers:
1. Primary auxiliary.
2. Modal auxiliary.
 Primary auxiliary:
These verbs function on twolevels: as auxiliary verbs, and as main verb. They are three in
numbers.1. [Be (is, are, am, was, were, been)]. 2. [Do (does, did)].3. [Have (has, had)]. (e.g. (e.g. He
is a good boy. (Is ------used as a main verb),[I havedone my done my work.(Have----- used as
helping verb).
 Modalauxiliary:
Modal auxiliary is true auxiliaries in the sense that they exist only in association with other verbs.
They are follows:[ought(to)]
 Moods of verb:
 Definition:
The word moodindicates the mode or manner in whichthe verb is used in a sentence. There are
four MoodsinEnglish.
a) TheIndicativeMood.
b) TheImperativeMood.
c) TheSubjunctiveMood.
d) TheInfinitiveMood.
 The IndicativeMood:
The Indicativemood of a verb makes a positive or a negative statement, or asks a questions; as
1. He came here yesterday.
2. Did you go?
 The ImperativeMood:
The ImperativeMoodof the verb expresses positiveor a negative command, entreats
(requests),or advises: as
1. Wait here. 2. Sit down.3. Donot leave the houses.
 The subjunctiveMood:
The subjunctiveMood of theverb is used to express doubt, supposition, condition, consequence,
wish or purpose; as
1. Good luckis with you.
2. Long live the king.
3. I wish I were there.
 Note:
In a subjunctive mood, a plural verb is used with a singular subject of the ThirdPerson;as
The followingare the forms of the Subjunctive.
PRESENT SUBJECTIVE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

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Theverb “be” Other verb Theverb“be” Other verb
I be I write I were I wrote
Yoube Youwrite Youwere Youwrote
He be He write He were He wrote
We be We write We were We wrote
They be They write They were They wrote
 The InfinitiveMood:
The Infinitive Mood simply names the action, and is not limited by time, person, or number, as
1. I want to writea letter.
2. Youneed not wait forus.
 Adverb:
“Adverbs” are words whichtell us of the qualities of a verb, an adjective,a conjunction,a
preposition, or another adverb. Adverbs even modify,or tell the qualities of a phrase or a clause.
When only one word is used to modify or qualify the meaning of other words is called simple
adverb, but if a group of words is used, this group of words is called an Adverbial or an Adverb
Phrase, (e.g. the children are playing there, and the children are playing in the field.)
Adverbsaredividedinto the followingthreemainkinds:
‘Kinds ofadverb’
1. Simple adverb.
2. Interrogative adverb.
3. Relative adverb.
 Simpleadverb:
 Definition:
When only one word is used to modify or qualify the meaning of other words is called simple
adverb.
Simpleadverbdividedinto followingkinds.
‘kinds ofsimpleadverb’
1. Adverbof Time.
2. Adverb ofPlace.
3. Adverb ofManners.
4. Adverb ofNumberor Frequency.
5. AdverbofDegree.
6. Adverb ofAffirmationNegation.
7. Adverb ofReason,Purpose orConsequents.
 Adverb ofTime:
Words or group of words whichtells of the time of an action are called Adverbs or Adverbial of
time. (e.g. Today the train arrived late.)
 Adverb ofPlace:
They tell us the place where an action is being done. (e.g. please stand here.)
 Adverb ofManner:
They tell us the way of manner in which an action is done. (e.g. They talked loudly.)
 Adverb ofNumberor Frequency:

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They tell us how often or how many times or how frequently an action is done. (e.g. He never comes
late.)
 Adverb ofDegree:
They tell us how much, to what extent, or UN whatdegree, an action is done. (e.g. He runs very fast.)
 Adverbs ofAffirmation& Negation:
They tell us why some action is done or not done. (e.g. It is not my book.)
 Adverb of Reason, PurposeorConsequence:
They tell us why some action was done or not done. (e.g. He did not workhard and, therefore, he
failed.)
 InterrogativeAdverb:
The adverbs whichare used forasking questions are called Interrogative adverbs. (e.g. How
are you..?)
 Relative Adverb:
When the Interrogative Adverbs, “when, why,where, what, etc.” are used to join clauses or
sentences, they are called Relative Adverbs. (e.g. This is the place where I was born, etc.)
‘Minor class’
 Note:
Modern Grammarians have included three more items in Minorclass. As such, now
there are six.
i) Preposition
ii) Conjunction
iii) Interjection
iv) Auxiliary Verbs.
v) Determiners.
vi) Finite, on-finiteverb
 Preposition:
The word ‘Preposition’ means that whichis placed before. Prepositions are words which are placed
before a noun or pronoun. (e.g. The bookis on the table. Here ‘on’ is a preposition and it shows us
the relation between ‘book’ and ‘table’.)
‘Kinds of Preposition’
i) Prepositionofplace.
ii) Prepositionoftime.
iii) Prepositional phrase.
 Prepositionofplace:
Preposition of place of prepositions whichexpress relationship in the place or space. (e.g. In, on,
over, up, into, upon, across, etc) are prepositions of place.
 PrepositionofTime:
It expresses relation in time, as, (Hammed reached the station before me. ‘Before shows the relation
of ‘Hammed’ and ‘me’ and the relation is one of time At, At, on, before, after, till, until etc. are
prepositions.)

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 There are also prepositions of Agency or Instrumentality, of measure, of manner, of
possession, of direction, of cause, etc [e.g. I write witha pen. (Agency instruments). Learn
the poem by heart. (Manner). He died of Cholera. (cause)].
 The noun or pronoun comes after preposition is called its object.In the above given
examples ‘table’ is the objectof ‘on’ and ‘me’ is the object of ‘before’.
 Prepositions may be simple as, in, by, for,to, from, etc.
 Prepositions may be compound. I.e. made up of twowords as ‘inside’ (in+side), outside
(out+side), within (with+in),upto (up+to).
 There is also prepositional phrase, as in the following.
1. The bank is in frontof my house.
2. He passed on account of hard work.
 There are also Participleprepositions, ‘considering, regarding, respecting, touching, etc.
(e.g. considering the circumstances, the thief was freed.)
 Conjunction:
A conjunction is a wordused for joining one wordto another or one sentence to another. They are
also called connectiveorconnector.
‘Kinds ofConjunction’
1. Co-ordinate Conjunction.
2. Subordinate Conjunction.
3. Correlative conjunction
 Co-ordinate Conjunction:
Whichjoin c together clauses of equal rank? The chief conjunctionof this class are; and,but,for, or,
nor, also,etc.
 SubordinateConjunction:
Whichjoin together a principal clause withits dependent or subordinate clause or clauses? The
chief conjunctions of this group are (After,because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as,
where, when, while, since, except, than, until etc).
 0CorrelativeConjunction:
Whichare used in pairs? (e.g. either…or;neither…..nor;both……and;whether…..or;Notonly….
But also,etc).
 Interjection:
An Interjection,properly, speaking, is not a part of a speech because it has no geometrical
connections with any other wordor wordsin the sentence. It is merely an exclamatory sound, to
denote some strong feeling or emotions.
‘Words used inInterjectionalSense’
Exclamatory Sounds:
Sounds Feeling Expressed.
Hurrah! ; Huzza! Joy
Oh! ah!; alas!; alack! Grief
Ha! ha! Amusement
Bravo! Approval
Heigh-ho! Weariness
Lo! hark!; hush!; hist! Attention
Fie! Fie! shame!; shame! Reproof
Stuff! bosh!; tut-tut!; Contempt
Pooh!pish!; tush! Ridicule

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Ho! holla! Call
Hum! hem!; humph! Doubt
Wow! Surprise, appreciation,
How + adjective Surprise; wonder (How beautiful she looks!)
What+a+noun Surprise, wonder (what a foolyou are).
 Examples:
Who the hell are you!
The hell withyou!
What a sad thing it is!
 Auxiliary verbs:
There are twomain categories of verb.
1. Main verb
2. Auxiliary verbs
 Mainverb:
These are words that are used to indicate some action. They are an essential part of a sentence .No
sentence consider complete without the main verb. They are unlimited in numbers. (e.g. go,come,
see, buy, catch, write, etc.)
 Auxiliary/Helpingverb:
They are also called “Helpingverb” becausethey help the main verb in conveying(complete) their
meaning, and in the formationof tenses. They are also called “defectiveverbs”.They are limited in
number. e.g. be(is,are
am,was,were,been),do(does,did),have(has,had),shall,should,will,can,could,may,might,must,
ought(to)
Theyare two innumbers:
3. Primary auxiliary.
4. Modal auxiliary.
 Primary auxiliary:
These verbs function on twolevels: as auxiliary verbs, and as main verb. They are three in
numbers.1. [Be (is, are, am, was, were, been)]. 2. [Do (does, did)].3. [Have (has, had)]. (e.g. (e.g. He
is a good boy. (Is ------used as a main verb),[I havedone my done my work.(Have----- used as
helping verb).
 Modalauxiliary:
Modal auxiliary is true auxiliaries in the sense that they exist only in association with other verbs.
They are follows:[ought(to)]
 Determiners:
 Definition:
Determine mean to calculate something exactly.In modern grammar. In modern grammar,
determinersare such words as the, same, my etc. That comes before a noun toss show exactly how
the noun is being used. In older grammar books, they are called pronouns or adjectives.
Determiners=somepronouns+ someadjective
 Example:
Determiners Noun …………….
….. Cat sleeps a lot.

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A cat sleeps a lot.
The cat sleeps a lot.
My cat sleeps a lot.
Most cats sleep a lot.
Some cats sleep a lot.
‘Classes ofdeterminers’
Therearefive classesofdeterminers.
1. Articles
2. Demonstratives
3. Possessive
4. Qualifiers
5. Wh-Determiners
 Articles:
Articles (a, an. the) words used to limit a noun. (She sits in a taxi/She buys an egg.)
 Demonstratives:
They expressing “nearness” or “distance” of a noun. (e.g. I like this book/these books.)
 Possessive:
Possessive words denoting ownership. (My,yours, his etc) e (e.g. my leg/arm/ feet etc)
 Qualifiers:
Qualifiers words expressing the quantity of some of something. (Some, any, . (Some, any, no, no,
every,every, each each etc).
 Wh Determiners:
WH determiners wordsthat introduce WH questions: WH questions: (what,which, whoever,
whose) [(e.g. what writer do youwriter do youlike best?)(Whosebooks are these?)]
 Finite, on-finite Verbs:
“Finite” means having definite limits. A finite verb (something called main verb) is a verb that has a
subject which means that it can be the main verb in a sentence. It shows tense………. (Past, present
etc)or number (singular/plural).
‘OR’
“A finite verb is a verb that changes according to the person (1st.2nd, 3rd) a number
(singular/plural) of its subject”
 In brief,a finiteverbhas two characteristics:
o It is in a tense.
o It agrees with the subject forperson and number.
 Nonfinite verbs:
“Non-finite” means having no limits. A non-verb (infinitive verb) is a verb whichdoes not change its
form in accordance withthe subject; it is not used in any tense.
‘Different forms ofNon-finiteverbs’
The infinitive, the participle and the Gerund are different forms of nonfinite verb, conveyingthe
sense slightly different fromthe main verb.
In brief,the differenceisasfollows:
1. The Infinitive
2. The Participle
3. The Gerund

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 The infinitive:
To –formof a verb (a formof verb that refers to some action but indicates no tense) (e.g. to go, to
come, to write)(He (He alwaystries to helpthe needy)
 The participle:
A verb used as an Adjective (such verbs end in-ng or –ed) (e.g. A laughing boy;a retiredofficer.)
‘Participleis twomajorkinds’
 Present participle:
This is the ing-form of verb used as an adjective. (e.g. Speaking, Walking, Running etc.)
 Pastparticiple:
This is the 3rd form of verb used as adjectives. (e.g. Retired, burnt, learned confused.etc.)
 The Gerund:
A verb used as a noun. (Such verbs end in-ing, but are considered “nouns”.
(e.g. Swimming is a good exercise.)
Like a noun, we can use a gerund as:
1. A subject in a sentence.
2. An objectis a sentence.
3. With possessive pronouns.
4. After a preposition.
‘Syntax (Modern Grammar)’
 Sentences:
A sentence is a combination or group of wordsthat makes a complete sense sometime, a single.
Word can also convey a complete sense.
(e.g. Osama goes to collage every day.
Run! )
 Part of a sentence:-
There are twomain parts of a sentence
a. Subject or the noun part
b. Predicate or the verb part
 Subject:-
The word or words denoting the person or thing about which something is said is/are called
subject of the sentence.
(e.g. To workis to workishealthy)
 Predicate:-
The word or words whichsay something about the person or thing denote by the subject is/are
called Predicate. (e.g. You Run)
 Kindsof sentence:-
Classification based on function
 Assistivesentence:-
It is a sentence whichsimply affirm or denies something
(e.g. Khalid has written a letter.) (Affirmative)
(Saleem willnot do this.)(Negative)
 Imperativesentence:-
It is a sentence whichcontains some command, prohibition, request or advice
(e.g. get of the room)(Command).
9Do not do this) (Prohibition)
 Interrogativesentence:-
It is a sentence that inquires about something. (e.g. what do you do youwant? What are you doing?)

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 Optative sentences:-
It is a sentence that expresses some wish
(e.g. May you livelong! Would that he were rich)
 Exclamatorysentence:-
The sentence that express some feelings of the mind.
(e.g. Hurrah! We won, Alas! We lose)
‘Classificationofsentence’
For understanding the structure of sentence, we must have a working knowledge of clauses. A
clause is a group of words containing a finite verb, i.e. a subject and a predicate. Clauses are three
kinds.
(i) Principal clause:aclause that makes complete sense or its own.
(ii) Co-ordinateclause:aclause a clause that makes complete sense but is a part is a part
of a longer sentence.
(iii) Sub-ordinateclause:aclause that does not make complete sentence on its own;it
depends for its significance or principal clause.
 Simplesentence:-
If a sentence expresses a single thought and has only one finite verb is called simple is called simple
sentence.
(e.g.
Sajid is working hard)
 Compoundsentence:-
If a sentence expresses mole thoughts than one has one principal clause and one or more co-
ordinate clause is called compound sentence
(e.g. Dogs bar ---- principal clause, Cocks crow ----co-ordinate clause)
 Complexsentence:-
If a sentence expresses more thoughts than one, and has one principal clause and one or more sub-
ordinate clauses it is called complex sentence
(e.g. God help those whohelp themselves
God helps those is “principal’s clause”
Help themselves is “sub-ordinate”
Who is “subordinate conjunction?????????)
‘Active and passive voice’
 Activevoice:-
A verb is said to be in the active voicewhen its subject acts.
(e.g. He writes a letter)
 Passivevoice:-
A verb is said to be in the passive voicewhen its subjects acted upon.
 Rules:-
1. change subject into objective
2. change objectiveinto subjective
3. use helping verb
4. use 3rd form of verb
‘Indefinitetense’

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Present Past Future
1st form of verb + (S, as) with
singular
2nd form of verb only 1st form of verb + will (he,
she, it, with singular ) shall
(I, we, with plural )
Negative Negative Negative
(Do not, does not,) are used.
(s, es) are refused
(do) is used for plural
(does) is used for singular
(did not) is used
1st form of verb is used
Will not, shall not
Interrogative Interrogative Interrogative
Do n does are used in
starting of sentence
Did is used at start of
sentence
Will, shall are used at
starting of sentence
‘Continuous’
Present Past Future
1st form + ing + helping verb 1st form + ing + was, were 1st form + ing + will be, shall
be
(is, am, are) + not (was, were) + not Will not be, shall not be
(is,am,are) are used are
starting
(Was, were ) are used at
starting
Will be , shall be are used at
starting
‘Perfect’
present Past Future
3rd form of verb + has, have Had + 3rd form of verb 3rd form of verb + will have,

19
shall have
has, have + not Had + not Will, shall + not
Has , have Had is used at starting Will have , shall have
‘Perfect continues’
Present Perfect Future
Has been, have been + 1st
form + ing + (for, since)
Had been + 1st form + ing +
(for, since)
Will have been, shall have
been +1st form + ing + (for,
since)
Has not been, have not been
+ 1st form + ing + (for, since)
Had not been+ 1st form + ing
+ (for, since)
will have not been +1st form
+ ing + (for, since)
Has, have are used at
starting+ been + 1st form +
ing + (for, since)
Had used at starting +been+
1st form + ing + (for, since)
Will, shall used at starting
+been +1st form + ing + (for,
since)
‘Active and Passives voice sentence’

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1. You are to solve this problem
This problem is to be solved by you
2. Where do youkeep yourbooks?
Were your books are be kept by you
3. You may solve this problem
This problem might be solved by you
4. She would waste her time
Her time would be wasted by her
5. A car ran over an old man
An old man was run over by a car
6. Do not smoke
Youare forbidden to smoke
7. Light the lamp
Let the lamp be lighted
8. Can you tell us a story?
Can a story be told to us by you?
9. Please explain this sum to me
Youare requested to explain this sum to me
10. She was singing a song
A song was being sung by her
11. Please help me
Youare requested to help me
12. This bookdisgusted me
I was disgusted by this book
13. This bottle contains honey
Honey is contained by this bottle
14. It is time to close the shop

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It is time for the shop to be closed
15. He closed the suitcase in hurry
The suitcase was closed by him in hurry
16. You must obey orders
Orders must be obeyed by you
17. This bookis selling well
This book is wellwhen it is being sold
18. We refused them
They were refused by us
19. Don’t laugh at the poor
Youare advised not to laugh at poor
20. Were youinvited by them?
Were they invited you?
21. He drives a car.
A car was driven by him
22. He is driving a car.
A car is being driven by him
23. He should help him
He should be help by us
24. They have won the match
A match had been wonby them
25. They may help us
We may be helped by them
26. I am flying a kite
A kite is being flownby me
27. Open the door
Youare ordered to open the door / let the door be opened
28. Polish the shoes
Let the shoe be polished
29. Please open the door
Let the door be opened

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30. Let me do it
Let it be done by me
31. Light the lamp
Let the lamp be lighted
32. Who stole yourpen?
Your pen was stolen by whom.
33. Who won the match?
The match was won by whom
34. Who was making a noise?
The noise was being made by whom
35. Who has examined the paper?
By whomthe paper been examined
36. Who polish our shoes?
Our shoes were polished by whom
37. Do it at once
Let it be done at once
38. Do not tease old man
Youare advised not to tease the old man
39. I cannot repair your car
Youcar cannot be repaired by me
40. Can you handle this?
Can this be handled by you?
41. Do you know his father?
Is his father known to you?
42. What are they doing?
What is being done by them?
43. Why are you wasting your time?
Why is yourtime being wasted by you?
44. When willyou buy a car?
When will a car be brought by you?
45. How can I help you?
How can yoube help by me?

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‘Articles’
 Definition:-
The demonstrative adjectives a, an and the are called Articles. They are oftentreated as a separate
part of a speech or classes of wordArticles. They are oftentreated as a separate part of a speech or
classes of word (Structural Words)
 Kinds:-
There are twokinds of Article:
o Indefinite Articles
o Definite Articles
 IndefiniteArticles:-
A and An are called the indefinite Articles because they do not refer to a definite or particular
person or thing. There are the weakened forms of the numeral one
A is used before a wordbeginning with a consonant or consonant sound (a book, a women, a
university, a union)
An is used before a word beginning witha vowelor vowelsound (an egg, an hour, an enemy)
 DefiniteArticles:-
Theis called the definite article because it points the definite article because it points out some
particular person or thing (the teacher ----we already know the man). Itis a weakened formof
that.
‘The OmissionofArticle’
o Propernoun
o Material noun
o Abstractnoun
 Propernoun:
Proper noun is the name of Proper noun is the name of particular person thing or place, e.g. Quran-
e-Pak,Minare Pakistan, etc
 Materialnoun:
Material noun are noun Material noun are noun out of which something is made, e.g. Goldbricks’,
etc.
 Abstractnoun:
Abstract noun are noun whichcannot be explain. They are in are noun whichcannot be explain.
They are in the
‘A essay which covers very important 59 topics’

24
1. Adult ration
2. Addiction
3. Agricultural problem
4. Bribery
5. Black marketing
6. Corruption
7. Child labor
8. Crimes in our society
9. Beggary
10. Capitalism
11. Back biting
12. Dearness
13. Dowry
14. Despair
15. Drug Addiction
16. Depression
17. Disunity
18. Ethnic order
19. Electricity crises
20. Fundamental of rights
21. Flattery
22. Freedom of press
23. Human rights violation
24. Housing problems
25. Health problems
26. Hypocrisy
27. Insufficientmedical facilities
28. Injustice and inequality
29. Indiscipline
30. Literacy
31. Load shedding
32. Lackof tolerance
33. Crushing borders
34. Lawlessness
35. Mass – illiteracy
36. Nepotism
37. Overpopulation
38. Poverty
39. Population problems
40. Pollution
41. Pricehike
42. Provincialism
43. Religious tolerance
44. Red tapsim(Redtops)
45. Road side robbery
46. Religious violence
47. Smoking
48. smuggling
49. Social evils
50. Social injustice
51. sectarism
52. Social and economic problems of
Pakistan
53. Terrorism
54. The devaluation of currency
55. Tax evasion
56. Un employment
57. Violence
58. Violation
59. Favoritism

25
‘Outline’
Introduction
Social,economic,political andregional problems
Causesof…………….
Conclusion
It is an admitted and accepted factthat time has no options and time is friend of every one. Man is a
social animal. He is living in a society. He faces many problems.
----------------hasbecome one of the most embarrassing and explosive problem all over the world
special in the third country like Pakistan. It is teemed with tension tussle problems, troubles and
tortures. It denotes devastating disturbance, dangerous, disastrous, defeats and defaults. It gives
great and grave grief and gloom.
------------------createsinstability and demoralization in our nation and in a black lash. It breeds
depression and dejection in our society and state. It creates and spreads the feelings of uncertainty
and insecurity among the masses.
If ----------creeps in our society it eats into us vital and soon crudes its inner strength, outer
splendor, economic prosperity, social peace and national unity. Consequently a nation’s good image
is spoiled all overthe world.Lawlessness becomes order of the day due to poverty,corruptions,
violence,indiscipline and mass illiteracy. It creates conflictand confrontation.If it. If it is not
effectively,property and promptly checkedthe entire judicial moral and economic fiber of a nation
is collapsed.
--------------is highly determent and devastating for a country like Pakistan, that has effective
economic and political prosperity. If the evil of -----------is not nipped in the bud, it may spread
rapidly like a bush fire and may engulf the whole nation region like an epidemic.
----------------is not nipped in the bud, it may spread rapidly like a bush fire and may engulf the
whole nation region like an epidemic.
--------------Hardly shatters people’s faith in state institutions. It deprives of masses of mental,
physical, spiritual moral and economic prosperity. ----------------Also paves way for bloody
revolutions and military take ever. Therefore every peace loving person whofervently longs and
dreams for prominent must ponder upon causes of social cancer of -------------.
The main causes of --------------are illiteracy, poverty,defectiveeconomic policies of the
governments, people’s desire to accurate countless riches and blind multiplication of worldly
wishes and wounds.
------------------Creates irresistible economic pleasure on social and economic justice and gulf
between haves and haves not increases. In a nutshell mass illiteracy,temptation for wealth, lust for
power, luxury and comfortare the main causes of --------------.
Firstly ethnics, religious, social linguistic and regional diversities and differencesalso conflictand
hatred among people whoin backlash grew and spread.
Secondly feudalism, capitalism and uneven distributions of fundamental rights spread. Thirdly the
nom availability of basic necessaries and facilities like education, health care and jobs also paves
the way to spread in society spread in society or state. External factorlike the agent or agencies of
hostile neighboring like India also play a vitalrole in spreading a vital role in spreading ----------in
the land of our country.
It should be the primary concernof the men ay ----------in the land of our country.
It should be the primary concernof the men at the helms of our affairsas well as the scholar
educationalist, political parties, NGO, and national mass media to take levels forthe eradication of
the eradication of growing menace of ------------in the best national interest.

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Note: - write the name ofthe essay where ------------signgiven.
Thisessaycoversveryimportant59 topics…….!
Shahzaib Acadmey for Professional studies
‘Surround yourself with
positive & successful peoples’.

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