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Similar to introduction to human skeleton and Osteology of the lower limb
introduction to human skeleton and Osteology of the lower limb
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- 2. introduction Bones and teethare the durable remains of a once-living body. skeleton is permeated with nerves and blood vessels. contains clues to our personal story e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, height, health and nutrition status. ASWANI CLEVIN
- 3. 206 bones ofthe human skeleton. divided into : axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper limb and pectoral girdle, and bones of the lower limb and pelvic girdle. ASWANI CLEVIN
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- 5. Axial = 80bones Skull (cephalic region) = 22 bones Vertebral column = 26 bones Ribs and Sternum= 25 bones Auditory ossicles and Hyoid Skull Vertebrae Ribs and Sternum Auditory ossicles Hyoid Cranial = 8 Frontal (1) Occipital (1) Ethmoid (1) Sphenoid (1) Parietal (2) Temporal (2) Facial = 14 Vomer (1) Mandible (1) Maxillae (2) Zygomatic (2) Nasal (2) Nasal Concha(2) Lacrimal (2) Palatine (2) Cervical (7) Thoracic (12) Lumbar (5) Sacrum (1) Coccyx (1) 12 pairs of ribs 1 sternum Auditory ossicles (6) Malleus (2) Incus (2) Stapes (2) Hyoid (1) Appendicular = 126 Upper = 64 Lower = 62 Upper = 64 •Pectoral Girdle • Arms and Legs Lower = 62 • Pelvic girdle • Legs and feet Pectoral girdle Scapula (2) Clavicle (2) Arms and hands Humerus (2) Ulna (2) Radius (2) Carpals (16) Metacarpals (10) Phalanges (28) Pelvic girdle • Coxal (2) Legs and feet • Femur (2) Patella (2) Tibia (2) Fibula (2) Tarsals (14) Metatarsals (10) Phalanges (28) Total of 206 bones of the human
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- 7. Importance of skeletalanatomy 1. provides point of reference for studying the gross anatomy of other organ systems because many organs are named for their relationships to nearby bones. 2. understanding of how the muscles produce body movements. 3. can serve as landmarks for a health worker in determining: where to give an injection or record a pulse, what to look for in an X-ray how to perform physical therapy and other medical procedures ASWANI CLEVIN
- 8. Functions of theSkeleton ● Support. ● Movement. ● Protection. Blood cell formation and energy storage. ● Electrolyte balance /Mineral storage. reservoir of calcium and phosphate. ● Acid–base balance. Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes ● Detoxification. absorbs heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood ASWANI CLEVIN
- 9. Bones and OsseousTissue Bone is a connective tissue in which the matrix is hardened by the deposition of calcium phosphate and other minerals in a process called mineralization or calcification. consists of cells separated by an extracellular matrix. bone has both organic and inorganic components. a) organic components:- cells, fibers, and ground substance. b) inorganic components :- mineral salts that invade the bony matrix. contains a small amount of tissue fluid. ASWANI CLEVIN
- 10. types of cellsin bone tissue They include:- I. Osteogenic cells are stem cells that differentiate into bone-forming osteoblasts. II. Osteoblasts are cells that actively produce and secrete the organic components of the bone matrix(osteoid).. III. Osteocytes Are osteoblasts which completely surrounded by bone matrix and are no longer producing new osteoid. ASWANI CLEVIN
- 11. Bones classification Accordingto shape:- ASWANI CLEVIN
- 12. Anatomical Features ofBones(bone markings) ASWANI CLEVIN
- 13. Term Description andExample Canal A tubular passage or tunnel in a bone (auditory canal of the skull) Condyle A rounded knob (occipital condyles of the skull) Crest A narrow ridge (iliac crest of the pelvis) Epicondyle A flare superior to a condyle (medial epicondyle of the femur) Facet A smooth joint surface that is flat or only slightly concave or convex (articular facets of the vertebrae) Fissure A slit through a bone (orbital fissures behind the eye) foramen A hole through a bone, usually round (foramen magnum of the skull) Fossa A shallow, broad, or elongated basin (infraspinous fossa of the scapula) Line (linea) A raised, elongated ridge (nuchal lines of the skull) meatus A canal (external acoustic meatus of the temporal bone) process Any bony prominence (mastoid process of the skull) Protuberance A bony outgrowth or protruding part (mental protuberance of the chin) Sinus A cavity within a bone (frontal sinus of the skull) Spine A sharp, slender, or narrow process (spine of the scapula) Sulcus A groove for a tendon, nerve, or blood vessel (intertubercular sulcus of the humerus) Tubercle A small, rounded process (greater tubercle of the humerus) ASWANI CLEVIN
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- 16. ASWANI CLEVIN objectives A. identifyand describe the features of the pelvic girdle, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, and bones of the foot B. compare the anatomy of the male and female pelvic girdles C. explain the functional significance of the differences between the male and female pelvis.
- 17. PELVIC GIRDLE •consist of2 hip (coxal) bones •supports the trunk on the lower limbs ASWANI CLEVIN
- 18. • hip boneshave three distinctive features that serve as landmarks:. - iliac crest (superior crest of the hip) - acetabulum (hip); - obturator foramen. • formed by fusion of three bones called ilium, Ischium & pubis ASWANI CLEVIN
- 19. The ilium • large,flaring bone that forms the superior region of the hip bone. • consists of an inferior body and superior wing like ala. • thickened superior margin of the ala is iliac crest. • Each iliac crest ends: a) anteriorly in a blunt anterior superior iliac spine(ASIS) b) posteriorly in a sharp posterior superior iliac spine. ASWANI CLEVIN
- 20. ASWANI CLEVIN • Locatedinferior to these superior iliac spines are the anterior and posterior inferior iliac spines. • Posteriorly, just inferior to the posterior inferior iliac spine, it forms greater sciatic notch. • broad postero-lateral (gluteal) surface is crossed by three ridges/gluteal lines: posterior, anterior & inferior.
- 21. ASWANI CLEVIN • internalsurface of iliac ala is concave called iliac fossa. • Posterior to this fossa lies a roughened auricular surface, which articulates with sacrum, forming sacroiliac joint. • Running anteriorly and inferiorly from the auricular surface is a robust ridge called the arcuate line which helps define the superior boundary of the true pelvis.
- 22. The ischium • formsthe infero-posterior portion of the hip bone. • ramus of ischium joins inferior ramus of pubis anteriorly. • thicker superior body and thinner inferior ramus. • prominent triangular ischial spine lies posterior to the acetabulum and projects medially. attachment point for sacrospinous ligament from the sacrum and coccyx ASWANI CLEVIN
- 23. ASWANI CLEVIN • inferiorto the ischial spine is the lesser sciatic notch, • inferior surface of ischial body is ischial tuberosity (rough and thickened). an area of attachment of hamstring muscles • A massive sacrotuberous ligament runs from the sacrum to each ischial tuberosity holding the pelvis together.
- 24. The pubis • formsanterior region of hip bone. • lies horizontally, and bladder rests upon it. • Inverted V-shaped pubic arch/subpubic angle formed with superior and inferior rami extending from a flat body laterally. • inferior ramus joins to ischial ramus, superior ramus joins with bodies of ischium and ilium. • lateral end of the pubic crest is pubic tubercle, attachment point for inguinal ligament.
- 25. • pectineal linethin ridge lying along the superior pubic ramus, forms anterior portion of the pelvic brim. • body lies medially, and its anterior border is thickened to form a pubic crest. • obturator foramen occurs between the pubis and ischium • bodies of two pubic bones are joined In the midline by a fibrocartilage inter- pubic disc forming pubic symphysis joint.
- 26. ASWANI CLEVIN Male andFemale Pelvic Structure •major differences between typical male and female pelvis are consistent hence can determine the sex of a skeleton with 90% certainty by examining the pelvis. •female pelvis is adapted for childbearing • It tends to be wider, shallower, and lighter than that of a male providing more room in the true pelvis, which must be wide enough for an infant’s head to pass during birth.
- 27. ASWANI CLEVIN Comparison ofthe Male and Female Pelvis Feature Male Female General appearance More massive; rougher; heavier processes Less massive; smoother; more delicate processes Pelvic inlet Heart-shaped Round or oval Pelvic outlet Smaller Larger Pubic symphysis Taller Shorter Greater sciatic notch Narrower Wider Body of pubis More triangular More rectangular Obturator foramen Rounder More oval to triangular Acetabulum Larger, faces more laterally Smaller, faces slightly anteriorly Sacrum Narrower and deeper Wider and shallower Coccyx Less movable; more vertical More movable; tilted posteriorly Subpubic angle Wider Narrower, usually 90° or less usually greater than 100° Tilt Upper end of pelvis relatively vertical Upper end of pelvis tilted forward Depth of greater pelvis Deeper; ilium projects farther above sacroiliac joint Shallower; ilium does not project as far above sacroiliac joint Width of greater pelvis Hips less flared; anterior superior spines closer together Hips more flared; anterior superior spines farther apart
- 29. LOWER LIMB • numberand arrangement is similar to upper limb. • adapted for weight bearing and locomotion and are therefore shaped and articulated differently. • divided into four regions with 30 bones per limb: 1. femoral region/thigh. 2. crural region/leg proper. 3. tarsal region/ankle. 4. pedal region /foot .
- 30. Femur • longest andstrongest bone of the body, measuring about one-quarter of one’s height. • hemispherical head that articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvis forming ball-and-socket joint. • ligament extends from the acetabulum to fovea capitis in the head of the femur. • Distal to the head is a constricted neck, common site of femoral fractures). • beyond the neck are the greater and lesser trochanters (insertions for the powerful muscles of hip). ASWANI CLEVIN
- 31. ASWANI CLEVIN • trochantersare connected • posterior side by a thick oblique ridge of bone intertrochanteric crest • anterior side by a more delicate intertrochanteric line. • linea aspera posterior ridge on the shaft and at its upper end it forks into a medial spiral line and a lateral gluteal tuberosity. • At distal end, it forks into medial and lateral supracondylar lines, which continue down to medial and lateral epicondyles. • Distal to epicondyles are two smooth round surfaces medial and lateral condyles, intercondylar fossa.
- 32. • anterior side,a smooth medial depression called patellar surface articulates with the patella while on posterior side is a flat or slightly depressed area called popliteal surface. • We lock our knees when standing, allowing us to maintain an erect posture with little muscular effort. ASWANI CLEVIN
- 33. Patella • roughly triangularsesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of the knee. • It is cartilaginous at birth and ossifies at 3 to 6 years of age. • It has; a broad superior base, a pointed inferior apex, pair of shallow articular facets on its posterior surface and lateral facet is usually larger than the medial. ASWANI CLEVIN
- 34. ASWANI CLEVIN THE LEG •two bones thick strong tibia (medial) & slender fibula (lateral). • articulate both proximally & distally. • interosseous membrane connects the tibia and fibula along their entire length. • tibia articulates with the femur to form knee joint, and with talus bone at ankle joint. • fibula, does not contribute to the knee joint and
- 35. ASWANI CLEVIN Tibia • onlyweight-bearing bone of the crural region. • Its broad superior head has two fairly flat articular surfaces, the medial and lateral condyles, separated by a ridge called the intercondylar eminence. • The condyles of the tibia articulate with those of the femur.
- 36. • tibial tuberosity;rough anterior surface of the tibia palpated just below the patella. • Distal to this, the shaft has a sharply angular anterior border, which can be palpated in the shin region. • medial malleolus is part of the tibia, and the lateral malleolus is part of the fibula.
- 37. Fibula • slender lateralhelps to stabilize the ankle. • does not bear any of body’s weight; • thicker and broader at its proximal end, the head, than at the distal end. • point of the head is the apex. • distal expansion is lateral malleolus. • joined by shorter ligaments at the superior and inferior ends where the head and apex contact the tibia.
- 38. THE ANKLE ANDFOOT • skeleton of foot includes; tarsus, metatarsus & phalanges bones. • Functions of foot: supports the weight of the body, acts as a lever to propel the body forward during walking or running.
- 39. ASWANI CLEVIN Tarsus • makesup the posterior half of the foot and contains seven bones called tarsals • The weight of the body is carried primarily by the two largest, most posterior tarsal bones: 1. talus ( “ankle”), which articulates with the tibia and fibula superiorly, • The tibia articulates with the talus at the trochlea of the talus. • Inferiorly, the talus articulates with the calcaneus 2. strong calcaneus (“heel bone”), which forms the heel of the foot. • The thick tendon of the calf muscles attaches to the posterior surface of the calcaneus. • The part of the calcaneus that touches the ground is the calcaneal tuberosity, • the medial, shelfl ike projection is the sustentaculum tali or talar shelf. 3. lateral cuboid 4. medial navicular 5. cuneiforms
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- 41. ASWANI CLEVIN Metatarsus • consistsof five small long bones called metatarsals numbered 1 to 5 beginning on the medial side of the foot . • first metatarsal at the base of the big toe is the largest, and it plays an important role in supporting the weight of the body. • metatarsals are more nearly parallel to one another than are the metacarpals in the palm.
- 42. Phalanges of theToes • 14 phalanges of the toes are smaller than those of fingers. • general structure and arrangement are the same: • three phalanges in each digit except the great toe which has only two phalanges. • are named proximal, middle, and distal phalanges.
- 43. ASWANI CLEVIN Arches ofthe Foot • The foot has three arches: medial longitudinal arches lateral longitudinal arches transverse arch. • These arches are maintained by: interlocking shapes of the foot bones strong ligaments, pull of some tendons during muscle activity; ligaments and tendons also provide resilience.
- 44. ASWANI CLEVIN • mediallongitudinal arch curves well above the ground. • The talus, near the talonavicular joint, is the keystone of this arch, which originates at the calcaneus, rises to the talus, and then descends to the three medial metatarsals. • lateral longitudinal arch is very low. • It elevates the lateral edge of the foot just enough to redistribute some of the body weight to the calcaneus and some to the head of the fifth metatarsal. • The cuboid bone is the keystone of this lateral arch. • The two longitudinal arches serve as pillars for the transverse arch, • transverse arch runs obliquely from one side of the foot to the other following the line of the joints between the tarsals and metatarsals.
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Editor's Notes
- #2 Clues to these details can be understood only by using knowledge of the structure and growth of bone tissue.
- #10 Osteocytes function to keep the bone matrix healthy. if osteocytes die or are destroyed, the bone matrix is resorbed.
- #11 Long bones.Are considerably longer than they are wide. long bone has a shaft plus two distinct ends. Most bones in the limbs are long bones. 2. Flat bones.thin, flattened, and curved. E.g. cranial bones, ribs, sternum, and scapula. 3. Short bones. roughly cube-shaped e.g. wrist and the ankle. Sesamoid bones short bone that forms within a tendon e.g. kneecap, or patella. 4. Irregular bones. have various shapes that do not fit into the previous categories. E.g. vertebrae and hip bones.
- #12 Bones exhibit a variety of ridges, spines, bumps, depressions, canals, pores, slits, cavities, and articular surfaces, often called bone markings. descriptions of joints, muscle attachments and the routes traveled by nerves and blood vessels are based on this terminology.
- #17 The hip bones are also frequently called the ossa coxae or innominate bones(“the bones with no name”). The opening circumscribed by the brim is called the pelvic inlet which is an entry into the lesser pelvis through which an infant’s head passes during birth. The lower margin of the lesser pelvis is called the pelvic outlet.
- #19 Many muscles attach to this crest, which is thickest at the tubercle of the iliac crest.
- #20 sciatic nerve, passes through notch to enter posterior thigh. These lines define the attachment sites of the gluteal (buttocks) muscles.
- #21 The weight of the body is transmitted from the vertebral column to the pelvis through sacroiliac joint. .
- #23 lesser sciatic notch through which nerves and vessels pass to serve the perineum. When you sit, your weight is borne entirely by the ischial tuberosities, which are the strongest parts of the hip bone and can be palpated by sitting on your fingers.
- #24 The angle of pubic arch helps to distinguish the male pelvis from the female pelvis.
- #25 Although a few vessels and nerves do pass through it, the obturator foramen is almost completely closed by a fibrous membrane, the obturator membrane The pubis is sometimes fractured when the pelvis is subjected to violent antero-posterior compression, as in seat-belt injuries.
- #29 The patella (kneecap) is a sesamoid bone at the junction of the femoral and crural regions. The tarsal bones are treated as part of the foot.
- #31 The gluteal tuberosity is a rough ridge (sometimes a depression) that serves for attachment of the gluteus maximus muscle. Epicondyles Are the widest points of the femur at the knee. These and the supracondylar lines are attachments for certain thigh and leg muscles and knee ligaments.
- #32 the femurs are angle medially from the hip to the knee. This places our knees closer together, beneath the body’s center of gravity. Apes cannot do this, and they cannot stand on two legs for very long without tiring as much as you would if you tried to maintain an erect posture with your knees slightly bent.
- #33 The quadriceps femoris tendon extends from the anterior quadriceps femoris muscle of the thigh to the patella, then continues as the patellar ligament from the patella to the tibia. Because of the way the quadriceps tendon loops over the patella, the patella modifies the direction of pull by the quadriceps muscle and improves its efficiency in extending the knee
- #34 However, unlike the joints between the radius and ulna of the forearm, the tibiofibular joints allow almost NO movement. Thus, the two leg bones do not cross one another when the leg rotates.
- #36 tibial tuberosity is where the patellar ligament inserts and the quadriceps muscle exerts its pull when it extends the leg.
- #37 sometimes it is removed and used to replace damaged or missing bone elsewhere in the body.
- #43 As a result, the arches “give” when weight is applied to the foot, then spring back when the weight is removed.
- #44 Together, the three arches form a half dome that distributes approximately half of a person’s standing and walking weight to the heel bones and half to the heads of the metatarsals. n/b various tendons run inferior to the foot bones and help support the arches of the foot. The muscles associated with these tendons are less active during standing than walking. Therefore, people who stand all day at their jobs may develop fallen arches, or “flat feet.” Running on hard surfaces can also cause arches to fall, unless one wears shoes that give proper arch support.