HISTORY of Ethiopia POWER POINT 3-5 edited.pptx

HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA ANDTHE HORN POWER POINT
CHAPTERTHREE
3.Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of the
Thirteenth Century
3.1. Emergence of States
Defining state:
 State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty
and government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
 State was the outcome of regular cultural process.
 Historically, states arose independently in different places and at different times, for
example, it emerged in Ethiopia and the Horn independently from other parts of the world.
 In the case of Ethiopia and the Horn, societies in this region underwent political, economic,
social and cultural changes from ancient times to the end of the thirteenth century.
 One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary
agriculture which made people to engage in farming by forming settlement. Intermediaries
(traders) also began to buy agricultural products of sedentary people.

CONT…
In such way states were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation. Moreover, the growth
of trade facilitated the development of states.
The first states were theocratic states, and priests (shaman) maintained
the social and religious affairs of their people. Gradually, however, As
production became market oriented, the priests were gradually
replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and compulsory
tributes known as protection payments.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where early state
formation took place. From small beginnings, such states gradually
developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-
demarcated social structure.

CONT..
3.2.Ancient States
In North and Northeast
A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Evidence for the existence of Punt: Egyptian hieroglyphic writings and vivid paintings
tell us a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs/kings sent to Punt.
E.g. 1. Expedition was sent to Punt by Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) to collect
myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).
2. Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), sent five ships under the leadership
of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat and the expedition was welcomed by
Punt’s King Perehu and his wife Ati.This was the best described and illustrated expedition.
The expedition was able to return collecting frankincense, cinnamon, sweet smelling
woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers
and egg, monkeys, giraffes, people, etc.

CONT…
o Exports of Punt to Egypt: Iron, bronze, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying
and medicinal plants
o Its imports from Egypt: axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes,
bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets(cheap jewelry).
But the exact location of Punt has remained vague. Some scholars suggest
that Punt might be located in Northern or Northeastern Somalia
because of the reference to incense and myrrh. Some others suggest that
Punt might be located in Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to
gold, ebony and monkeys.
B. Da’amat,Yeha, Hawulti Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni
in the vicinity of Aksum could also be mentioned.
Among these, Da’amat king’s is said to have used politico-religious title
known as Mukarib in the 5th
century B.C. and in Da’amat various gods
and goddesses were worshipped.

CONT…
Yeha
It probably emerged around 1,000 BC as a small center where South
Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros
horn and other goods.
Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well as
still standing temple and inscriptions indicateYeha’s glory.
Hawulti Melazo: a site where stone tablets that are inscribed in
rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings
representing herds of cattle were excavated.
Addi-Seglemeni: was site of oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription.
C.The Aksumite State
The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
Originally, it was small and it was expanded and enlarged gradually.
Trade was flourished in Aksumite state.

CONT…
o Aksumite state’s major items of export: Ivory, myrrh, emerald,
frankincense and some spices (like ginger), cinnamon, gold, rhinoceros
horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and animals like apes.
o Its imports: Manufactured products like garments and textiles from
Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt
and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and
wine from Roman Empire and Syria.
o Zoscales (c.76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek
language, Lingua Franca/common language/ of Greco-Roman world.Aksum
also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
o Evidence for Aksumite trade: obtained from the Adulis inscription
written in Greek, and the Christian Topography, describes commercial
activities of the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance
trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in
Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.

CONT…
Merchant took to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron
in exchange for gold.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably
with the South Arabian region which led to exchange of ideas, material
and spiritual culture. Occasionally, the contact involved conflict. E.g.Around
200A.D, the army of Aksumite king Gadarat attacked and posed threats on
peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in the present dayYemen.
B/n the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings minted coins in
gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local trade.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman
Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar
and Saba.

CONT…
Decline of the Aksumite state
The Aksumite state declined since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity
and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it.
With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the
international lifeline of the state was cut.Aksumite international trade came under
the control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims.
Its political and military power also declined and local rebellions challenged its
hegemony. Finally, rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah
(Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
 Its achievements:
Include surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants,
paintings; diversified ceramic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and
sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, churches). It also developed
complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system including
irrigation.

CONT….
D. Zagwe Dynasty (1150 to 1270).
 Agaw elites took part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and
functionaries for at least four centuries.
 After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully took over the
state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married
Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later, he overthrew
his father-in-law and took control of power.
Its political center: was in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at
Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
Trade: The Agaw kings maintained the Aksumite traditions.They renewed cultural and
trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.
Exports: Slaves, ivory and rare spices
Imports: Cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, drags and coins.
Achievements: construction of caves, rock-hewn-monolithic churches of Lalibela.
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete
Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the cross.

CONT…
Its Collapse: was due to internal problems of royal succession and
oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum
who referred the Zagwe as “illegitimate rulers.”
Then,Yekuno-Amlak (r.1270-1285) members of the power claimants or the
Solomonic Dynasty fought and killed the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek and
took power and ‘restored’ the Solomonic Dynasty which later stayed in
power for many centuries.
E. East, Central, Southern and Western State
Included: Bizamo (establishment-in 8th
century and it was located opposite to
the present area of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area); Damot,
located in south of Abay, had renowned king in the 13th
century known as
Motalami; Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia
and its royal clan was called Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso); Gafat,
unclear whether Gafat was a state or not but it is claimed that its mountains
were rich in gold.

CONT…
F. Muslim Sultanates/Principalities since 8th
century
Included: Shewa where Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.)
was established; Fatagar was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a
in the eleventh century and known for cultivation of wheat and barley,
fruits as wells as herding of cattle, sheep and goats; Dawaro: located
south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast and it had a
currency called hakuna; Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high
plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes;
Included also: Ifat was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.
Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward
to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma who came to Ifat
b/n1271 and 1285.

EXTERNAL RELATIONS…
External contact of Ethiopia and the Horn:
1)With Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. It was a form of earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
2) With South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000
B.C.
3) With the East Roman or Byzantine Empire, a contact came
following the introduction of Christianity to Aksum, and Aksum and the
Byzantine Empire had also commercial contacts which declined in the
7th
century due to the expansion of Islam in the region.
4.With India and Persia-commercial relation was established
Such contacts around the middle of the 12t
h
century had made
Europeans to regard Ethiopian Highland Christian Kingdom as the
land of Prester John.

3.3ECONOMY AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Economy:
Included: 1. Agriculture was basic economic activity in highland parts and it
consisted of use of local irrigation technology and soil fertility techniques.
Basic resource: Land and had tenure system (for its holding, sharing and using)
Common land tenure system of ancient time comprised communal right to land
which was a group right of the family, clan and lineage.
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of
communal birthright to land.The rist owners were known as bale-rist. But they
paid tributes to the state which was collected by state functionaries or
officials who were given gult right over the areas and populations they
administered on behalf of the state.
Gult is a right to levy/impose tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute
collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were
sent to the imperial center. Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-
Gult.

CONT…
2. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology such as artisans had existed since the ancient
period.
 Artisans were in engaged in metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving,
jewelry, basketry and others.
 E.g. Metal workers produced swords, javelins, shields, knives, axes, sickles, hoes an
others.Tanners produced leather tools.
 However, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. The ruling classes
mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious items rather than the
domestic technology.
3.Trade (already discussed)
Socio-cultural Achievements:
Architecture: 1. Steles/obelisks building were practiced in Axum( the longest was 33
meters in height.The other two had heights of 24 and 21 meters.

CONT…
2. Zagwe period’s rock hewn churches were part of UNESCO’s
world heritage, registered in 1978.
3.Writing System: Scripts developed in Sabean and Ge’ez languages.
4. Calendar:There was invention of Ethiopic solar calendar.
 There was also Muslim (Islamic) calendar which is a lunar calendar
The Oromo and the Sidama (celebrating new year-Fiche Chambalala)
had a calendar based on star known among the Oromo as Urjii.
5. Numerals
 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of
fourth century AD. E.g. In Ge ez language there has been the use of
ʽ
numeral system.

Unit Four
Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural
Processes from the LateThirteenth to the
beginning of the Sixteenth Centuries

 The “Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty
• Succession Problem and Establishment of Royal Prison at Amba Gishen
• Consolidation andTerritorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom
• Evangelization, Religious Reforms and Religious Movements
 The Political and Socio-economic Dynamics in the Muslim Sultanate
 The Rise of Adal
 Trade and Expansion of Islam
 Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
External Relations
• Relations with Egypt
• Relations with Christian Europe

EVANGELIZATION, RELIGIOUS REFORMS AND
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
A. Evangelization
 It was an expansion of Christianity.
 Churches and their believers had been in existence long before expansion of Christian
kingdom. E.g. in Shewa
 Early Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity in several areas.
 For example, Abba Iyesus-Mo'a (Haik Estifanos), opened new opportunities of learning
for Christians.
 Territorial expansion of Amde-Tsiyon was a momentum for spread of Christianity in the
medieval period.
• Abune Tekle-Haymanot of ( Debre Libanos), played a key role in reviving Christianity in
Shewa and followed by evangelization in Southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot.
 He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.

• By the direction from Bishop Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa
such as Kil'at,Tsilalish, Merhabite,Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and Fatagar, Damot,Waj
and Enarya.
B.The Ewostatewos Movement
 In the 13th
century witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements.
 Abba Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day
Eritrea).
• His teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath on Saturday.
• Due to opposition, he fled the country to Egypt.
• His followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from
Armenia led by Abba Absad to continue it.
• Soon, it spread to Enfranz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
• Anti Ewostatewos group emerged led by Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe Birhan in Hayq
Monastery .
• They were supported by the Abun and the monarch. The monarch imprisoned some
Ewostatians b/c feared dispute in the church could divide his kingdom.

• The clergy removed Ewostatians from the churches services and settled in peripheral areas.
• Ewostatians sustained their movement in monasteries like Debre-Bizan, and Debre-San
C. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
 Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame.
 He established a rigid monastic organization.
 It emphasized on poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and independence from secular
authorities.
 Estifanos was initially able to convince atse Takla Maryam(r. 1430-33) as he posed no threat
to royal power and unity of the church.
 He collided with Zara-Yaqob due to his disapproval of religious initiatives of Emperor,
rejected royal supremacy and authority in spritual matters and refused to participate in
court judiciary.
 Zara-Yaqob took harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of
the veneration of St. Mary.

 Naod favorably inclined to the Estifanosites.
 The Estifanosites softened their position, reintegrated into EOC by lifting
excommunication during bishopYeshaq.
D.The Religious Reforms of ZaraYa’iqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate
the Orthodox Church.
 The assimilation of his pagan subjects into the Christian community, and the creation
of a religiously homogenous society was ZaraYa’iqob’s highest ideal.
 Some of his reforms were:
• He settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy towards the creation of a suitable
church-state union.
• He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian
church,
• Ewostatians agreed to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates.
• Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.

• He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesday and Friday, and
to get Father Confessors.
• He declared the abolition of all forms of pagan worship in his kingdom.
• He decreed that every Christian should bear the names of ‘the Father, the
Son and the Holy Ghost’ branded on his forehead.
• The sign of the cross also had to be affixed on all belongings of the
Christians- on their dress, their instruments of war, and even on their
ploughs.
• The king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church.This
was followed by revival of religious literature.
• ZaraYa’iqob himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad,
Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te’aqebo Mister.
• Some parts of Te’amre Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.

POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DYNAMICS IN MUSLIM
SULTANATES
 Emergence:- a number of Muslim sultanates emerged since the 14th
century.
 Trade:- both the major source of livelihood and state formation of Muslim Sultanates.
 Trade also a major source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates.
 One of the strongest Muslim Sultanates emerged along the trade routes and resisted
the Christian Kingdom until the second half of the 16th
C was the Sultanate of Adal.
TRADE AND EXPANSION OF ISLAM
Trade:- served as the major channel for expansion of Islam and main source of economy.
The most known Muslim Sultanates were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
Zeila served as the main trade outlet and old city states of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca
were used as ports for hinterland.

With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from
Zeila to the interior.
Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these towns and ruins of mosques and
residences mark the existence of market centers, which followed and served the trade
coasts.
Jigjiga and the highlands of Harar and Charchar attest to the market towns that served the
Zeila route. These include:
1. Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route,
2. Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot,
3. Suq-Amaja and the very famous market centre Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route.
Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings and
sultans as agents.
Other big market towns include:
i. One that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu,
Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray.

ii. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”), and
Asmara were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila
due to their geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom.
4.4. RIVALRY BETWEENTHE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM ANDTHE
MUSLIM SULTANATES
 Causes for the rivalry:
 The ambition to control this trade route and commodities that passed through
Zeila led to rivalry between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
 The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in
1328.
• It was because the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take military action
against the Christian Kingdom.

• The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian King
Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the king's agen
Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.
• These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against Haqaddin I; defeated
and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin. Both Ifa
and Fatagar came under Sabradin.
• The Sultanates of Hadiya and Dawaro made an alliance with Sabradin. Yet, Ifat wa
defeated and Sabradin was captured on his retreat. Replaced by his brothe
Jamaladin.
• As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated.
• Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of movement for a
caravans through Zeila.
• It was based on these grounds that some members of the Walasma moved their sea
of power further east to Adal, from where they continued their struggle.

THE RISE OF ADAL
 Adal:- was a branch of Walasma family splintered from Ifat and established in Harar in
1367.
 Dakar was the first center, in 1520 changed to Harar and 1576 to Awsa in Afar due to the
Oromo pressure.
 Having lost Ifat, they moved their seat of power further east to Adal (established by
Haqaddin II and Sa’adadin), and from there they continued their efforts to recover their
losses.
 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Amde Tseyon had to conduct
repeated campaigns into the lowlands.
 These include: Amde Tseyon’s son, Saya Ar’ed (1344-71), succeeded by his sons, first
Newaye Maryam (1371-80) and later Dawit (1380-1413), succeeded by his son, Tewodros I
(1413-1414). King Yeshaq (r. 1414-1430) lost his life fighting somewhere in the sultanate of
Adal.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-
Maryam (1371-80), however, he died fighting in 1386.

 Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (C. 1386-1402) gained initial
success but defeated by king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3.
 Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in
1415. Since then the area was called "the land of Sad ad-Din."
 Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the Muslim
sultanates declined in power.
 Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in Yemen came back to succeed their father.
Yet,Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing
Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed
Badlay at the battle ofYeguba.
 As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-
71) sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal
of the Christian Kings.
 On the death of Mohammed, Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal. Despite
initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474.

 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers
of Muslim Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought
to resolve the problem peacefully.
 As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to harmonize
relations with the Christian Kingdom.
 However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz
carried out some effective military campaigns into the highlands and in 1517
Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40) force.
 His son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed
Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.
 Peaceful Interactions:
There were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade
continued to be the major channel of social integration.

The long distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties.
Relatively, the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian
Kingdom created economic interdependence, which in due course strengthened
socio-economic bondage.
 Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the coast and
vice versa. It was through such caravan merchants that the social links were
strengthened and religions spread.
These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political
spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.
The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the
works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others and philosophies epitomized by
Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king).
On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab writers
such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.

4.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS
1. RELATIONS WITH EGYPT
From the late thirteenth century onwards, Christian Kingdom continued to maintain
relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character.
In 1272,Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars requesting an Abun
from the Coptic Church.
 Both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in
their respective domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River) that originated
from Ethiopia.
In the early 14th
century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and
destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the
restoration of the churches and warned that the failure to do so would result in the
diversion of the Nile waters.

Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his
imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a
huge army against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a
delegation to the King.
Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established harmonious
relations between King Dawit and Egypt.The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the
"True Cross" and in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious paintings
to the Sultan.
In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the
protection of Christians in Egypt.
 Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating
the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).
Then Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded
letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary
gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.

II. RELATIONS WITH CHRISTIAN EUROPE
As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations with
Christian Europe.
During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were strongly
influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades. For example, it
is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s
coronation in Milan in 1395.
In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance. In another report,
message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip
of France in 1332.
The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter
of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,
the purported king of the Christian Kingdom.

The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the 14th
century. They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of
this King.
Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support.
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402,
King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio
Bartoli.
Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia,
in 1427.Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts.
 The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard
and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign ofYishaq.
In 1450 a Silican Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of
Dawit's reign and who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on
behalf of the King, was now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador.

An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam and two other individuals accompanied him.
The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon, (also ruled as king of Naples and Sicily).
 King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and
technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to Zara- Yaqob and informed him
that he sent him artisans and masons he requested.
The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of
Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly
depicted many places and peoples.
Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da
Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
The rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the 15th
century strengthened the relation between the Christian Kingdom and
Christian Europe.

Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara
Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these
relations. She also had foreseen the possibility to consolidate relations
with and get support from Portugal that was against theTukish.
In 1508, Portugal sent a person to act as an ambassador to Christian
Ethiopia.Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-
Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal.The Portuguese
court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly.
The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and
Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years.
The objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding
Turkish power in Red Sea Area.The mission was not successful.

UNIT 5
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND
SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE
EARLY 16TH
TO THE END OF THE
18TH
C’S

OUTLINES
 Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and
After
Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
Population Movements
• Population Movements of the Argoba,Afar, and Somali
• Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
• The Gadaa System
• The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities
Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
The Gondarine Period and Zemene Mesafint

5.1. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM
AND THE SULTANATE OF ADAL AND AFTER
 The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for
control over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities.
 This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics.
 Causes of the conflict:-
1. competition and struggle for control over the trade routes
2. mal-administration and exploitation of periphery made military
mobilization possible.
3. demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists
pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom.
4. religion provided ideological justification for the wars.

 Major causes remained:- the interest to control trade routes lay at the heart of the
conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that lasted from
1529 to 1543.
 Background to the Conflict
• Among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy was intensified
and a new leadership was urgently called for.
• Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of Imam
Ahmed, alias “the left-handed,” are obscure.
• He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout
Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
• He was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam. He soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal,
who during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
• For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to high
plateaus for better and enough pasturelands and their attempt was held back by the
Christian army.

• With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of eastern Ethiopia,
between the 13th
and 16th
centuries, raiding and counter-raiding at water holes or animal
rustling intensified.
• It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the
pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common
cause.
• He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing material needs while at the same time keep
Islamic believes.
The Course of theWar:
• Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven.Assisted by the elderly Elleni and
due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and even
scoring significant victories into Muslim territory in the early 16th
century.
• However, shortly,Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army in 1520, and he refused to pay tribute
and this was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.

• The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro,
Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian Kingdom was at risk.
• In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force and encamped about fifty kilometers
east of what is now Addis Ababa.
• There was the problem of logistics and the leadership of the army of Christian
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
• On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed logistics problems with
its small-sized army.The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized
by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the
most decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day
Mojo.
 After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of
the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as
Mereb Melash.

The Process of Conquest/Futuh al Habasha/
• Ahmad resumed an overall invasion of Christian territories in 1531 and occupied
Dawaro and Shawa.
• By 1535, he brought most parts of the country under his control.
• He continued his devastating conquest without any effective resistance and reached
the present provinces of Tigray and Eritrea and along the Red Sea coast.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast
including the Ethiopian interior.
• However, despite his success in crushing the Christian army,Ahmad was not able to
capture Libne Dingel, who remained fugitive and died in the 1540 in the monastery
of Dabra Damo, and was succeeded by his son, Gelawdewos (1540-1559).
• Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted from his
own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories.

• One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del
Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
• Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her
father. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to have
marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules.
• Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present
dayTigray respectively.
Gelawdewos ((r. 1540-1559) and the Battle of Woyna-Dega:
• Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to face the wars with more intensity as Imam Ahmed
had received Turkish musketeers.
• In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about 400
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541Christopher
da Gama.
• The Portuguese army, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's
southern Tigray. But, in the battle, about 200 Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama
were killed and the leader was beheaded.

• An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's
wife Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in
1542.
• After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s, he sent his allies back
home and let his army camp.
• On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under
the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59).
• The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how to prepare and
march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
• Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely
affected Imam’s army.
• Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility because they did
not know where the attacks came from.
• On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was
attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega.

• Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army
were loyal to him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the
northern and central plateau.
• Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was
tolerant toward them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of
smooth relations with the Muslim world.
• Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-1520s territories and tributary
regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to
different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas.
• By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom.
However, the control over the Muslim dominated areas was not an easy task.
• In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from:
- the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
- the Ottoman Turks,

-Jesuit interlude, and
- Oromo that advanced into the center.
• Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to wage
war against the Christian state for revenge.
• In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king
himself.
• Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the
Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
• However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him.
• Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend the Turks while fighting
with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.

Consequences of theWar
• The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of consequences.
1. One of the most obvious was the huge human and material cost. Ahmed
Gragn also burnt so many historical churches and monasteries with their
invaluable heritage possessions and their priests and monks.
2. It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom
were weakened thereby paving the way for an easy infiltration and success
of the Oromo population movement.
3. Ahmad Gragn’s destruction of the royal prison of Amba Gishen left many
contending princes free and this resulted into a dynastic conflict and
political instability in the Christian kingdom.
4. The war also led the shift of political centre of the Christian kingdom from
central Shawa to the north, towards the Lake Tana area.

5. The religious controversies in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, caused by
the Jesuit missionaries who came from Portugal following Portuguese army
and the Ottoman Turkish threat along the Red Sea coasts after Ahmad’s war
were some of long term consequences of the war.
6. Ahmad Gragn’s domination also encouraged expansion of
Islam. However, the war had also a disastrous impact on Muslims.
The Muslim states were left impoverished and the ground cleared the
way for their occupations by the Oromos.
 On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had arguably
resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages among
peoples of the various cultural groups were one of these manifestations in
the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.

Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between
Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global dimension.
Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional international trade
intermediaries, who were under Ottoman Turks were hit by discovery of a
seaway to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and tried to prevent rival
Portuguese ships from trading with India.
 Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian
Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam
Ahmed.
 In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and
regional Ottoman authorities provided two hundred Muslim musketeers and
ten cannons.

5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES
The church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate of Adal.The destruction of
property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the Church and therefore,
its service as an ideological arm of the state.
The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its
lost territories.
Background for the arrival of Jesuits:-
The background for the arrival of Catholic missionaries was led by the coming of
Portuguese diplomatic mission in 1520 and Portuguese army in 1541.
In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to
Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate,
natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite theology of
EOC.

EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from divinity.
The leading members of the Jesuits mission who played key role in efforts to evangelize
the country include Joao Bermudez,Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping
that the rest of the society would follow suit.
Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the missionaries, but he was
not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a
document entitled the Confession of Faith.
Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too
busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish forces to entertain the Jesuits in their
courts.
The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) who secretly
converted to Catholicism.

But Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-
Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who befell a similar fate in
the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
Susenyos, too, as was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute,
integrated the Oromo with the forces of central government to consolidate his
power and then stabilize the country.
Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through
the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to be state religion
later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-Catholic voices mounted
following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Alfonso Mendez
ordered:-
- re-consecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and
rebaptism of the mass.

- Besides, he called for the suspension of Jewish customs such as
male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
- Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in
Ge’ez, fasting onWednesdays and Fridays, reverence for
Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
- Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted.
The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of
the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes
initiated by the Jesuits.
After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge
of falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who countered the Catholic
transformation.

Fasiledas:-
 restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ uncle and
the most fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
By fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced a new policy
called "Close-Door Policy", which isolated the state from all Europeans for
about a century and a half.
Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with
the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to
ensure that no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at
Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any European
from entering in to his territory.
By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.

Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the beginning of the
nineteenth century with the exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles
Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached its
peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being
the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect
man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was
dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted the
eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his
incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
This sect was dominant in Gojjam.

Sost Lidet/Three Births (YaTsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ was first born in
eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy
Ghost.This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS
The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in
shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Population movements occurred in the Horn due to various reasons, in varied scales and
followed different directions.
In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be attributed to the region's
long socio-political conditions involving military conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
Population movements had extensive effects including the integration of peoples across
ethnic and religious lines.
Major outcomes of population movements during the period include religious, ethnic and
linguistic interactions and intermingling of peoples through intermarriage, change of abode,
original culture and evolution of new identities.

I. POPULATION MOVEMENTS OFTHE ARGOBA,AFAR,AND SOMALI
Causes:
1. The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
15th
and the early 16th
centuries was partly responsible for the population movement of the
Argoba,Afar and Somali.
2. The demographic pressure on environment gave background for the population movement.
 This population movement was probably triggered off by: -population growth and
shortage of grazing land, and
-finally, mounting pressure of Oromos, who began their
expansion in the 15th
Century.
A.The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn.
Towards the end of the 13th
century, with the decline of the sultanate of Shewa, the sultanate
of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance.

On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and
the Somali against the Christian Kingdom.
The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian
Kingdom and was the major center of conflict.This was because the major caravan
trade routes passed through Argoba territory.
B.The Afar: before the 16th
century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the
east until they reached the middle Awash.
Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory.
As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes.
Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to
move into different directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts.
In the 16th
century, their pastoral economy helped them to survive the destructive
effects of the wars.

C.The Somali: their territory laid in the medieval competition for the control of trade routes.
 The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the
Imam.
 However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their
home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
II. GADAA SYSTEM ANDTHE OROMO POPULATION MOVEMENT
(1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System
• The Oromo population movement of the 16th
century cannot be better understood without
considering the Gadaa system.
• The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo: --socially organized themselves,
-administered their affairs,
-defended their territories, maintained law and order, and
-managed their economies.

• Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged.
However, it is clear that for long the society organized their politics,
economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa institution.
• The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early 16th
century, the
system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were well organized.
• Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa
system long before the 16th
century movement of the Oromo.
• Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that
the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization.
• Time computation and recording history was based on the eight-year
segment of time. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-
gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations
represented an era.

• Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various internal and
external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption
for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the
central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
• The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as: -
-periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man rule,
-representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies.
-served as a mechanism of socialization, education, maintenance of peace
and order, and social cohesion.
-Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage).
-provided a socio-political framework that institutionalized relationship
between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among members.
• The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. Ten age- grades and five
classes operated in parallel.

• The system helped the members of age-sets to develop a consistent and stable sense of self and
others. Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years
after their fathers.
Age-grades and their roles
• The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as Abba-
Gadaa and assisted by several representatives from among the generation set.
Gade Grade Age Roles
Dabale Birth-8 years
Socialization
Game 9-16 years
Folle 17- 24 years Military training, agriculture, etc.
Qondala 25-32 years Military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 years Candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 years Leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49-80 years Senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders

• These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the
assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge),
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councillors.
• In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in
power transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
• Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which helped them to
form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru
(pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and
Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred
power.
• They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving
and others.The kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class.
• The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa
class to the next every eight years.

• With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo territories, the five Gadaa
classes (generation sets) are listed below:
The Five Gadaa Classes
B.The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
Causes:-
 A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of the 16th
and 17th
centuries.
1. Natural factors include demographic pressure and subsequent need for land to accommodate
the growing human and livestock population.
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudana Robale
Kilole Birmaji
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo

2.The conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the 13th
to the 16th
centuries
might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.
Courses of the Movement:-
 In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organized under Borana
and Barentu confederacies.
 The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount
Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa then
westward and across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
 From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
 The first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil
and occupied Bali.
 Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
 The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq.
 Gadaa Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
 The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora; on Adal led by
Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.

The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied
Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale
gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a
Yohannis’ force.
The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and
overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya andTigray.
In the early 17th
century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena
(1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa.
Others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
Why the Oromos so successful:
• The wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates,
• The organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played crucial role in
the success of the Oromo population movement.

• In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo
branches established Gadaa centres.
The Five major Gadaa centres
Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e
Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili
of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and
laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
Gadaa Centers Respective Oromo clans
Oda Nabee Tulama
Oda Roba Sikko-Mando (Arsi)
Oda Bultum Itu-Humabenna
Oda Bisil Mecha
Oda Bulluq Jawwi Mecha

• However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of
Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed
alliances during times of difficulty.
• Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending
their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo
assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence of the
Ethiopian state.
• In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula
including land. Land holding system to regulate resource and their
interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye system.
• The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of
land. Accordingly, place names were given the names of the pioneer as a
marker of qabiyye rights.

5.4. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION ACROSS ETHNIC AND
RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES
• The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were
the major factors for the people's interactions across regions.
• Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times. The cases in
point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
religious expansion, and territorial expansion and population movements.
• One of the major consequences of the interactions in the medieval period
particularly in the population movement of the 16th
century was the
integration of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
• It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by the Christian
kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south. Similarly, the
wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar
and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of
Ethiopia.

• One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that it put an end to the
wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of
the Christian state.
• At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the 16th
century brought
far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background.
• The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha
and Moggasa.
• Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the
child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child.
• Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu.
Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through
oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such membership entailed.
• Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan. The adopted
groups gained both protection and material benefits. Thus, it lead complete
assimilation and disappearance of Bizamo, and Damot as well as mutual assimilation
with Ennarya.

• The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions, national
integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
• The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and
institutions. A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language. E.g. Sidama and Gedeo
adopted the Gadaa system.
• The Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the people
with whom they came into contact. E.g. the adoption of monarchical
systems and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim
states.
• It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in
politics particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and the
making of modern Ethiopia.

5.6.THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT
1.THE GONDARINE PERIOD
A. Political Developments
• The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the
political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
• Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
• Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar like at Qoga, Gorgora,
Danqaz and Azazo.
• Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiledas as his political seat.
• Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas
(r.1632–67),Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
• Among the major reforms during these periods were:
- the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and
-the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
•

• Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis
Alem.
• His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land
measurement in Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil
code).
• The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
Tekle-Haymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and
poisoning of reigning monarchs.
• Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was in turn
assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos was again killed byYostos, who was also poisoned and
replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa.
• Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his wife Etege
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
• The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in politics
and the army.
• From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda
Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics.

• Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-
69). Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito,
her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
• To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab
sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and
military powerful.
• Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation and refused to return to Tigray
although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his
replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed
Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked
the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
B.Achievements of the Gondarine Period
• Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education,
art, and crafts for more than two centuries.
• The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but also in cultural
developments.This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.

• The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to describe
Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian Renaissance.
• Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one
hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles,
bridges, residences, bath, library, towers, fortifications and there are squared,
round and unknown shape of churches.
• In the cities compound the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there
are different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I,
Dawit III, Bakafa and regent Queen Mentewab.
• The Gondarine architecture would have started before the reign of emperor
Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, at Guzara
near Enfranz, and built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and
Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
• Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-1540) that is the
pointed oval dome over the center of the church of Bahir Gimb Mikael
considered as built by him.

• Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories especially, the churches built by Queen
Mentwab were known by beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
• Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of
manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian
Saints and the Litanies, and many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also
produced.
• Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and poetry.
• Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long
distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the
Ethio-Sudan border.
• Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.The appearance of daily market
was known.
• With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities
like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000
population.

• In addition to its political and commercial importance, it served as religious
center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served as the center
of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (residence of the abun and Ichege) until the
mid of 19th
Century.
• Many of Orthodox churches served as education centers (known by
excellence in teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting was centered at Gondar.
II.The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
• Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of political power
was in the hands of different regional lords.
• Zemene Mesafent was the period when Ethiopia was divided within itself with
no effective central authority; the regional lords constantly fought against
each other for expansion of their territory and to become the guardian of
the king.
• The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in
1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.

• Ras Mika’el who was a king maker in the period took strong measures against
the nobility. These measures made him highly unpopular because of which
coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo that defeated him at
the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
• The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray,
Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta,Yejju,Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
• When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power
during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I
or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
• Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made
incessant struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch
Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
• In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre
of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.

• The period of zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara
through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
• absence of effective central government;
• the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
• the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
• rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the position of king maker;
• establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
• Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the
state due to doctrinal disputes;
• Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”
• In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature,
arts, architecture etc during the period.

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