IGCSE Environment Management Biosphere

What is
Biome ?
• A community of living
organisms of a single major
ecological region.
• A regional ecosystem
characterized by distinct types
of vegetation, animals, and
microbes that have developed
under specific soil and
climatic conditions.

Organism :
• An organism is a fundamental functional
unit in ecology because it interacts
directly with the environment as well as
with other organism
e.g., Rabbits
What is Organism ?

What is
Population?
• It refers to the
organism of the
same species that are
in proximity to one
another
• e.g., A group of
rabbit

What is
Community
?
• This includes all the
populations occupying a given
area.
• The size of the community
depends on our scale of
reference
• The community and the non-
living environment together
are referred to as an
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM or
ECOSYSTEM
• e.g., pond fish and plants

• A species is often defined as a group
of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
What is species?

• A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that
is inhabited by particular species of animal, plant or
other type of organism.
• It is the natural environment in which an organism
lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a
species population.
What is habitat?

• In ecology, a niche is a term describing
the relational position of a species
or population in its ecosystem to each
other.
What is niche?

An ecosystem has two
basic components
ABIOTIC
COMPONENTS
BIOTIC COMPONENTS

• Biotic components is classified into
three categories:
• PRODUCERS
• CONSUMERS
• DECOMPOSERS
Biotic Components

Producers are things such as
plants that are fed but do
not eat other producers or
organisms.
Consumers are organisms
(including us humans) that get
their energy from producers,
regarding the flow of energy
through an ecosystem

A decomposer is an organism of
decay.
These are also called saprobes.
They break down the remains of
dead animals and plants, releasing
the substances that can be used by
other members of the ecosystem

• The non living ,physical and chemical
components of an ecosystem are called the
abiotic factors and include:
• Light
• Temperature,
• Water,
• Soil
• The atmosphere
• Climate –Light intensity, temperature range,
precipitation
What is Abiotic components?

What is
Eco
System?
• A dynamic complex
of plants, animals
and micro organisms
inhabiting a
particular area with
their non living
environment
interacting as a
functional unit

Sir Arthur George Tansley (15 August 1871 - 25 November 1955) was
an English botanist who was a pioneer in the science of ecology

• Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food
chain such as primary producers, herbivore,
primary carnivore, etc.
• Green plants form the first trophic level, the
producers.
• Herbivores form the second trophic level, while
carnivores form the third and even the fourth
trophic levels.
What is Trophic levels?

Biosphere
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
Organisms

• The feeding of one organism upon another in a
sequence of food transfers is known as a food
chain.
• Food chain is the chain of transfer of energy
from one organism to another.
• A simple food chain is like the following:
• Rose plant -- Mantis -- Snake -- hawk.
What is Food chain?

• In an ecosystem there are many
different food chains and many of
these are cross-linked to form a food
web.
• Ultimately all plants and animals in
an ecosystem are part of this complex
food web.
What is food web?

What is
photosynthesis?
• Photosynthesis is a
chemical process
through which
plants, some bacteria
and algae,
produce glucose and
oxygen from carbon
dioxide and water,
using only light as a
source of energy.
• It is the driving force
behind most of the
life on earth

What does the plant need
glucose (food) for?
• Just like humans and other living
things, plants also need this food for
many things.
• Glucose resulting from photosynthesis
is used during respiration to release
energy that the plant needs for other
life processes.
• Glucose is also needed to make other
chemicals such as proteins, fats and
plant sugars that are all need for the
plant to carry out essential growth and
other life processes.

What is
Photosynthesis?
• Conversion by plants of light
energy into chemical energy,
which is then used to support the
plants' biological processes is
called photosynthesis.

What is
Respiration ?
• The process by which oxygen is
taken in and used by tissues in
the body and carbon dioxide is
released.
• The energy producing process
of breathing, by which an
organism supplies its cells with
oxygen and relieves itself of
carbon dioxide.

CARBON
CYCLE
NITROGEN
CYCLE
WATER
CYCLE

• The cyclic transformation of chemicals through
interacting biological, geological and chemical
processes.
• Natural processes that recycle nutrients in
various chemical forms from the environment,
to organisms, and then back to the environment
• Ex: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
hydrologic cycles.
What is Biogeochemical cycle?

The biogeochemical cycles
of all elements used by life
have both an organic and
an inorganic phase.
This cycling involves the
decomposition of organic
matter back into inorganic
nutrients

What do you know about CARBON?

What is
Carbon
Cycle?
• The process by which carbon is
taken up by plants and animals
and returned to the environment
in a continuous cycle.
• The carbon cycle is the
circulation and transformation
of carbon back and forth
between living things and the
environment.

• Carbon is present throughout the
natural environment in a fixed
amount. It takes many forms and
moves through the environment
via the carbon cycle.

Importance
of Carbon
• Carbon compounds are present in
living things like plants and animals
and in nonliving things like rocks and
soil.
• Carbon compounds can exist as
solids (such as diamonds or coal),
• liquids
• (such as crude oil), or gases (such
as carbon dioxide).
• Carbon is often referred to as the
"building block of life" because living
things are based on carbon and
carbon compounds.

Carbon is stored on our planet in the following
major sinks
1. As organic molecules in living and dead
organisms found in the biosphere;
2. As the gas carbon dioxide in the atmosphere;
3. As organic matter in soils;
4. In the lithosphere as fossil fuels and
sedimentary rock deposits such as limestone,
5. In the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon
dioxide and as calcium carbonate shells in
marine organisms.

What is
Nitrogen
Cycle ?
• The nitrogen cycle describes
how nitrogen moves between
plants, animals, bacteria, the
atmosphere (the air), and soil
in the ground. Nitrogen is an
important element to all life
on Earth.

Definition
-Nitrogen
cycle
• A process in which atmospheric
nitrogen enters the soil and becomes
part of living organisms, and then
returns to the atmosphere.
• Cyclic movement of nitrogen in
different chemical forms from the
environment, to organisms, and then
back to the environment.

Facts
about
Nitrogen
• Around 78% of the atmosphere is
nitrogen. However, this is mostly not
usable by animals and plants.
• Nitrogen is used in fertilizer to help
plants grow faster.
• Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas.
Too much of it can also cause acid
rain.
• Nitrogen has no color, odor, or taste.
• It is used in many explosives.
• About 3% of your body weight is
nitrogen.

Storage
of
Nitrogen
• Earth's atmosphere is approximately
78-80% nitrogen making it the largest
pool of nitrogen.
• Most plants can only take up nitrogen
in two solid forms: ammonium ion
and the nitrate ion .
• Most plants obtain the nitrogen they
need as inorganic nitrate from the soil
solution.
• Animals receive the required nitrogen
they need for metabolism, growth, and
reproduction

Nitrate
Nitrogen dioxide
Ammonium Nitrate
Nitrogen

Why is nitrogen important to
life?
Plants and animals could not live without
nitrogen.
It is an important part of many cells and
processes such as amino acids, proteins,
and even our DNA.
It is also needed to make chlorophyll in
plants, which plants use in photosynthesis
to make their food and energy.

What is
Biomass?
• Biomass, in ecology, is the TOTAL
WEIGHT of living biological
organisms in a given area or
ecosystem at a given time.

Pyramid
of
biomass
• Pyramid of biomass is the graphic
representation of biomass present per
unit area of different trophic levels,
with producers at the base and top
carnivores at the tip".
• The total amount of living or organic
matter in an ecosystem at any time is
called 'Biomass'.

What is
Biodiversity?
• Biodiversity is the degree of variation
of life forms within a
given ecosystem, biome, of an entire
planet. Biodiversity is a measure of
the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity
is in part a function of climate.

Countries with Largest Area of Forest

World Top Ten Countries With Most Forest Area
Country (SQ MILES)
Russia 3,287,243
Brazil 2,100,359
Canada 944,294
USA 872,564
China 631,200
Australia 596,678
Dem. Rep. of Congo 522,037
Indonesia 405,353
Angola 405,353
Peru 251,796

What is hybrid
plant?
• A hybrid plant is a plant that
crosses two genetically different
plants.
• For example, if you genetically
alter plant A and plant B so that
their genes mix together, you
would create seeds in the fruit of
the plants which will create plant
C.

ADVANTAGES
OF HYBRID
PLANTS
• ADVANTAGES ARE AS
FOLLOWS:
1)More nutritious produce.
2)Cheaper to grow.
3)Larger flowers, fruits or
vegetables.
4)More adapted to new
conditions

What is Gene?
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism.

What is GENETIC
ENGINEERING?
Genetic engineering is the process of altering the
genetic composition of an organism by modifying its
own genes or introducing genes from different speices.
It involves the transfer of genes from one organism to
an unrelated species.

• Genetic engineering examples include taking the gene
that programs poison in the tail of a scorpion, and
combining it with a cabbage.
• These genetically modified cabbages kill caterpillars
because they have learned to grow scorpion poison
(insecticide) in their sap
EXAMPLE

What is
Genetically
modified
foods?
1. Genetically modified foods (GM
foods or GMO foods) are foods
derived from genetically modified
organisms (GMOs).
2. Genetically modified organisms have
had specific changes introduced into
their DNA by genetic
engineering techniques.

Advantages
of GM
CROPS
1. Pest resistant Crops
2. Less pesticide is needed to be used
due to insect pest resistant plants.
3. Decrease in costs of growing and
farming, due to the reduced use of
pesticides.
4. Higher crop yields.
5. More nutritious. This has been proven
and tested many times.
6. Enhancement of the taste of food.
7. Enhancement of the quality of food.

What is
Deforestation?
• Deforestation is the removal of a
forest or stand of trees where the land
is thereafter converted to a non forest
use.
• Deforestation is when humans remove
or clear large areas of forest lands and
related ecosystems for non-forest use.
These include clearing for farming
purposes, ranching and urban use. In
these cases, trees are never re-planted.

Why do
humans
clear
forest
lands?
• To be used, sold or exported as
timber, wood or fuel (charcoal). This
is called logging.
• To be used for farming purposes
(grazing fields for livestock, or large
scale farming activities)
• To make room for human settlement
and urbanization (these include
making space for shelter, industries
and roads)
• To make room for mining.

• Deforestation leads to all of
these but
• Global warming
• Climatic changes
• Biodiversity extinction
• Lack of oxygen
• Drought
• None of the above

1. Support habitats with high biodiversity
2. Contain useful food resources and raw
materials
3. Improve soil structure
4. Prevent soil erosion
5. Important for water cycle
Why are forest worth saving?

What is
Wetland?
• A wetland is an area of ground that
is saturated with water either
permanently or seasonally.
• The water found in wetlands can
be saltwater, freshwater, or brackish.
• Wetlands include swamps, marshes,
and bogs, among others

Why are
wetlands
worth
saving?
1. Wetlands play an essential part in
the regulation of river flow, they
filter pollutants and fertilizers,
2. They also provide a habitat for
plants, insects and birds
3. Wetlands which are vital to the
balance of rivers and crucial for the
diversity of animal

Largest wetland in
the world
• Pantanal
• It sprawls over an
area estimated at
between 140,000 and
195,000 square
kilometres (54,000
and 75,000 sq mi)

What is a
biosphere
reserve?
• Biosphere reserves are areas of
terrestrial and coastal ecosystems
promoting solutions to reconcile the
conservation of biodiversity with its
sustainable use.

What are the
functions of
biosphere
reserves?
1. A conservation function
2. A development function
3. A logistic function
4. Information exchange
related to local, national and
global issues of conservation
and development.

What arethe
functions of
biosphere
reserves?
1. A conservation function - to
contribute to the conservation of
landscapes, ecosystems, species and
genetic variation;
2. A development function - to foster
economic and human development
which is socioculturally and
ecologically sustainable;
3. A logistic function - to provide
support for research, monitoring
and education
4. Information exchange related to
local, national and global issues of
conservation and development.

• What are the biosphere
reserve zones?
• Biosphere reserves are
organized into 3
interrelated zones:
1. the core area
2. the buffer zone
3. the transition area

CORE
ZONE
• Core area: includes protected areas,
as they act as reference points on the
natural state of the ecosystems
represented by the biosphere
reserves.
• No human activity is allowed in this
zone. Comprises of legally protected
ecosystem.

Buffer
Zone
• The buffer zone might be an area for
experimental research, or may
involve ways to manage natural
vegetation, agricultural land, forests,
fisheries or ranch land to enhance
overall quality of production
• Limited human activity is permitted
in the buffer zone

Transition
Zone
• Transition Zone, or Area of
Cooperation: the large outer area of
a reserve where people live and
work, using the natural resources of
the area in a sustainable manner.
• Several human activities can occur in
the manipulation zone.
• Example: Settlements, cropping,
forestry, recreation etc.

Role of
biosphere
reserves
• A biosphere reserve preserves
• a) wild population
• b) life style of tribals
• c) genetic resources of
domesticated plants and
animals.
• It helps in
• 1) conservation
• 2) promotes economic
development
• 3) Scientific research,
monitoring and education.

What are
the benefits
of biosphere
reserves?
1. The biosphere reserve concept
can be used as a framework to
guide and reinforce projects to
enhance people's livelihoods
and ensure environmental
sustainability.
2. UNESCO’s recognition can
serve to highlight and reward
such individual efforts.
3. The designation of a site as a
biosphere reserve can raise
awareness among local
people, citizens and
government authorities on
environmental and
development issues

• Who is in charge?
• UNESCO does not require any
change in law or ownership:
each biosphere reserve has its
own system of governance to
ensure it meets its functions and
objectives.

What is
NATIONAL
PARK?
• A tract of land declared public
property by a national
government with a view to its
preservation and development
for purposes of recreation and
culture

IMPORTANCE OF
NATIONAL PARKS
1. National parks preserve
habitats for a wide range of
native plants and wildlife.
2. Parks maintain biodiversity
and protect endangered
species.
3. They provide people with
opportunities to learn about
natural flora and fauna as well
as to explore and admire the
beauty of diverse
environments.

Ecotourism
• Ecotourism is a form
of tourism involving visiting
fragile, pristine, and usually
protected areas, intended as a
low impact and often small scale
alternative to standard
commercial tourism

IMPORTANCE OF
ECOTOURSIM
1. Builds environmental
awareness
2. Provides direct financial
benefits for conservation
3. Provides financial benefits and
empowerment for local people
4. Respects local culture
5. Supports human rights and
democratic movements.

Advantages
1. Ecotourism is an industry that
stands to make a lot of money
from tourists that are seeking
environmentally friendly
vacations or ecologically
friendly activities.
2. The money from ecotourism
could be used to preserve
nature, wildlife, species and
earth's natural resources as
well as help local people with
access to civilization and
education.

What is
Biome?
 A regional ecosystem characterized by
distinct types of vegetation, animals,
and microbes that have developed
under specific soil and climatic
conditions.

CLASSIFICATION
OF BIOMES
A fundamental classification of biomes is into:
• Terrestrial (land) biomes
• Freshwater biomes
• Marine biomes

Terrestrial (land) biomes
Freshwater biomes
Marine biomes

What is
tropical
rainforest
?
 A tropical rainforest is an ecosystem
usually found around the equator,
 They are common in Asia, Australia,
Africa, South America, Central
America, Mexico and on many of the
Pacific Islands.

DISTRIBUTION
 The tropical forests are restricted to the
small land area between the latitudes
22.5° North and 22.5° South of the
equator, or in other words between the
Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of
Cancer.
 Since the majority of Earth's land is
located north of the tropics, rainforests
are naturally limited to a relatively
small area.

Major
Tropical
rain
Forest
Area
CENTRAL AMERICA
THE AMAZON
AFRICA
SOUTHERN ASIA
AUSTRALASIA

THE
AMAZON
 The Amazon is the world's largest and
most famous rainforest.
 The Amazon is home to more species
of plants and animals than any other
ecosystem on the planet and perhaps
30% of the world's species are found
there.
 American rainforests are most
threatened today with large-scale
agriculture (especially soybeans),
clearing for cattle pasture, subsistence
agriculture by poor farmers, and
logging.

AFRICA
 Central Africa holds the world's second
largest rainforest.
 To the south east, the large island of
Madagascar was once intensively forested,
but now much of it is gone.
 Africa contains areas of high cloud forest,
mangrove swamps and flooded forests.
 The island of Madagascar is home to many
unique plants and animals not found
anywhere else.

What is Habitat
Conservation?
• Habitat conservation is a land
management practice that seeks
to conserve, protect and
restore habitat areas for
wild plants and animals,
especially conservation reliant
species, and prevent
their extinction, fragmentation o
r reduction in range.

UNEP
• The United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) is an
international organization that
coordinates United
Nations environmental activities,
assisting developing countries in
implementing environmentally sound
policies and practices.

FUNCTION
OF UNEP
• UNEP's mission is to provide
leadership and encourage partnerships
in caring for the environment by
inspiring, informing and enabling
nations and people to improve their
quality of life without compromising
that of future generations.

WWF
• The World Wide Fund for
Nature (WWF) is
an international non-governmental
organization working on issues
regarding
the conservation, research and restorati
on of the environment, formerly named
the World Wildlife Fund.

FUNCTION
OF WWF
• The WWF performs many functions
in the preservation and protection of
the environment and animal species.

IUCN
• IUCN( International Union for
Conservation of Nature) is the world’s
oldest and largest global environmental
network - a democratic membership
union with more than 1,000
government and NGO member
organizations, and almost 11,000
volunteer scientists in more than 160
countries.

CITES
• CITES (the Convention on
International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora, also known
as the Washington
Convention) is a multilateral
treaty, drafted as a result of a
resolution adopted in 1963 at a
meeting of members of
the International Union for
Conservation of
Nature (IUCN).

Function
of CITES
• CITES works by subjecting
international trade in specimens of
listed species to certain controls.
These require that all import, export,
re-export and introduction from the
sea of species covered by the
Convention has to be authorized
through a permitting system.

What is
Soil
Erosion?
• Soil erosion is when the soil is blown
away by the wind or washed away by
the rain.
• Soil erosion is common in areas with
steep slopes, where trees have been cut
down, in droughts when crops and
other vegetation grows poorly and in
rural areas which are overpopulated.

Causes of
Soil
Erosion
• Land use: Humans play a major role
in soil erosion through their use and
abuse of natural resources.
• for example deforestation, grazing,
arable land use, faulty farming
systems, high crop intensity, housing
construction, mining etc.

River eroding volcanic ash flow Alaska Southwest,

Climate:
The two most important climatic
factors having a direct effect on
erosion are precipitation and wind
velocity.
For erosion control it is necessary
to investigate physical
characteristics of rainfall, including
the amount, distribution, intensity,
energy load, seasonality and
variability of rainfall and the
formation and course of surface
runoff.

What is
DESERTIFICATION?
Desertification is
the degradation of land in
any dry lands.
Caused by a variety of factors,
such as climate change and
human activities,
desertification is one of the
most significant
global environmental problems

A herd of goats in Norte Chico, Chile. Overgrazing of dry
lands is one of the primary causes of desertification.

A shepherd guiding his sheep through the high desert
outside of Morocco.

Causes of
Desertification
1. Dry land ecosystems are already
very fragile, and can rarely sustain
the increased pressures that result
from intense population growth.
2. The most common cause of
desertification is the over
cultivation of desert lands.
3. Over-cultivation causes the
nutrients in the soil to be depleted
faster than they are restored.
Improper irrigation practices result
in salinated soils, and depletion of
aquifers

What is HUMAN POPULATION?
• The total number of persons inhabiting a
country, city, or any district or area.

What is
CRUDE
BIRTH
RATE?
• Crude birth rate is deﬁned as the
number of live births per thousand
people in a population.
• This is a common measure of fertility
for a given population.

CRUDE
DEATH
RATE
• Crude death rate is the number of
deaths per thousand people in a
population.
• This indicator is significantly affected
by age distribution, and most countries
will eventually show a rise in the
overall death rate, in spite of continued
decline in mortality at all ages, as
declining fertility results in an aging
population.

• A population pyramid, also called an age
structure diagram, is a graphical illustration
that shows the distribution of various age
groups in a population which forms the shape
of a pyramid when the population is growing.
What is Population Pyramid?

Population Pyramids
• Graphic device: bar
graph
• Shows the age and
gender composition of a
region
• Horizontal axis: gender
– male: left-hand female:
right-hand
– absolute number of
people or %
• Vertical axis: age
– 5-year or 10-year age
groups

Demographer usually plot % or # of male
and females in the total population in
each of three categories:
1. Pre-reproductive (0-14)
2. Reproductive (15-44)
3. Post-reproductive (45 and up)
Male Female
Ages 0-14 Ages 15-44 Ages 45-85+

Male Female
Rapid Growth
Guatemala
Nigeria
Saudi Arabia
Ages 0-14 Ages 15-44 Ages 45-85+
Slow Growth
United States
Australia
Canada
Male Female

Zero Growth
Spain
Austria
Greece
Male Female
Negative Growth
Germany
Bulgaria
Sweden
Male Female
Ages 0-14 Ages 15-44 Ages 45-85+

300 200 100 0 100 200 300
85+
80-85
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
Male Female
Population (millions)
Age
Developed Countries

• The "Demographic Transition" is a model that
describes population change over time.
• The demographic transition model (DTM) is
the transition from high birth and death rates to
low birth and death rates as a country develops
from a pre-industrial to an
industrialized economic system.
What is Demographic Transition?

Demographic
Transition in
LEDC &
MEDC
• When a country is an LEDC, it tends
to have higher birth rates and higher
death rates.
• When a country becomes an MEDC, it
tends to have lower birth rates and
lower death rates.
• It suggests that death rates fall
before birth rates and that the total
population expands

Stage 1 - High Fluctuating
Stage 2 - Early Expanding
Stage 3 - Late Expanding
Stage 4 - Low Fluctuating
Stage 5- Only Possible in some countries
FIVE STAGES IN DTM

Birth Rate is high as a result
of:
1. Lack of family planning
2. Need for workers in
agriculture
3. Religious beliefs
Death Rate is high
because of:
1. High levels of disease
2. Famine
3. Lack of health care
4. War
5. Lack of education
Stage One-DTM
Both high birth rates and death rates fluctuate in the first stage of the
population model giving a small population growth. There are many
reasons for this:
Typical of Britain in the 18th century and the Least
Economically Developed Countries

• Birth Rate remains high. Death Rate is falling.
Population begins to rise steadily.
• Reasons
Death Rate is falling as a result of:
1. Improved health care (e.g. Smallpox Vaccine)
2. Improved Hygiene (Water for drinking boiled)
3. Improved sanitation
4. Improved food production and storage
• Typical of Britain in 19th century; Bangladesh;
Nigeria
STAGE TWO-DTM

Birth Rate starts to fall. Death Rate continues to
fall slowly. Population rising.
Reasons:
1. Family planning available
2. Lower Infant Mortality Rate
3. Increased standard of living
4. Changing status of women
• Typical of Britain in late 19th and early 20th
century; China; Brazil
STAGE THREE-DTM

• Both birth rates and death rates remain
low, fluctuating with 'baby booms' and
epidemics of illnesses and disease. This
results in a steady population.
Typical of USA; Sweden; Japan; Britain
STAGE FOUR-DTM

• A stage 5 was not originally thought of as part
of the DTM, but some northern countries are
now reaching the stage where total population
is declining where birth rates have dropped
below death rates.
• One such country is Germany, which has
taken in foreign workers to fill jobs.
STAGE FIVE-DTM

What is Human
migration ?
• Human migration is physical
movement by humans from
one area to another, sometimes
over long distances or in large
groups

Different
types of
migration
include:
1) Seasonal human migration mainly
related to agriculture and tourism to
urban places
2) Rural to urban, more common in
developing countries as
industrialization takes effect
(urbanization)
3) Urban to rural, more common in
developed countries due to a higher
cost of urban living (suburbanization)
4) International migration

In general we can divide
factors causing migrations
into two groups of
factors: Push and pull
factors.
• In rural areas
• PUSH FACTORS
1. Not enough jobs
2. Few opportunities
3. Famine/drought
4. Poor medical care
5. Loss of wealth
6. Natural Disasters
7. Death threats
8. Pollution
9. Poor housing

IN URBAN
AREAS—PULL
FACTORS
1. Job opportunities
2. Better living conditions
3. Political and/or religious
freedom
4. Enjoyment
5. Education
6. Better medical care
7. Security
8. Family links
9. Industry
10. Better chances of finding
courtship

K.GURU
CHARAN
KUMAR
295
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