Journal 4 (2)

102
SCIENTISTS JOINED AS LIFE MEMBER OF SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN
202. Anuradha Ranjan Kumari, I/C Programme Co-ordinator, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Indian Institute of
Vegetable Research, Malahana, Post Office, Bankata Mishra, Deoria-274 506 (Uttar Pradesh)
203. Chandra Kumar Singh, Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy), Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Tawang-790 104 (Arunachal Pradesh)
204. Kanwaljit Singh Sandhu, Post Graduate Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College,
Amritsar-143 002 (Punjab)
205. Kaushal Arvindbhai Prajapati, Subject Matter Specialist (Animal Science),Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Kheda 387 411 ( Gujarat)
206. Laxmipriya Pradhan, Scientist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Keonjhar, Orissa University of Agriculture
and Technology, Bhubaneswar - 751 001 (Odisha)
207. Manoj Kumar Singh, Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, East Kameng
790 102 (Arunachal Pradesh)
208. Nilesh Biwalkar, Assistant Professor (Soil and Water Engineering), Department of Soil and Water
Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 001(Punjab)
209. Pankaj Prakash Patil, Scientist ( Plant Protection), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dhule-424 001
(Maharashtra)
210. Rakesh Thakur, Extension Specialist (Veterinary/Animal Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mandi
at Sundernagar-175 019 (Himachal Pradesh)
211. Sandeep Kumar, Subject Matter Specialist (Plant Protection) Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jaunpur,
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224 229
(Uttar Pradesh)
212. Soibam Peter Singh, Senior Research Fellow, ICAR- Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hayuliang 792 104
(Arunachal Pradesh)
213. Somendra Nath, Subject Matter Specialist (Agronomy) Krishi Vigyan Kendra,Jaunpur, Narendra
Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224 229 (Uttar Pradesh)
214. Tara Shankar Mishra, Subject Matter Specialist (Horticulture),Krishi Vigyan Kendra, West
Kameng-790 114 (Arunachal Pradesh)
215. Tarun Kumar Das, Subject Matter Specialist (Agricultural Extension) Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
ICAR, Tura, West Garo Hills, Meghalaya-794 104 ( Meghalaya)
216. Vikramsinh Ingale, Ph.D Scholar, Dept. of Agricultural Process Engineering, Mahatma Phule
Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri- 413 722 (Maharashtra)
217. Vipul Manohar Vasave, Scientist ( Animal Science and Dairy Science), Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Dhule-424 001 (Maharashtra)

1
INTRODUCTION
The major groundnut growing districts of
Tamil Nadu are Thiruvannamalai, Villupuram,
Vellore, Namakkal, Salem, Erode, Pudukottai and
Kancheepuram districts which constitute 64.9 per
cent of the area under groundnut in the state. In
district Pudukkottai about 23.4 percent of the gross
area sown is rain fed. Black soil, Red loamy, Sandy
coastal Alluvium and Red sandy soil are major
soil type in the district. The total annual rainfall
occurred was 633.1 mm during 2013-14 against the
normal rainfall of 887.4 mm for the district. The
annual precipitation is very low with 254.3 mm, out
of which 8.1 mm is received in winter, 135.7 mm in
hot weather, 286.5 mm in southwest monsoon and
202.8 mm in northeast monsoon.
Groundnut is mostly grown as kharif crop
and sulphur is considered as the fourth essential
Assessment of Sulphur Oxidising Bacterial Inoculums on
Groundnut Yield in Pudukkottai District of Tamil Nadu
Noorjehan A K A Hanif1
and V Krishnamoorthi2
ICAR Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Vamban colony, Pudukkottai -622 303 (Tamil Nadu)
ABSTRACT
An on farm research entitled “Assessment of Sulphur Oxidising Bacterial (SOB) inoculums on groundnut
yield” was conducted during 2014-2015 to improve the sulphur availability to groundnut which in turn
directly contribute to higher pod yield. The technologies compared in this study were farmer friendly and
cost effective. The field experiment was laid out in five replications at five locations with three treatments
in Aranthangi block of Pudukkottai district. The treatments were T1: Farmers’ Practice i.e. No application
of sulphur nutrition, T2: Gypsum application at flowering stage @ 400Kg/ ha and T3 : Seed treatment with
SulphurOxidisingbacterialinoculums@1kg/haandRhizobium@1kg/haandsoilapplicationofSOB@5kg/
ha on 45 DAS + Gypsum 400kg/ha. The results revealed that the treatment T3 recorded significantly higher
yield (2109.6 kg/ha) compared with T2 (2012.6 kg/ha) and T1 (1962.4 kg/ha) with more number of pods per
plant(39.4),shellingpercentage(71.8%),higherbenefittocostratio(BCR)andimprovedsoilsulphurcontent
after the harvest of the groundnut crop. Hence it was inferred that under micro level situation, use of sulphur
oxidising bacterial inoculums certainly improve soil sulphur nutrition that result in sustainable higher yield.
Key Words: Groundnut, Soil sulphur, SOB, Rhizobium, Gypsum, Pod yield.
nutrient next to nitrogen (N),phosphorus (P) and
potash(K). However, its wide spread deficiency in
soils and consequent losses on crop productivity
have been reported during last three decades due
to the continuous use of sulphur free fertilizers and
intensive cultivation with high yielding varieties
(Sakal et al 2000). So, the crop have become
increasingly dependent on the soil to supply the
sulphur that they need for the synthesis of proteins
and a number of essential vitamins and co- factors
(Kertesz and Mirleau, 2004). The soil microbial
biomass is the key driving force behind all sulphur
transformations. The biomass acts as both a
source and sink for inorganic sulphate. They make
available sulphate from element or any reduced
forms of sulphur, through oxidation process in the
soil. Use of sulphur oxidizers enhance the natural
oxidation and speed up the production of sulphates.
Bio inoculants are most often made by incorporation
Corresponding Author’s Email: noorjehantry@gmail.com
1. Asstt. Prof. (Agril. Ext) TNAU, ICAR, KVK, Vellore
2. Asst. Prof. (Hort.) TNAU, Agril College & Research Instructor, Madurai
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 1-4
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 1-4 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00001.5

2
of the microbial inoculums into solid carrier,
which provides a convenient base for packing and
facilitates application and use of the product.
Most Sulphur containing minerals are metal
sulphides and the best known is perhaps pyrite. The
most common SO42-
containing mineral is gypsum.
Plants grown on S-deficient soils have suppressed
developmentofreproductiveorgansthat,inrapeseed,
can even lead to pod abortion. Reproductive growth
and the proportion of the reproductive tissues in
total dry matter are significantly increased by the
application of S during pod development. The
presence of S maximizes the seed and oil yield of
other plants (Ahmad et al 2007).
Biological N2
-fixation, nodulation and yield of
peanut crop are reduced with sulphur deficiency
(Varin et al 2010). Therefore, an on farm research
was carried out with application of Sulphur
Oxidising Bacterial (SOB) inoculums on growth
and yield of groundnut during 2014-2015. The
main objective of the study was to improve the soil
sulphur availability to groundnut growing belt of
Pudukkottai district which in turn contributes to
higher pod yield.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The operational area of the study was five
operational villages having higher area under
groundnut cultivation in Aranthangi block of
Pudukkottai district. A baseline survey was
conducted in the villages and five farmers’ fields
were selected located in five different hamlets of
Maramadakki revenue panchayat. The field
experiment was laid out at five locations with
three treatments. The treatments were T1: Farmers’
Practice i.e. No application of sulphur nutrition, T2:
Gypsum application at flowering stage @ 400kg/
ha and T3 : Seed treatment with Sulphur Oxidising
bacterial inoculums @ 1kg/ha and Rhizobium @
1Kg/ha and soil application of SOB @ 5kg/ha on
45 DAS + Gypsum 400kg/ha. Soil samples were
collected for analysis of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potash and sulphur content before sowing of the
groundnut. The farmers were provided with CO6
groundnut seeds @70 kg, SOB @ 1.2 kg, gypsum
@ 160 kg and Rhizobium @200g to lay out T2 and
T3. The T1 laid out by farmers themselves during
kharif 2014 i.e. July II to IV week.
Method demonstration of seed treatment with
SOB was performed at all the locations before
sowing and ensured the correct usage and method.
The various growth and yield parameters were
recorded in five trials at each stage of seed treatment
cum sowing, vegetative/pre flowering, flowering,
pegging (second hand weeding and earthing up) and
harvest stage. The groundnut crop was harvested
during Oct-Nov. 2014. The data collected were
tabulated for its growth and yield parameters. After
the harvest of the crop, soil samples were collected
from the fields. Both pre harvest and post harvest
soil samples were got analysed for sulphur content
from the Department of Soil Science, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore and the results
were tabulated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Plant height and pod formation
It was found that in the first treatment T1
wherein the farmers had not given any application
of sulphur nutrition, mean plant height recorded
was highest (75.4 cm) followed by T3 (66.2 cm)
and T2 ( 62.4 cm) (Table 1). The number of pods
per plant recorded the highest in the treatment T3
(39.4) followed by T2 (33.4) and T1 (29.0). Hence,
it can be said that lesser number of pods per plant
might be due to unavailability of soil nutrition
and /or inefficient utilisation of soil sulphur. The
treatment T2 which included application of gypsum
at peak flowering stage resulted in medium number
of pods with moderate plant height. In T2 sulphur
nutrition was given just before pegging / pod
development stage and resulted in higher numbers
of pods per plant in comparison to T1. In T3 sulphur
nutrition was given both as seed treatment and soil
application i.e. seed treatment of groundnut seeds
with SOB and soil application of SOB and gypsum.
The combined effect of sulphur nutrition through
Hanif and Krishnamoorthi

3
seed treatment and soil application improved the
seed vigour, germination, crop establishment, more
number of pods and yield.
Yield, Shelling percentage and Benefit cost ratio
The data (Table 1) clearly showed that the
mean yield in treatment T1 recorded significantly
lowest (1962.4 kg/ha) followed by T2 ( 2012.6 kg/
ha) and T3 (2109.6 kg/ha). In treatment T1, pod
yield was lowest obviously for the reason that no
sulphur nutrition was provided to groundnut crop
neither as seed treatment nor soil application. In T2
yield recorded was the second highest wherein one
time soil application of gypsum was applied at peak
flowering stage and sulphur was made available
during pod initiation and development stage. The
major reason for T3 to record highest mean yield
was due to combined effect of sulphur nutrition
by seed treatment with SOB and Rhizobium and
soil application of SOB and gypsum. The Sulphur
Oxidizing Bacterial (SOB) inoculums increased
the vigour of seeds and soil sulphur availability to
plants enhancing more number of pods. The shelling
percentage was also found higher in the harvested
groundnut pods of T3 followed by T2 and T1.
It was observed that the gross cost variation
among the treatments T1 and T2, T3 was meagre
while net returns recorded wide variations due
to increase in yield of groundnut pods in T2 and
T3. The net returns per hectare for the treatments
T1, T2 and T3 were Rs.26,880/-, Rs.34,726/- and
Rs.37,948/-, respectively with highest net returns
in T3. Further, the benefit cost ratio (BCR) for the
treatments T1, T2 and T3 were 1.84, 1.97 and 2.06,
respectively. Hence T3 was proved to be better than
other treatments in terms of yield and BCR.
These findings were in line with Anandham and
Sridar (2001) who used sulfur oxidizing bacteria
pellets (25×106
CFU/g) at three different doses, viz.,
20 kg, 40 kg and 60 kg ha-1
along with Rhizobium
application as seed treatment and found that 60 kg
pellets ha-1
with Rhizobium application produced the
Table 1. Growth and yield parameters of Groundnut under different treatments.
Parameter T1 T2 T3 SEd CD
Plant height (cm) 75.4 62.4 66.2 1.2 2.4
Days taken for 50% flowering 37.0 35.0 35.0 0.9 1.8
Number of pods /plant 29.0 33.4 39.4 0.9 1.8
Yield (kg/ha) 1962.4 2012.6 2109.6 19.1 38.5
Shelling (%) 68.4 70.2 71.8 0.4 0.9
Gross returns (Rs) 32,000 35,800 35,800 - -
Gross cost (Rs) 58,880 70,526 73,748 - -
Net Return (Profit) (Rs. / ha) 26,880 34,726 37,948 - -
Benefit Cost Ratio 1.84 1.97 2.06 - -
Table 2. Status of soil sulphur content before and after the groundnut crop.
Sr.
No
Replication Soil sulphur before
sowing (ppm)
Soil sulphur after harvest
of crop (ppm)
Percent increase in
soil sulphur ( %)
1 R1 6.49 7.63 17.6
2 R2 6.40 7.19 12.3
3 R3 6.44 7.41 10.3
4 R4 6.39 7.16 12.1
5 R5 6.37 6.78 6.4
Assessment of Sulphur Oxidising Bacterial Inoculums on Groundnut

4
highest nodule number (136.3), nodule dry weight
(0.74 g), pod yield (2,006 kg ha-1
) and oil content
(52%). It can thus be said that sulphur oxidizing
bacteria can be used as a bio-fertilizer for groundnut
to meet the requirement of sulphur nutrition.
Soil sulphur content
The soil sulphur content in the soil was also
improved by the application of SOB inoculums
(Table 2). The increase in soil sulphur before and
after harvest of the groundnut crop in the five
replications varied between 6.4 to 17.6 per cent .
These variations may be due to differences in soil
nutrient content, soil type and cultivation practices
followed by farmers at the five locations.The overall
inference was that application of SOB inoculums
improved the soil fertility and soil sulphur content
in the soil.
CONCLUSION
ItwasconcludedthatthetreatmentT3performed
well by giving higher yield (2109.6 kg/ha compared
with T2( 2012.6 kg/ha) and T1(1962.4 kg/ha) with
more number of pods per plant, higher BCR and
improved soil sulphur content after the harvest of the
groundnut crop. T3 was found significantly higher
in comparison with T1 and T2 for growth and yield
parameters viz., plant height, number of pods per
plant, days taken for 50 per cent flowering, mean
yield and shelling percentage. Hence, under micro
level situation, use of sulphur oxidising bacterial
inoculums will improve soil sulphur nutrition and
in turn higher yield of groundnut.
REFERENCES
Ahmad G A, Jan M, Arif M and Khattak R (2007). Influence
of nitrogen and sulphur fertilization on quality of canola
(Brassica napus L.) under rainfed condition. Journal of
Zhejiang University Science B 8: 731-737.
Anandham R and Sridar R (2001). Use of sulphur bacteria
for increased yield and oil content of groundnut. In:
Proceedings of the National Workshop on ‘Recent
Developments in Biofertilizers for Rice Base Cropping
System’, Coimbatore, India, 16-18 August 2001 and
published in book entitled Biofertilizers technology 2004,
pp. 365-371, ISBN 81-7233-359-5, edited by Kannaiyan
S. Kumar K and Govindarajan K.
Kertesz M A and Mirleau P (2004). The role of soil microbes
in plant sulphur nutrition. Journal of Experimental
Botany 44: 1939- 1945.
Sakal R, Sinha R B, Singh A P, Bhogal N S and Ismail M
D (2000). Influence of sulphur on yield and mineral
nutrition of crops in maize and wheat. J Ind Soc Soil Sci
48: 325–29.
Varin S, Cliquet J B, Personeni E, Avice J C, Lemauviel-
Lavenant S (2010). How does sulphur availability modify
N acquisition of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) J Exp
Bot 61(1): 225-234.
Received on 22/12/2015 Accepted on 18/03/2016
Hanif and Krishnamoorthi

5
INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa) belongs to family gramineae
and is a well-known cereal, because it is staple food
for more than half of world population (Jamal et al
2009). It is grown in almost all continents of the
world due to its wide adaptability to diverse agro-
climatic conditions but mainly grown in tropical and
sub-tropicalregionsofworld.Tofeedthatincreasing
population, 35 per cent more rice production will
be required than present rice production (Kaur and
Dhaliwal, 2014;The major rice production countries
are China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Bangladesh,
Vietnam, Brazil, Philippine, Japan, Myanmar,
U.S.A and Pakistan. Rice is the main food crop of
India and contributing about 45 per cent of the total
production and hence sustain sufficiency food in the
country (Sharma et al 2011). It is the major kharif
crop of India and ranks second after wheat in terms
of area, production and productivity in Punjab state.
In Punjab, rice currently occupies an area of 28.51
lakh hectare with production of 112.67 lakh tonnes
Comparative Performance of Different Varieties of Rice in
Muktsar District of Punjab
Balkaran Singh Sandhu* and Nirmaljit Singh Dhaliwal
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sri Muktsar Sahib -152026 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2013, 20 and 20 at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sri Muktsar
Sahib (Punjab), to find out the best suitable variety of rice for the area. PR 111, PR 114, PR 121, PR 122,
PR 123 and PR 124 were the six different varieties tested under this experiment. Fifty Per cent flowering
was earlier in variety PR 124 as compared to PR 111, PR 121 and PR 123 and was statistically at par
with PR 114 and PR 122. However, among days taken to maturity, variety PR 111 matured earlier (139)
and statistically differ from PR 121 (141), PR 124 (141.5) and PR 123 (143.7), PR 114 (145) and PR 122
(146.3). Variety PR 121 produced higher number of effective tiller (447.3/m2
), which was statistically at
par with PR 122 (441.7/m2
) and PR 114 (435.3/m2
) but significantly superior from PR 111 (414/m2
), PR
123 (413.3/m2
) and PR 124 (412.5/m2
). Higher grain yield was recorded with variety PR 121 (79.3 q/
ha), which was statistically at par with PR 124 (78.5 q/ha), PR 122 (77.3 q/ha) and PR 123 (77 q/ha) but
was significantly superior from PR 111(68.5 q/ha), PR 114(71.5 q/ha). The varieties PR 121 and PR 124
produced higher yield and also matured in less time. So these two varieties are best suitable for the area.
Key Words: Short duration, Tillers, Rice, Variety, Yield,
*Corresponding Author’s Email : balkaransandhu@gmail.com
with an average yield of 5.93 t ha-1
(Anonymous,
2015). District Sri Muktsar Sahib is also a major rice
growing district of Punjab. Agricultural production
is decreasing these days due to biotic and abiotic
stresses. The major abiotic stresses are high salinity,
drought, submergence and cold (Thakur et al 2010;
Mantri et al 2012). Among all abiotic stresses,
salinity is the major factor of restricting productivity
of rice worldwide (Munns and Tester, 2008). Lot of
water logged area is present in Sri Muktsar Sahib
district of Punjab and salt stress is increasing due
to certain factors like climate change, excess canal
water for irrigation without proper drainage. To
avoid this problem development of rice varieties,
which are high yielding and resistant to biotic
and abiotic stresses must be included. Punjab
Agricultural University recommended a number of
high yielding rice varieties for cultivation in whole
of Punjab state. These varieties gave different yield
at different places. The soil and irrigation water of
Sri Muktsar Sahib is totally different from whole
DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00002.7

6
the Punjab state. The district contains high salinity
and water logged area. Hence, the objective of
present study was to evaluate the performance of
short duration and high yielding varieties of rice in
Sri Muktsar Sahib district of Punjab.
A field experiment was conducted during kharif
seasons of 2013, 2014 and 2015 at Krishi Vigyan
Kendra, Sri Muktsar Sahib (Punjab), to find out the
best suitable variety for the area. The experimental
site is situated at 30°26′788″ North latitude and
74°30′523″ East longitude during kharif 2013,
30°26′778″ North latitude and 74°30′508 during
kharif 2014 and at 30°26′722″ North latitude and
74°30′501″ East longitude″ during kharif 2015. The
area is characterized by semi-arid type of climate
with hot and dry early summers from April-June
followed by hot and humid period during July-
September and cold winters during December-
January. The mean maximum and minimum
temperatures show considerable fluctuations during
different parts of the year. Summer temperature
exceeds 38°
C and may go up as high as 45°
C with
dry summer spells. The annual rainfall of the area is
430.7 mm, most of which is received during July to
September (Anonymous 2011). The soil properties
of the experimental fileds are given in Table 3.
Wheat was grown as the previous rabi crop in
these experimental plot during all the three years.
PR 111, PR 114, PR 121, PR 122, PR 123 and PR
124 were the six different varieties tested under
this experiment. PR 124 tested for two years but all
other five varieties were tested for all the three years
of the study. All the varieties were transplanted in
the second fortnight of June and were harvested
in the month of October according to the maturity
of the variety during all the study period of three
years. All the other agronomic practices were as
recommended by PAU, Ludhiana. Nitrogen was
applied in three equal splits, one third as basal, one
third at 21 days after transplanting and remaining
one third at 42 days after transplanting. Irrigations
were applied according to the requirement of the
crop. The data on number of effective tillers per
square meter, plant height, number of grains per
panicle, 1000 grain weight and grain yield were
collected through field observations. Collected data
were further analyzed by using randomize block
design.
Due to increasing the depth of water table
of Punjab state, duration of rice cultivar is very
important factor. In the pooled average of the three
years the variety PR 124 produced earlier 50 per
cent flowering (97.5), which was statistically at par
with PR 111 (98), PR 121 (99) and PR 123 (99.7)
but significantly earlier from PR 114 (103) and
PR 122 (103.3). However, among days taken to
maturity, the variety PR 111 matured earlier (139)
as compared to other varieties (Table 2), which
statistically differed from PR 121 (141), PR 124
(141.5) and PR 123 (143.7). Higher days taken for
maturity were observed in PR 114 (145) and PR
122 (146.3). The plant height of different varieties
differed non significantly (Table 2).
During kharif 2013, the number of effective
tillers/m2
was higher in PR 121 (435/m2
) followed
by PR 122 (421/m2
), and lower effective tillers
were obtained in PR 114(412/m2
) PR 111(410/m2
)
and PR 123 (402/m2
), whereas, in kharif 2014, PR
114 (460/m2
) and PR 122 (460/m2
) produced higher
effective tillers followed by PR 121 (452/m2
) and
PR 123 (422/m2
). Lower effective tillers were
obtained with PR 124 (412/m2
) and PR 111 (412/
m2
) variety (Table 2). However, during kharif 2015,
higher number of effective tillers were obtained with
PR 121 (455/m2
) followed by PR 122 (444/m2
) PR
114 (434/m2
) and PR 123 (426/m2
). Lower effective
tillers were obtained with PR 124 (413/m2
) and PR
111 (422/m2
) variety. In the pooled data the higher
number of effective tillers per square meter were
obtained in the variety PR 121 (447.3/m2
), which
was statistically at par with PR122 (441.7/m2
)
and PR 114 (435.3/m2
) but significantly superior
from PR 111(414/m2
), PR 123(413.3/m2
) and PR
124(412.5/m2
). All the different varieties failed to
Sandhu and Dhaliwal

7
Table1Effectofdifferentvarietiesonduration,plantheightandeffectivetillers.
Variety
Daystakento50%flower-
ing
DaystakentomaturityPlantheight(cm)Effectivetillers/m2
201320142015Average201320142015Average201320142015Aver-
age
201320142015Aver-
age
PR11198979998.0140139138139.0103.610199.7101.4410412422414.0
PR114105100104103.0145145145145.098.8103.7105.3102.6412460434435.3
PR1211019610099.0143140140141.0102.299.3101.3100.9435452455447.3
PR12210399108103.3147146146146.3103.2106111.7107.0421460444441.7
PR1231009910099.7144143144143.7101.8105.3104103.7402422426413.3
PR124-969997.5-142141141.5-100.3112106.2-412413412.5
CD(p=0.05)3.031.4NS18.6
Table2Effectofdifferentvarietiesongrainyieldandyieldcontributingcharacters.
VarietyNoofgrains/panicle1000grainwt(g)Grainyield(q/ha)
201320142015Average201320142015Average201320142015Aver-
age
PR11113312515313724.223.424.123.965.076.564.068.5
PR11414211415813824.624.824.524.670.672.072.071.5
PR12114013714013925.524.624.624.976.085.576.079.3
PR12214611515013726.124.423.824.875.583.373.377.3
PR12314712814614024.723.825.124.578.075.877.377.0
PR124-113154133-24.625.224.9-78.878.378.5
CD(p=0.05)NSNS6.2
Comparative Performance of Different Varieties of Rice

8
produce any significant effect on the number of
grains per ear and 1000 grain weight (Table 3).
During kharif 2013, the grain yield was higher
in variety PR 123 (78 q/ha) followed by PR 121(76
q/ha), PR 122 (75.5 q/ha), whereas in kharif 2014,
PR 121 (85.5 q/ha) gave higher grain yield followed
by PR 122 (83.3 q/ha), PR 124 (78.8 q/ha) and PR
111 (76.5 q/ha) but lower grain yield was obtained
with PR 114 (72.0 q/ha). Similar results were
obtained in kharif 2015, where higher grain yield
was obtained with PR 124 followed by PR 121 and
PR 122 and lower grain yield was obtained with PR
111 variety (Table 3). In the pooled data the higher
grain yield was recorded with variety PR 121 (79.3
q/ha), which was statistically at par with PR 124
(78.5 q/ha), PR 122 (77.3 q/ha) and PR 123 (77 q/
ha) but significantly superior than grain yield from
PR 111(68.5 q/ha) and PR 114(71.5 q/ha).
CONCLUSION
The varieties PR 121 and PR 124 produced
higher grain yield and also matured in less time.
Hence, these two varieties are most suitable for
Muktsar district of Punjab.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2011).Report of Central Ground water board,
Ministry of water resource. Government of India, North
Western Region, Chandigarh
Anonymous (2015).Package of practices for cultivation of
Kharif crops. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
Jamal, Khalil I H, Bari A, Khan S and Zada I (2009). Genetic
variation for yield and yield components in rice. ARPN
Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science 4(6):60-
64
Kaur A and Dhaliwal L K (2014). Growth parameters and
yield attributing characters of PR-118 (V1) and PR-116
(V2) varieties of rice (Oryza sativa L.) as influenced by
different planting methods. Journal of Applied & Natural
Science 6 (2): 755 – 762.
Mantri N, Patade V, Penna S, Ford R and Pang E (2012).
Abiotic stress responses in plants: present and future. In:
Ahmad P, Prasad MNV (eds.) Abiotic stress responses
in plants: metabolism, productivity and sustainability.
Springer, New York, pp. 1-19.
Munns R and Tester M (2008).Mechanisms of salinity
tolerance. Annual Review of Plant Biology 59: 651- 681.
Sharma A, Dhaliwal L K, Sandhu S K and Singh S (2011).
Effect of plant spacing and transplanting time on
phenology, tiller production and yield of rice (Oryza
sativa L.)International Journal of Agricultural Science
7: 249-253.
Thakur P, Kumar S, Malik J A, Berger J D and Nayyar H
(2010) Cold stress effects on reproductive development
in grain crops: An overview. Environmental and
Experimental Botany 67: 429-443.
Table 3 Soil characteristics of different experi-
mental sites.
Parameter Kharif
2013
Kharif
2014
Kharif
2015
pH (1:2) 8.1 7.95 8.2
EC (dS m-1
) 0.932 0.938 0.912
OC (%) 0.20 0.24 0.22
P (kg/ha) 15.2 17 14.0
K (kg/ha) 626.0 710 640
Soil texture Sandy loam Sandy
loam
Sandy
loam
Sandhu and Dhaliwal

9
INTRODUCTION
Globally, banana ranked fourth most important
crop after rice, wheat and corn. It is grown in more
than 130 countries across the world in an area of
8.25Mha. producing 97.38 MT of banana and
plantains. India is largest producer of banana in the
world, contributing nearly about 25 per cent to the
world production of banana with total production of
27.0 MT from an area of 0.77 million ha. Banana
is a crop of tropics and subtropics requiring hot and
humid climate. The most suitable climate for banana
growth is one with warm moist weather throughout
the year without strong winds. Bhattacharyya and
Madhava Rao (1965) reported effect of climatic
factors on growth of Robusta banana.
Favorable factors for banana production are
rainfall in excess of 100 mm per month and the
temperature range of 10 to 40o
C (Sommonds1966).
Both internal and external factors influence growth
and production of the banana. The internal factors
are genetically related characters of the variety
while the external factors include climate, soil,
pest and diseases. (Borges et al 2000).Weather
is an important production factor in agriculture.
Unfortunately, this production factor can hardly
be controlled. In fact, weather risks are source of
uncertainty in agriculture. The effects of weather
Correlation Study of Weather and Growth Parameters in Banana
C D Badgujar
Banana Research Station,
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Jalgaon – 425 001 (Maharashtra)
ABSTRACT
Weatherisanuncontrolledandimportantfactor,theeffectofwhichonbananaisdifficulttoquantifyunderthe
fieldexperiments.Phenologicalstudiesofthebananacropbasedonthemeteorologicaldataoflast30years(1980
- 2009) was subjected for the correlation analysis and evaluated. The study indicated that the rainfall, relative
humidityhadpositivecorrelationwiththebunchweightbutnegativecorrelationwithtemperature.Significantly
negative correlation of bunch weight was recorded with wind velocity, evaporation and sunshine hours.
Key Words: Cavendish banana ,Rainfall, Temperature, Relative humidity, Wind velocity, Evaporation,
Sunshine hours, Correlation.
can either lead to increase metabolism and disease
and pests incidence in field environment.
The relationship between weather parameters
and plant growth, durational and yield attributes in
field crops as well as plantation crops have been
reported by many research workers however, such
typeofinformationislimitedinbananaandplantain.
For sustainability in banana production, response to
changing climatic conditions is an important factor
for consideration. Hence, this work was carried
out to find out the correlation in between weather
parameters and plant growth and yield attributes
over a period of thirty years (1980-2009) at Banana
Research Station, Jalgaon.
Thirtyyears(1980-2009)dataofannualaverages
of weather parameters (rainfall, temperature,
relative humidity, wind velocity, evaporation, and
sunshine hours) was collected from the Oil Seeds
Research Station, Jalgaon. The growth, duration
and yield attributes data (plant height, plant
girth, number of leaves, number of hands, number
of fingers, days to flower, days to harvest, finger
length, finger girth and bunch weight) of respective
years was also collected from old records of Banana
Research Station ,Jalgaon. The simple correlation
*Corresponding Author’s Email : badgujarcd@gmail.com
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 9-11
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DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00003.9

10
has been worked out and tested its significance as
per methods suggested by Panse and Sukhatme
(1985).
Rainfall
The correlation coefficients of the weather
parameters with the plant parameters are depicted
in Table 1. The average annual rainfall of this area
is 735 mm and the average rain fall of 30 years was
recorded as764.1 mm. It was found that all the plant
attributes were non- significantly correlated. Only
two attributes viz. days for flowering and harvesting
were negatively correlated whereas rest of attributes
recorded positive correlation with rainfall. Rain fall
recorded positive but week correlation with bunch
weight. Similar results were reported by Pillai et al
(1996).
Temperature
The average maximum temperature of 30
years was 34.7 0
C. Out of 10 attributes studied,
five attributes exhibited negative correlation
with maximum temperature whereas rest of the
attributes correlated positively. The days for
flowering and harvesting recorded significantly
positive correlation with maximum temperature.
Bunch weight recorded very week and negative
correlation with maximum temperature. All plant
growth attributes were recorded non- significant
correlation with minimum temperature. Out of 10
attributes, pseudo stem height and girth, number of
fingers per bunch, finger length and girth and bunch
weight recorded negative correlation, however rest
were positively correlated. These results were in
agreement with the findings of Pillai et al (1996)
and Kothawade et al (1985).
Relative humidity
The average humidity of 30 years at morning
and evening was 88.11 and 40.6 per cent,
respectively. All the plant attributes except number
of leaves, days to flower and days to harvest
recorded a negative correlation with morning
relative humidity and for rest of the attributes it
was positive. The days to flowering and harvesting
exhibited the significant negative correlation with
morning humidity. Relative humidity at evening
Table 1. Correlation coefficient of climatic parameters with banana.
Banana Attributes Annual
rainfall
(mm)
Temperature (0
C) Relative
Humidity
(per cent)
Wind
Velocity
(km/hr)
Pan
Evapora-
tion
(mm)
Sun-
shine
Hours
Max Min Morn. Even
Plant height (cm) 0.10 (- ) 0.08 (- )0.17 0.16 0.45* 0.50** (-)0.51** (-)0.34
Plant girth (cm) 0.32 0.06 (- )0.03 0.28 0.35 (-)0.40* (-)0.42* (-)0.24
No. of leaves/ plant 0.01 0.10 0.24 (- )0.20 (-)0.20 0.61** 0.53** 0.25
No. of hands/bunch 0.27 (- )0.22 0.04 0.18 (-)0.01 (-)0.40* (-)0.45* (-)0.21
No. of fingers/
bunch
0.26 (- )0.29 (- )0.13 0.27 (-)0.20 0.47** (-)0.57** (-)0.22
Days to flower (- )0.15 0.38* 0.28 0.47** 0.48** 0.61** 0.58** 0.54**
Days to harvest (-) 0.20 0.40* 0.18 0.53** 0.46* 0.70** 0.67** 0.48**
Finger length (cm) 0.08 0.07 (- )0.22 0.09 0.64** 0.54** (-)0.41* (-)0.35
Finger girth (cm) 0.15 (- )0.06 (- )0.33 0.23 l.41* 0.64** (-)0.60** (-)0.46*
Bunch weight (Kg) 0.13 -0.01 (- )0.26 0.29 0.47** 0.63** (-)0.56** -0.37*
*, ** significant at 5% and 1% respectively
Badgujar et al
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 9-11

11
have recorded significant positive impact on plant
height, finger length, finger girth and bunch weight
however, it was negative with the days to flowering
and days to harvest. Similar results were recorded
by Pillai et al (1996) and Kothawade et al (1985)
and Turner (1971).
Wind velocity
The average wind velocity of 30 years was
14.10 km/h. All the attributes of banana showed
significant correlation with wind velocity. Of
these, number of leaves, days to flower and harvest
recorded significant positive correlation whereas
rest of attributes were correlated negatively. These
results were in agreement with Pillai et al (1996),
Kothawade et al (1985) and Sommonds (1966).
Evaporation
The average evaporation of thirty years was 10.6
mm. All the growth and yield parameters of banana
have been significantly influenced by evaporation.
The number of leaves, days for flowering, and
harvesting were recording positive correlation;
however it was negative for the rest of the attributes.
Similar results were reported by Pillai et al (1996).
Sunshine hours
Sunshine hours were also recorded significant
positive impact on days for flowering and harvesting
however, it was significantly negative for finger
girth and bunch weight. Bunch weight and finger
girth was negatively correlated with sunshine hours.
CONCLUSION
Weather is most important production
parameter in banana cultivation. In the present
study the relationship between weather parameters
and growth, durational and yield attributes was
established by using the weather data for the last
30 years. It was found that majority the attributes
were non significantly correlated with the rainfall
and temperature, however, relative humidity,
wind velocity, evaporation and sunshine hours
were found to affect all the attributes of banana
production significantly. Out of 10 attributes, half of
the attributes exhibit correlation with temperature,
whereas rest of attributes show positive correlations.
Relative humidity recorded significant positive
impact on all attributes but durational factors were
found to be shown negative correlation with relative
humidity.All the attributes show significant positive
correlation with wind velocity except plant girth and
number of hands per bunch, evaporation was found
to impact most of attributes negatively, except the
durational attributes. Sunshine had negative impact
on most of attributes of banana production except
the durational factors.
REFERENCES
Borges A L, Soura L da S and Alves E L (2000). Banana, In Z
J M Cordeiro (ed). Banana.
Bhattacharyya R K and Madhava Rao V N (1965). Influence
of meteorological parameters on the cropping of banana
grown under soil covers and soil moisture regimes.
Banana News letter 8 :7-8 ( August)
Kothawade D V, Mahajan P R , Sanghvi K U and Patil D
R (1985).Effect of leaf area on the growth and yield of
basrai banana. South Indian Hort 33(2):122-123.
Panse V G and Sukhatme P V (1985). Statistical methods for
agricultural workers. ICAR, New Delhi (IV Edition)
Pillai P Balakrishna, Venugopalan K, Keshava Rao A V R
and Lincy Devis P (1996). Crop weather relationship
of rainfed banana under different times of plantings.
Bananas :Eds: Singh H P and K L Chadha ,pp 317.
Sommonds N W (1966). Bananas ,2nd
Ed. Longmans Green
and Co., London. pp 512.
Turner D W (1971). Effect of climate on rate of banana leaf
production. Trop Agric (Trinidad) 48 (3):283-287
Weather and Growth Parameters in Banana
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 9-11

12
INTRODUCTION
Aonla (Phyllanthus emblica L or Emblica
officinalis G) also known as Indian goose berry,
Nelli, Amalkanu or Amla. Aonla cultivation is
common in India particularly in Uttar Pradesh
comprising of Rae Bareilly, Pratapgarh, Varanasi,
Sultanpur, Kanpur, Agra and Mathura districts
(Chadha, 2001). Its cultivation is increasing in dry
land areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
and Maharashtra. In Maharashtra, its cultivation
Determination of Engineering Properties of Aonla (Phyllanthus
emblica L or Emblica officinalis G) Fruits
Ingale V M1
, H G More and V P Kad
Department of Agricultural Process Engineering
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri – 413 722 ( Maharashtra)
ABSTRACT
The engineering properties of Aonla (Phyllanthus emblica L or Emblica officinalis G ) fruits are pre
requisites in designing the equipments for handling, storage and processing of the aonla fruits. It is essential
to determine the relevant characteristics of such fruits but this kind of properties appeared to be lacking in
the literature. Hence this study was undertaken to determine some physical and mechanical properties such
as size, shape, roundness, sphericity, volume, density, surface area and penetration force for the design of
pricking machine for aonla fruits. The fruits of four Aonla cultivars namely Chakaiya, Kanchan, Krishna
and Francis were used for this study. The fruits were cleaned with water to remove all dirt adhering to the
fruits and the experiments were conducted at room temperature. All physical and mechanical parameters
were studied for 10 fruits from each cultivar. The Fresh fruits were randomly selected for determination of
physical properties. The shape of the Aonla fruits were found to be ranging from round to prolate. The size
of the fruits was characterized using length, breadth and thickness i.e. major, intermediate & minor axis of
Aonla fruits. The average volume of the fruits ranged from 31.565 to 42.809 cm3
and the average sphericity
ranged from 0.954 to 0.995 whereas the range of the rolling resistance found to be 12.51 to 21.990
. The
range of fruit size was observed to be 3.10 to 4.47 cm. It was also observed that the volume was higher for
the variety Francis with 42.809 cm3
followed by Kanchan, Krishna and Chakaiya with 37.565, 31.565 and
27.513 cm3
, respectively. The maximum value of volume was found in Francis (84.245 cm3
) and minimum
in Chakaiya (31.115 cm3
). The rolling resistances of the Aonla fruits of Chakaiya, Kanchan, Krishna and
Francis varieties were found to be 19.167°, 18.890°, 16.384° & 14.653°, respectively. The maximum value
of the rolling resistance was found in Chakaiya variety (21.990°) and minimum in Francis variety (12.310°).
The penetration force required to penetrate into the fruits of Kanchan, Chakaiya, Krishna and Francis
varieties of Aonla was found to 37.62, 26.29, 21.98 and 19.35 N, respectively. The maximum penetration
forcewasfoundinKanchanvarietybecauseofmorecompactnessofthefruitandminimuminFrancisvariety.
Key Words: Aonla, Physical properties, Mechanical properties, Cultivars.
is increasing in Pune, Nagar, Aurangabad, Akola
and Amravati districts. The area under Aonla in
India is 49,620 ha with 3.03 t/ha productivity.
Maharashtra produces 2,960 MT of Aonla per
annum (Anonymous, 2003). Some important
cultivars recommended for commercial cultivation
in North India are Banarasi, Bansi Red, Chakaiya
Pesi, Hathijhool and Pink tinged (Bajpai and
Shukla, 1985). Banarasi is recognized for its large
size fruits .
Corresponding Author Email : vingale03@gmail.com
1
Ph.D. Scholar
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 12-15
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DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00004.0

13
Aonla is considered as “Wonder fruit for health”
because of its unique qualities. It has acquired wide
popularity all over the world due to its medicinal
properties. It is a rich source of vitamin C and
its content of ascorbic acid is next to only that of
Barbados cherry (Malpighia glabra L). Aonla fruits
are attractive, round, deeply ribbed and pale green.
It is divided into size segment through pale linear
grooves. The surface of fruit is shiny and size varies
from small marbel to large plum .It is quiet hard with
thin and translucent skin. The fruit taste extremely
acidic and bitter. Aonla has good nutritional value.
It contains 600-1000 mg/100gm vitamin C. One
tiny Aonla equal to vitamin C value of about two
oranges. The fruit is rich source of pectin and thus
highly useful in making jam and jellies. It contains
0.5 per cent protein, 13.7 per cent carbohydrates,
10-40 mg/100gm minerals, and 600mg of vitamin
C (Gopalan et al 1980).
Aonla is recognized as king of arid fruits. Fruits
are sour and astringent in taste and are occasionally
eaten raw. It is much esteemed for making pickles,
preserves and jellies. Aonla fruit has been held in
high esteem indigenous medicine. Aonla fruits are
highly perishable in nature, most difficult to store
or transport over long distances. Therefore, it needs
immediate marketing and utilization. In order to
have good return to avoid market glut it becomes
essential to store the fruits for a considerable period.
Recently, a number of processed products of Aonla,
such as Aonla pulp, RTS, nectar, squash, candy
pickle, sauce and dehydrated shreds are available
with longer shelf life.
The physical properties of Aonla fruit are pre
requisites in designing the equipments for handling,
storage and processing of the fruit. It is essential
to determine the relevant characteristics, but such
properties appear to be lacking in the literature.
Hence this study was undertaken to determine some
physical properties such as size, shape, roundness,
sphericity, volume and density, surface area and
cutting force for the Aonla fruit.
Material
Fruits of four Aonla cultivar namely Chakaiya,
kanchan,Krishnaandfranciswereusedforthisstudy.
The fruits used for the study were obtained from Dry
land Agriculture Research Institute, MPKV Rahuri.
The fruits were harvested from the field in the first
week of December 2012 and stored in cool place
before conducting the experiment. The fruits were
harvested when surface colour changed from green
to yellowish green and seed colour creamy white
to brown. The good healthy matured fruits were
selected for the study. The fruits were cleaned with
water to remove all dirt adhering to the fruits. The
experiment was conducted at room temperature. All
physical and mechanical parameters were studied
for 10 fruits from each cultivar.
Measurement of physical properties aonla
The Fresh fruits was randomly selected for
determination of physical properties. Statistical
analysis was used to determine maximum,
minimum, mean and standard deviation of the
aonla fruit dimensions. In order to determine size
and shape of the fruits, 10 fruits of each variety
randomly selected from the lot. The fruit mass was
measured by using an electronic balance of 0.001 g
sensitivity.
Size of fruit
The three linear dimensions namely length( L)
in mm, width ( W )in mm, thickness ( T) in mm,
of each fruits was measured with a vernier caliper
with 0.01 mm least count. The geometric mean
diameter or size, Dp of the fruit will be calculated
by using formula = (abc)1/3
where Dp
= geometric
mean diameter ; a = major diameter ;b = minor
diameter ;c = intermediate diameter.
In the identification of the shape of the fruit, the
tracing of longitudinal and lateral cross sections of
the fruit was compared with the shapes listed on
standard chart. Using standard charts, the shape of
the product can be defined either by a number on
Ingale et al
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 12-15

14
the chart or by descriptive terms as specified for
fruits and vegetables by Mohsenin (1965).
Sphericity
The sphericity of the Aonla fruit was estimated
by the following equation given by Curray(1951) i.e.
Sphericity = (abc)1/3
/ a where a = major diameter;
b = minor diameter and c = intermediate
diameter.
Volume
The shape of Aonla fruit was approximately to
prolate spheroid. The volume of Aonla fruit was
calculated by using the formula as Volume = 4П
AB2
/ 3 where A = a / 2 and B = b/2 ; a =
major diameter; b= minor diameter.
Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance of the fruits was
determined on stainless steal surface. The length of
plate was 500 mm. The experiment set up was made
according to Mohsenin(1970).The angle of rolling
Aonla fruits can be calculated by using formula
Where l = length of base;h = Height measured
when fruits sliding.
Measurement of mechanical properties
Penetration force
Themechanicalpropertiesandforcedeformation
behavior were determined by compression loading
test. For accurate result, samples were placed under
Table 1. Physical properties of Aonla varities.
Variety Sfc Weight
(gm)
Length
(mm)
Breadth
(mm)
Thick-
ness
(mm)
Size
(mm)
Sphe-
ricity
(%)
Volume
(cm3)
Rolling
Resistance
(degree)
CHAKAIYA Mean 25.196 37.721 37.233 33.825 36.130 0.958 27.513 19.167
Max 28.689 39.510 39.010 38.500 38.766 1.020 31.115 21.990
Min 16.267 34.680 34.410 24.990 31.011 0.880 21.500 17.450
Sd 3.933 1.686 1.668 5.200 2.362 0.054 3.461 1.183
CV 0.156 0.045 0.045 0.154 0.065 0.056 0.126 0.062
KANCHAN Mean 29.644 38.733 38.272 36.317 37.750 0.974 29.906 17.144
Max 32.916 41.100 41.500 39.500 40.622 0.995 37.063 18.890
Min 24.845 36.080 35.680 31.110 34.380 0.940 24.077 15.420
Sd 3.198 1.835 1.988 2.921 2.168 0.016 4.434 1.063
CV 0.108 0.047 0.052 0.080 0.057 0.017 0.148 0.062
KRISHNA Mean 30.241 39.463 38.908 34.880 37.651 0.954 31.565 16.384
Max 36.527 41.880 41.720 41.300 41.499 0.996 38.168 18.890
Min 22.280 35.630 34.360 29.760 33.151 0.904 22.025 14.360
Sd 4.965 2.171 2.387 3.986 2.417 0.037 5.320 1.714
CV 0.164 0.055 0.061 0.114 0.064 0.039 0.169 0.105
FRANCIS Mean 37.315 41.706 43.782 38.633 41.194 0.988 42.809 14.653
Max 42.969 45.170 63.170 42.600 44.663 1.108 84.245 16.590
Min 32.790 39.520 39.420 34.290 37.662 0.944 32.155 12.510
Sd 4.063 1.886 7.062 2.992 2.295 0.046 15.440 1.104
CV 0.109 0.045 0.161 0.077 0.056 0.047 0.361 0.075
Engineering Properties of Aonla
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 12-15

15
compression loading test. The maximum force were
determined by Universal testing machine equipped
with 500N compression load cell or samples. In
this test, special needle with 10 mm / min speed as
penetrate 8 mm into the samples and the maximum
force required to penetrate the sample was measured
in ‘N’
Fruit size
The size of fruit depends upon its variety and
maturity. The geometric mean diameter of the
Chakaiya, Kanchan, Krishna and Francis ranged
from 36.130 to 41.194 mm. among all the four
varieties, Francis has higher diameter (size) with
standard deviation (2.295) followed by Kanchan
(2.168), Krishna (2.417) and Chakaiya (2.362). The
deviation of size more in Chakaiya (2.362) variety
as compared to other three varieties.
Fruit Shape
The shape of the fruit was assessed after
calculation and comparing the results with the
standard chart reported by Mohsenin (1965). The
shape was observed to the ranging from round to
prolate since sphericity was more than 0.90. The
sphericity of the fruits Chakaiya, Kanchan , Krishna
and Francis were found to be 0.958, 0.978,0.954
and 0.988, respectively. Among all the fruits,
Francis variety was more spheroidal than other
three varieties (Table1).
Fruit volume and rolling resistance
It was observed that the volume was higher for
the variety Francis with 42.809 cm3
followed by
Kanchan,Krishna and Chakaiya with 37.565,31.565
and 27.513 , respectively. The maximum value of
volume found in Francis (84.245) and minimum in
Chakaiya (31.115 cm3
). The rolling resistance of
the fruits Chakaiya, Kanchan, Krishna and Francis
were found to be 19.167°, 18.890°, 16.384° and
14.653°, respectively. The maximum value of the
rolling resistance was found in Chakaiya (21.990°)
and minimum in Francis (12.310°). The penetration
force required to penetrate fruits of four varieties of
Aonla was found to 26.2915, 37.6266, 21.9801 and
19.3504 N respectively. The maximum penetration
force found in Kanchan and minimum in Francis.
CONCLUSION
The shape of Aonla fruits were found to be
ranging from round to prolate. The size of the
fruit was characterized using length, breadth and
thickness i.e. major, intermediate and minor axes
of Aonla fruits. The average volume of the fruit
ranged from 31.565 to 42.809 cm3
. The average
sphericity of the fruit ranged from 0.954 to 0.995.
The range of the rolling resistance was found to be
12.510 to 21.990° and the range of fruit size was
observed to be 31.011 to 44.663. The penetration
force was found to be higher for Kanchan variety
because of more compactness of the fruit.
REFERENCES
Anonymous, (2003). Area and Production of fruit crops.
Directorate of Horticulture, M.S. Pune.
Bajpai P N and H S Shukla (1985) Aonla In : “Fruits of India:
Tropical Subtropical” (T K Bose ed.) Noya Prakash,
Culcutta, India, pp.757-767
Chadha K L (2001). Dry land Horticulture Crops. Indian
Horticulture PP. 18-20.
Curray J K (1951). Analysis of sphericity and roundness
of quartz grains. M.S. thesis in Minerology. The
Phennsylvania State University, University Park. Quoted
by Oje K et al, 1991. Some physical properties of oil bean
seed. J Agric Engg Res 50: 303-313
Gopalan C, Ramasastry B V and Balsubramanium S C (1980).
Nutritive value of Indian foods. National Institute of
Nutrition. ICMR. Hyderabad. India.
Mohsenin N N (1965). Physical Properties of Agricultural
products. Transactions of the ASAE 8 (1): 0025-0029
(DOI: 10.013031/2013.40418)
Mohsenin N N (1970). Physical Properties of Plant and
Animal Materials. New York: Gordon and Breach, pp.
51-87.
Ingale et al
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 12-15

16
INTRODUCTION
Waste is a complex, subjective and sometimes
controversial issue. There are many ways to define,
describe and count it, depending on how you look
at it. Citizens, technicians, businessmen, politicians,
activists; all of them use a different approach to
waste and its management. It is notably difficult, for
example, to compare waste in rich and poor countries.
The topic is also sometimes political, especially when
it comes to the trade and disposal of hazardous and
nuclear wastes. All waste data should therefore be
handled with care (Davis and Masten, 2004).
To generate the minimum amount of waste, the
waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past
decade, “reduce, reuse, and recycle” are the 3Rs in
the waste hierarchy, it classify waste management
strategies according to their desirability. Reduce
is design for minimal use of energy, minimize or
Economic Analysis of Jewellery Developed from
Leftovers and Solid Waste
Kaur G*, Kaur D** and Gandotra V***
Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home Science,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
The investigation entitled was carried out in Ludhiana city. An interview schedule was prepared for the
purpose of collection of data for design development from leftovers and solid waste. For collection of data 90
respondentsbetweentheagegroupof17-25yearswereselectedthroughpurposiverandomsamplingtechnique
from three colleges of Ludhiana city. The results of the study revealed that majority of the respondents were
between 17-21 years of age group and were higher secondary, belonged to nuclear families and had monthly
familyincomerangedbetweenRs.25,001/-toRs.50,000/-.Anotherinterviewschedulewaspreparedtostudy
the cost effectiveness of the developed jewellery. For this purpose same sample of ninety respondents were
selected and developed jewellery were shown to them. All the jewellery sets were highly appreciated on the
basis of wear ability, colour combination, overall impact and appearance. Majority of the respondents rated
all the jewellery sets as very good. The quoted prices of the jewellery sets were found to be adequate there
by 15.74 to 66.67 per cent profit can be earned by making jewellery developed leftovers and solid waste.
Key Words: Design, Jewellery, Leftovers, Miniatures, Solid waste.
eliminate waste material. Reuse refers to use an item
more than once, this is a way without reprocessing
which help save time, money, energy and resource.
Recycle is the third component of the waste
hierarchy, and is processing used waste materials
into new products (Leung Yee Man, 2011).
To counter the problem of waste produced,
many efforts are undertaken to reduce its negative
contribution towards environment. One of such
measures is textile recycling- the reuse as well as
reproduction of new products and accessories. This
importance of reuse of waste does not just lie in the
fact that it is reusable waste but in its usefulness
to reduce the human sufferings, so the study was
planned to develop jewellery from leftovers and
solid waste with the objectives to access consumer
acceptance and to study cost effectiveness of the
developed jewellery.
*Corresponding Author’s Email: gurleenkaur5339@yahoo.com
* M.Sc. Student
** Senior Scientist
*** Associate Professor
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21
DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00005.2

17
This investigation was conducted in Ludhiana
city. Three colleges of the city namely Government
College for Girls, Bharat Nagar Chowk; Guru
Nanak Girls College, Model Town and College
of Home Science, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana were selected for studying the preferences
of girls for different types of jewellery. Thirty
respondents were selected from each college. In
samples of 90 colleges going girls between the
age group 17-25 years were selected purposively
as the respondents from this particular age group
were more receptive towards new trends in fashion.
An interview schedule was framed for collection
of data regarding preferences of the respondents
for development of designs for different jewellery
items from left over and solid waste. On the basis
of information collected the most preferred ten
miniatures of jewellery sets were prepared by using
leftovers and solid waste. All the respondents were
again interviewed regarding cost effectiveness and
consumer acceptance for developed jewellery on
the basis of colour combination and appearance.
Preferences of the respondents on the basis of
color combination
The preferences of the respondents on the
basis of colour combination (Table 1) revealed
that Jewellery C1
(small bulbs) got a weighted
mean score of 3.02 and was given first rank. It
was followed by jewellery H2
(pistachio shells), A2
(buttons), F1
(plastic bottles) and G1
(CDs) which
got weighted mean scores of 3.01, 2.88 each and
2.80 and were placed at second, third for both and
fourth rank, respectively. Jewellery with weighted
mean scores of 2.70, 2.38, 2.04, E1
(bottle caps), D2
Table 1. Preferences of the respondents on the basis of color combination for developed
jewellery. (n=90)
Jewellery code Order of preference WMS Ranks
I II III IV
A2
(Buttons) 32 (35.5) 17 (18.9) 40 (44.4) 1 (1.1) 2.88 III
B1
(Textured sheets) 26 (28.8) 3 (3.3) 8 (8.9) 53 (58.9) 2.02 VIII
C1
(Small bulbs) 28 (31.1) 37 (41.1) 24 (26.7) 1 (1.11) 3.02 I
D2
(Toothpicks) 6 (6.6) 23 (25.5) 61 (67.7) --- 2.38 VI
E1
(Bottle caps) 16 (17.7) 38 (42.2) 29 (32.2) 7 (7.8) 2.70 V
F1
(Plastic bottles) 21 (23.3) 49 (54.4) 9 (10.0) 11 (12.2) 2.88 III
G1
(CDs) 17 (18.8) 44 (48.8) 23 (25.6) 6 (6.7) 2.80 IV
H2
(Pistachio shells) 27 (30.0) 4 0 (44.4) 20 (22.2) 3 (3.4) 3.01 II
I1
(Cardboard) 28 (31.1) 3 (3.3) 4 (4.5) 55 (61.1) 2.04 VII
J1
(Wires) 26 (28.8) 3 (3.3) 8 (8.9) 53 (58.8) 2.02 VIII
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages Weighted Mean Score - WMS
Kruskal –Wallis H-test H=.29* *Significant at 5 per cent
Kaur et al
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21

18
(toothpick), I1
(cardboards) were given fifth, sixth
and seventh ranks, respectively. While jewellery B1
(textured sheets) and J1
(wires) were least preferred
(weighted mean score 2.02 each). Since the sample
size is large the Kruskal –Wallis H-test statistically
follows χ2
distribution=16.9. The Kruskal –Wallis
H-test i.e. H=0.29* was found to be significantly
different from each other at 5 per cent in all the cases.
Preferences of the respondents on the basis of
appearance
Data in table 2 revealed that Jewellery C1
(smallbulbs)withaweightedmeanscoreof2.47,was
given the first rank on the basis of appearance. It was
followed by Jewellery H2
(pistachio shells), B1
(tex-
tured sheets), E1
(bottle caps) and F1
(plastic bottles)
with weighted mean scores 2.43, 2.36, 1.87 and 1.81
and were given second, third, fourth and fifth rank,
respectively. Jewellery G1
(CDs), I1
(cardboards),
A2
(buttons) and D2
(toothpicks), obtained weight-
ed mean scores 1.80 each and were hence ranked
at sixth place, 1.58 were ranked seventh and 1.43
were ranked eighth respectively. Jewellery J1
(wires)
was least preferred with weighted mean score 1.32.
Since the sample size is large the Kruskal –Wallis
H-test statistically follows χ2
distribution=16.9. The
Kruskal –Wallis H-test i.e. H=1.05* was found to
be significantly different from each other at 5 per
cent in all the cases.
Opinion of the respondents regarding jewellery
developed from leftovers and solid waste
The opinion of the respondents regarding the
jewellery developed from leftovers and solid waste
was taken on a of three point scale - very good,
good and fair. It was found that 77.8 per cent, rated
Table 2. Preferences of the respondents on the basis of appearance for the developed jewellery
(n=90)
Jewellery code Order of preference WMS Ranks
I II III IV
A2
(Buttons) 6 (6.7) 9 (10.0) 17 (18.9) 58 (64.4) 1.58 VIII
B1
(Textured sheets) 9 (10.0) 44 (48.8) 8 (8.9) 29 (32.2) 2.36 III
C1
(Small bulbs) 14 (15.6) 41 (45.5) 8 (8.9) 27 (13.0) 2.47 I
D2
(Toothpicks) 5 (5.6) 2 (2.2) 20 (22.2) 63 (70.0) 1.43 IX
E1
(Bottle caps) 7 (7.8) 13 (14.4) 32 (35.5) 38 (42.2) 1.87 IV
F1
(Plastic bottles) 8 (8.9) 10 (11.1) 29 (32.2) 43 (47.7) 1.81 V
G1
(Ds) 11 (12.2) 18 (20.0) 4 (4.5) 56 (62.2) 1.80 VI
H2
(Pistachio shells) 17 (18.9) 36 (40.0) 6 (6.7) 31 (34.4) 2.43 II
I1
(Cardboard) 12 (53.3) 3 (3.4) 30 (33.3) 45 (50.0) 1.80 VII
J1
(Wires) 4 (4.5) 1 (1.1) 15 (16.6) 70 (77.7) 1.32 X
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages Weighted Mean Score – WMS
Kruskal –Wallis H-test H=1.05* *Significant at 5 per cent
Economic Analysis of Jewellery Developed from Leftovers and Solid Waste
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21

19
the jewellery A2
made from buttons as very good
while it rated as good by 13.4 per cent and only 8.9
per cent respondents considered it to be fair.
As regards to jewellery B1
developed from
textured sheets, it was considered very good by 80
per cent of the respondents followed by 15.6 per
cent who rated it as good while only 4.4 per cent of
the respondents rated it as fair. Jewellery C1
(small
bulbs) was rated as very good by 90 per cent of
respondents while 6.7 per cent rated it as good and
3.3 per cent of the respondents rated it as fair.
With respect to jewellery D2
design using
toothpicks, it was rated as very good by 74.4 per
cent of the respondents, good by 18.9 per cent while
6.7 per cent of the respondents rated it as fair.
In the case of jewellery E1
(bottle caps), 73.3 per
cent of the respondents rated it as very good, 21.1
per cent rated it as good and 5.6 per cent of the
respondents rated it as fair.
Jewellery F1
(plastic bottles) was rated as very
good by 77.8 per cent of respondents while 16.7
per cent of the respondents rated as good and 5.5
per cent of the respondents rated it as fair. In case
of Jewellery G1
(CDs), 82.2 per cent rated it as very
good. It was rated as good by 13.3 per cent of the
respondents while only 4.5 per cent of the respondents
rated it as fair. Jewellery H2
(pistachio shells) was
rated as very good by 93.3 per cent of respondents
while 2.2 per cent of the respondents rated as good
and 4.5 per cent rated it as fair.
In case of Jewellery I1
(cardboards) 70 per cent
of the respondents rated it as very good. It was
considered good by 23.3 per cent of the respondents
and fair by 6.7 per cent of the respondents. Eighty
percent of the respondents rated jewellery J1
(wires) to be very good while 14.4 per cent of the
respondents rated it as good and 5.6 per cent as
fair. In all the cases more than 70 per cent of the
respondents consider all the jewellery products as
very good.
Assessment of cost effectiveness of the developed
jewellery
In the case of Jewellery A2
made from left over
buttons the cost price was Rs.215/- and majority of
the respondents preferred to buy it for Rs.255/- with
the profit of 18.6 per cent (Table 3).
In the case of Jewellery B1
(textured sheets),
the cost price was Rs 210/- and average selling
price was `252 with 20.0 per cent of profit margin.
Jewellery C1
(small bulbs) had the cost price of Rs
222 and average selling price was found to be Rs
286/- leading to a profit margin of 28.8 per cent.
For the Jewellery D2
(toothpicks), the cost price
was Rs 72/- while the average selling price was Rs
106/-, thus, there was a profit margin of 47.2 per
cent. Jewellery E1
made from plastic bottles had a
cost price of Rs 54/- and average selling price was
Rs 85/-. Therefore a profit margin of 57.4 per cent
could be earned. The cost of Jewellery F1
(bottle
caps) was Rs 108/- and its average selling price was
Rs 125/- , leading to a profit margin 15.7 per cent.
In the case of Jewellery G1
(CDs), the cost price
was Rs 84/- and average selling price was Rs 133/-,
with profit margin of 58.3 per cent. The cost price of
jewellery H2
(pistachio shells), was Rs 132/- and its
average selling price was Rs 171/-, hence, a profit
margin of 29.5 per cent could be earned.
For Jewellery I1
(cardboards) and J1
(wires)
the cost price was Rs 48/- and Rs 60/-, while the
average selling price was Rs 80/- and 100/- leading
to profit margin of 66.7 per cent each, respectively.
It was evident from the results that the profit
margins in jewellery developed from leftovers
and solid waste varies, depending on the design,
jewellery and accessories used. Product ranging
between 15.7 to 66.7 per cent profit can be earned
by developing such jewellery.
As for all the jewellery there was significant
difference between cost price and average selling
price (average selling prices were significantly
Kaur et al
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21

20
more). The developed jewellery was found to be
acceptable and even the consumers were ready to
pay more than the expected selling price. The high
acceptability and profit margins of the jewellery
made with leftovers and solid waste showed that the
conceptiscommerciallyviable.Whenmanufactured
commercially, then the cost of production will get
reduce leading to an increase in the profit margins
making it commercially more viable.
The studies conducted by Sunidhi (2004) and
Kaur ( 2011) revealed that it was possible to earn
20.7 to 50 per cent, and 21.2 to 66.8 per cent,
profit, respectively by making articles based on
preferences of the consumers.
JEWELLERY DEVELOPED FROM LEFT OVERS AND SOLID WASTE
Jewellery A2
developed
from left buttons
Jewellery B1
developed
from textured sheets
Jewellery C1
developed
from small bulbs
Jewellery D2
developed
from toothpicks
Jewellery E1
developed
from plastic bottles
Jewellery F1
developed
from bottle caps
Jewellery G1
developed
from CDs
Jewellery H2
developed
from pistachio shells
Jewellery I1
developed
from cardboards
Jewellery J1
developed
from wires
Economic Analysis of Jewellery Developed from Leftovers and Solid Waste
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21

21
Table 3. Opinion of respondents regarding the suitability of cost price and average selling price
of the Jewellery developed. (n=90)
Jewellery code Cost price Average selling
price
Z-value Percent Profit
(Buttons)
A2
215 255.0 7.89* 18.6
(Textured sheets)
B1
210 252.0 4.76* 20.0
(Small bulbs)
C1
222 286.0 9.61* 28.8
(Toothpicks)
D2
72 106.0 3.28* 47.2
(Bottle plastic)
E1
54 85.0 0.57* 57.4
(Bottle caps)
F1
108 125.0 3.35* 15.7
(CDs)
11G1
84 133.0 8.23* 58.3
(Pistachio shells)
H2
132 171.0 5.75* 29.5
(Cardboard)
I1
48 80.0 8.51* 66.6
(Wires)
J1
60 100.0 7.19* 66.6
*Significant at 5 per cent,
Kaur G et al
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 16-21
CONCLUSION
It was concluded that development of jewellery
form leftovers and solid waste would provide
entrepreneurs a new idea for making use of different
leftovers and solid waste to produce new products
along with different accessories to start with very
less investments. The results related to wearability,
colour combination, overall impact and appearance
would be beneficial to the housewife’s to utilize the
leftovers and solid waste at home. Majority of the
respondents i.e. 60 per cent rated all the jewellery
as very good. Average selling price of all the ten
developed jewellery ranged between Rs 80/- to
Rs 286/- and was accepted by majority of the
consumers. Profit margin ranged between 15.74 to
66.67 per cent which is quite good earning.
REFERENCES
Davis and Masten (2004) what is waste. http://scp.eionet.
europa.eu/themes/waste
Kaur R (2011) Development of decorative articles using card
weaving technique.M.Sc. thesis, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, India.
Leung Yee Man (2011) Creation of sustainability in fashion
accessories. http://www.itc.polyu.edu.
Sunidhi (2004) Development of decorative articles with finger
weaving techniques. M. Sc. thesis, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana, India.

22
INTRODUCTION
Maize is the third important cereal crop after
rice and wheat and is grown across a wide range of
climates in India. Maize is relatively a short duration
crop, capable of utilizing inputs more efficiently
and producing large quantity of food grains per
unit area (Farhad et al 2009). Maize has greater
nutritional value as it contains about starch (72 %),
proteins (10 %), oil (4.8 %), fibre (8.5 %), sugar
(3 %) and ash (1.7 %) (Chaudhary, 1993). Maize
being a C4
plant is having high genetic potential and
is photosynthesis explorative crop (Rowan and Xin,
2011).
The cultivation of spring season maize (Feb-
June) is expanding rapidly in northwest India.
Farmers in the central plain zone of Punjab generally
prefer cultivation of maize hybrids developed by the
private firms namely Pioneer (31Y45 and P 1844),
Monsanto (DKC 9108) and Dow (Dow 2244) in
Effect of Application of Various Inputs by the Farmers and the
Yield of Spring Maize Hybrids
Jatinder Manan, Manoj Sharma, Gurmeet Singh and Gobinder Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144 620 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to assess the use of various inputs by farmers in the cultivation of spring maize and
its impact on yield obtained as compared to the recommendations made by the research institutes. The data
suggested that farmers in Kapurthala district mainly opt for spring maize hybrids namely DKC 9108, 31Y45,
Dow 2244 and P 1844 and achieved an average gross return of Rs 70,104 to Rs.76,860/ha. It was observed
that farmers were applying urea in recommended dose but the time of application was different than the
recommendations. As per recommendations, urea needs to be applied in three equal splits during basal,
vegetative and tasseling stage. While, farmers were applying 75 per cent urea only during vegetative stage
and 24 per cent during tasseling stage. In case of DAP, 63 per cent of farmers were adding higher quantity
of phosphorus fertilizer than the recommended dose. Insecticide application was not adopted by 32.3 per
cent of the farmers, simultaneously herbicide application was not adopted by 50 per cent farmers and only
29 per cent farmers applied insecticide and herbicide both in their fields. It was also observed that grain
yield of spring maize during spring 2015 was reduced to 11.9 per cent as compared to spring 2014 season.
Key Words: Spring, Maize, Hybrids, Fertilizer, Insecticides, Pesticides, Sowing time, Yield.
the district. 31Y45 hybrid is the first true spring
maize hybrid launched in India and is suitable for
sowing between January and March in north India.
Now, DKC 9108 is the first spring hybrid of private
firm recommended by the Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana for cultivation in Punjab.
This hybrid is best suited for January and February
sowing with an average yield of 80 q/ha. P 1844
is the new spring hybrid from Pioneer launched
during the year 2015.
Thecultivationofspringmaizeisveryprominent
in the region due to its suitability in the cropping
rotation (Paddy-potato-spring maize) followed by
the potato growers in the area. It is pertinent to
mention that there are few farmers, who buy wheat
from the market for their domestic consumption
because they are of the view that this is the most
remunerativecroppingsequenceascomparedtorice-
wheat. However, vegetative growth of spring maize
Corresponding Author’s Email: jatinderkm@rediffmail.com
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 22-27

23
and its yield are highly dependent upon external
factors, i.e., application of urea, diammonium
phosphate (DAP), insecticide, herbicide, irrigations
and other important management practices. Hence,
the present study was undertaken with the objective
to study the effect of application of various inputs
by the farmers for increasing the yield of spring
maize hybrids in the district.
The study was conducted in the district covering
4 blocks namely Nadala, Dhilwan, Kapurthala and
Sultanpur lodhi during kharif, 2015.Aquestionnaire
was developed on the package of practices of spring
maize which included area sown, name of the maize
hybrid, sowing and harvesting dates, average yield
and price obtained, fertilizers and pesticides used.
A total of 128 farmers covering an area of 502.4
ha under different maize hybrids were interviewed
personally and data were recorded. The survey
was conducted during the entire growing period
of the crop and the data regarding grain yield were
obtained in the grain market at the time of selling
of the produce by the farmer. The values were
interpreted in the form of number and percentage.
Area under spring maize in different blocks
The study showed that maximum number
of farmers was from Kapurthala followed by
Sultanpur block whereas only 9.4 and 15.6 percent
farmers were from Nadala and Dhilwan blocks,
respectively. The probable reason for less number
of farmers from Nadala and Dhilwan was that the
grain markets are available only at Kapurthala and
Sultanpur; therefore, farmers from Nadala and
Dhilwan sell their produce either at Kapurthala or
Jalandhar. Moreover, the major cropping system
followed in Kapurthala and Sultanpur blocks is
paddy-potato-spring maize, whereas, in Nadala and
Dhilwan blocks it is rice – wheat cropping system.
Total area studied under spring maize cultivation
was found to be 134.8, 104.8, 109.2 and 153.6 ha in
Dhilwan, Nadala, Sultanpur and Kapurthala blocks,
respectively (Table 1).
Performance of spring maize hybrids at
farmers’ field
Out of total 502.4 ha area, maximum area was
found under hybrid DKC 9108 (47.0 %), followed
by 31Y45 (19.8 %), Dow 2244 (19.3 %) and P
1844 (13.9 %). The highest average yield obtained
was of spring maize hybrid DKC 9108 (90.0 q/ha)
followed by Dow 2244 (85.3 q/ha), 31Y45 (79.3
q/ha) and P 1844 (73.8 q/ha), respectively. It was
found that selling price of maize hybrid P 1844 was
higher in the market due to its orange colour grain
which attracted buyers more in the market. On the
other hand, the gross returns obtained by the farmers
followed the same trend as that of area sown (Table
2). This showed that based on last year experience,
farmers select the variety, hybrid or even crop to be
sown during a season.
On comparing the present results with that of
study conducted by Sharma et al (2014) during last
year, it was noticed that the average yield, selling
rate, days to harvesting, productivity and gross
returns were drastically reduced during spring 2015
season (Table 3). The grain yield during current
year was reduced by 11.9 per cent compared to last
year. The probable reason might be late harvesting
of potato due to occurrence of heavy and frequent
rainfall during January and February, 2015 which
delayed the sowing of spring maize and thus
reduced the grain yield as compared to 2014.
Table 1. Number of spring maize cultivating
farmers and area covered
Block Farmers Area covered
Number Per cent Hectare Per cent
Dhilwan 20 15.6 134.8 26.8
Nadala 12 9.4 104.8 20.9
Sultanpur 42 32.8 109.2 21.7
Kapurthala 54 42.2 153.6 30.6
Total 128 100.0 502.4 100.0
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 22-27
Manan et al

24
Due to decreased productivity, the average
selling price increased from Rs 856/- to 873/- per
quintal but this increase could not compensate the
reduction in yield and hence, gross returns during
the year 2015 decreased from Rs 81,886/- to
73,765/-per hectare.
From the data (Table 3) it can be inferred that
only two hybrids of spring maize, i.e., 31Y45 and
DKC 9108 dominated the region. The area under
hybrid DKC 9108 remained static, whereas, farmers
shifted from 31Y45 to other hybrids like Dow 2244
and P 1844 during 2015, which resulted in steep
decline in area under 31Y45. The probable reason
for adoption of DKC 9108 was that this hybrid
got recommendation from PAU, Ludhiana, higher
maize productivity (kg/ha/day) and lesser number
of days taken to maturity as compared to other
hybrids. The other probable reason for adoption
of new hybrid Dow 2244 was higher yield levels
(85.3 q/ha) and for P 1844 was higher market price
(Rs 935/q) as compared to 31Y45, which recorded
average yield of 79.3 q/ha and market price of Rs
884.6/- per quintal.
Table 2. Performance of different spring maize hybrids at the farmer’s field
Hybrid Area
covered
(%)
Average number of
days taken for
maturity (days)
Farmers
covered
(%)
Average
Yield (q/ha)
Selling
Price
(Rs/q)
Gross Returns
(Rs/ha)
DKC 9108 47.0 110 56.3 90.0 854.0 76,860
31Y45 19.8 111 21.9 79.3 884.6 70,104
Dow 2244 19.3 121 4.7 85.3 832.3 70,995
P 1844 13.9 113 17.1 73.8 935.0 69,003
Table 3. Comparative performance of spring maize hybrids at the farmers’ field
Hybrids % Farmers % Area cov-
ered
Yield (q/ha) Rate (Rs/q) Days taken to
harvesting
Maize pro-
ductivity (kg/
ha/day)
Gross returns (Rs/
ha)
2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015 2014 2015
P 1864 4.8 - 2.3 - 100.8 - 953.3 - 121.5 - 83.4 - 95,087 -
PMH 1 0.8 - 0.2 - 70.0 - 1100.0 - 115.0 - 60.8 - 77,000 -
31 Y 45 48.0 19.8 52.1 21.9 96.0 79.3 851.8 884.6 122.2 111.0 79.9 71.4 81,361 70,105
DKC 9108 46.4 47.0 45.4 56.3 96.2 90.0 855.0 854.0 121.5 110.0 80.6 81.8 81,842 76,860
Dow 2244 - 19.3 - 4.7 - 85.3 - 833.3 - 121.0 - 70.5 - 71,081
P 1844 - 13.9 - 17.1 - 73.8 - 935.0 - 113.0 - 65.3 - 69,003
Source: Sharma et al (2014)
Effect of urea application
Spring maize being a medium duration crop
highly responds to the urea application. The
recommended dose of urea is 312.5 kg/ha. It was
noticed that on 26.2 per cent area, farmers were
using 25 per cent less urea and on 65.4 per cent area,
farmers were using more than recommendation
(Table 4).
Table 4. Effect of urea application on yield of
spring maize
Urea (kg/ha) Area covered
(%)
Yield (q/ha)
<250 26.2 81.5
250-312.5 8.4 82.3
312.5-375 27.7 84.0
>375 37.7 84.5
The application of 125 kg/ha more urea than
the recommended dose increased maize yield to
the extent of 3q/ha. The cost of extra urea comes
out to be Rs. 1,000/- whereas, benefit is about
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 22-27
Effect of Application of Various Inputs by the Farmers

25
Rs.2,425/-. Therefore, it can be said that site
specific nutrient management is essential because
the recommendations were generally given based
on medium soil types.
It has been recommended that 33 per cent of
nitrogen each at 3 stages i.e., basal, knee height
stage and at pre-tasseling needs to be applied.
Hybrid wise, urea application study suggested that
urea was applied during 15-20 DAS and 25-30 DAS
on 39.7 and 35.1 per cent of area & only in 0.9 and
24.3 per cent of area at basal and tasseling stages
(Table 5). Lesser urea application at tasseling stage
had negative impact on overall crop yield; whereas,
no basal dose application would have resulted in
lower shoot growth and overall lesser vegetative
growth.
DAP application to previous crop and its impact
on yield
The quantity of DAP recommended is 125 kg/ha
at the sowing time of spring maize whereas it was
found that only on 36.9 per cent of area, farmers
were adding recommended DAP dose and on 63 per
cent area, farmers were using higher dose than the
recommendation (Table 6). Although, application
of 50 kg more quantity of DAP fertilizer resulted in
5.6 per cent increase in yield of spring maize.
Table 5. Urea application in spring maize hybrids at different time intervals
Hybrid Percent area covered
Basal dose 15-20 DAS 25-30 DAS At Tasseling
31Y45 1.1 42.4 25.2 31.4
DKC 9108 2.6 39.9 38.9 18.5
Dow 2244 0.0 38.7 38.7 22.6
P 1844 0.0 37.7 37.7 24.7
0.9 39.7 35.1 24.3
Table 6. Effect of DAP application on yield of spring maize
DAP(kg/ha) Area covered (%) Yield (q/ha)
125 36.9 79.8
125-187.5 6.9 82.3
>187.5 56.2 84.3
It has been established that DAP fertilizer added
remains in soil for next season also, so the variation
in DAP applied during previous crop must have
affected the yield of spring maize. It was observed
that in the fields with potato as previous crop, the
increase in spring maize yield was 5.5 per cent with
Rs.1,157/-ha higher returns as compared to other
crops (pea, cucurbits other vegetables etc) (Table
7). This increase was probably due to residual effect
of DAP fertilizer applied to the potato crop.
Effect of number of irrigations on yield of
spring maize
Maize being a C4 plant , the irrigation
requirements of spring maize is high and further
more the maturity of maize coincides with the
occurrence of maximum temperature during May-
June, that further increases the requirement of
irrigation water for proper grain filling during soft
dough and milking stage. On an average spring
maize requires 10-15 irrigations in life cycle.
Numbers of irrigations to spring maize ranged
between 8 to17. Further, it was found that on 34.7 per
cent of area, farmers applied less than 10 irrigations
and on 33.5 per cent of area, farmers applied more
than 15 irrigations (Table 8). The increase in yield
with 5 additional irrigations, on an average was
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 22-27
Manan et al

26
5.6 per cent. Due to high evapo-transpiration rate
during the growing period as well as knowledge gap
on irrigation water requirement leads to application
of water in much higher quantity than required for
physiological processes. This further adds to the
growing challenge of declining water table, a major
concern for agricultural sustainability in northwest
India
Effect of insecticide and pesticide application on
yield of spring maize
The recommendation is to apply herbicide
within 2 days of sowing and two applications of in-
secticide (one at 20 DAS and second at knee high
stage). The date (Table 9) revealed that the interac-
Table 7. Effect of DAP application to previous crop on yield of spring maize
Previous crop DAP added to previous
crop (kg/ha)
Yield of spring
maize (q/ha)
Rate(Rs/q) of
spring maize
Returns from spring
maize (Rs/ha)
Potato 421.5 82.8 869.6 72,003/-
Other than
potato
226.5 78.5 902.5 70, 846/-
Table 8. Effect of irrigations applied on yield of spring maize
Number of
irrigations Area covered (%) Yield (q/ha)
<10 34.7 80.3
10-15 31.8 83.5
>15 33.5 84.8
Table 9. Adoption of insecticide and herbicide application and net returns from spring maize
Insecticide
applied
Herbicide applied
Percent area basis Net returns (Rs/ha)
Yes No Yes No
No 21.0 12.3 70,000/- 58,331/-
Once 26.9 35.5 71,637/- 70,518/-
Twice 0.2 2.2 73,030/- 72,460/-
Thrice 1.9 0.0 74,219/- ---
50.0 50.0 72,221/- 67,103/-
tion between insecticide and herbicide application
affected the returns of spring maize. On 12.3 per
cent area, farmers neither applied insecticide nor
herbicide and earned gross returns of Rs 58,331/-ha
whereas, one insecticide spray and herbicide appli-
cation was practiced on 26.9 per cent area and farm-
ers accrued a gross returns of Rs 71,637/-ha.
However, increasing the insecticide sprays to
two with one herbicide application resulted in 1.9
per cent increase in gross returns. Increasing further
insecticide sprays had very little impact on returns.
It was also concluded from the data that majority of
the farmers do insecticide spray only once (on 62.4
% area) and more than once (on 4.3 % area).
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 22-27
Effect of Application of Various Inputs by the Farmers

27
CONCLUSION
The yield levels and price of maize were
drastically reduced during current year due to heavy
rainfall during Jan-Feb and so the gross returns
were lower by 9.9 per cent. Even then farmers were
using inputs like DAP and irrigation at higher levels
as compared to recommended levels which resulted
in lower net returns and also exhausted precious
natural resources. In case of urea application,
farmers used recommended quantity of fertilizer but
at inappropriate stages of growth in spring maize.
The adoption of insecticide and herbicide is also
very less, as 12% were not adding both and only
2% were adding herbicide and using insecticide
more than once. So overall, farmers were changing
recommendations based on their own assumptions
and needs to be educated for precise input use. With
the precise use of inputs the yield levels and gross
returns may be further increased.
REFERENCES
Chaudhary A R (1993). Maize in Pakistan. Punjab Agriculture
Coordination Board, Univ. Agric., Faisalabad.
Farhad W, Saleem M F, Cheema M A, and Hammed H M
(2009). Effect of poultry manure levels on the productivity
of spring maize (Zea mays L.). J Ani & Plant Sci 19(3):
122-125.
Rowan F S and Xin G Z (2011). Exploiting the engine of C4
photosynthesis. J Experimental Botany 62(9): 2989-3000.
Sharma Manoj, Singh Onkar, Singh Gobinder and Kaur
Gurpreet (2014). A snap shot of spring maize cultivation
in Kapurthala and Jalandhar district under central plain
zone of Punjab. J Krishi Vigyan 3(1): 1-4.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 22-27
Manan et al

28
INTRODUCTION
Processing of potato is gaining momentum at
faster pace in India since last decade because of
development of processing varieties, and their
production and storage technologies (Kumar et al
2011). Potato chips and French fries are the major
processed products in India. Unlike the popularity
of chips among children, freshly fried French fries
are most common convenience food of people of
all age groups. Huge growth in the requirement of
French fries from 2,500 MT in 2005-06 to 24,000
MT in 2010-11 attracted some Indian companies to
undertake French fry production venture but soon
they felt handicapped due to non-availability of
sufficient quantities of good size French fry quality
potatoes. Processing of potatoes into French fry
requires certain minimum quality attributes that
include oblong to long tubers (preferably more than
75 mm size) with shallow eyes, low peeling losses,
low reducing sugars (200 mg/100 g fresh tuber
Effect of Fertility Levels and Varieties on Tuber Yield and
Processing Quality of French Fry Grade Potato
K S Sandhu, M S Shahi, R K Sharma and Gurbax Singh
Post Graduate Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar – 143002 ( Punjab)
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during rabi seasons of 2013 to 2014, at Amritsar in split plot design
having three potato varieties (Kufri Frysona, Kufri Chipsona 1 and Kufri Surya) in main plot and four
fertility levels (F1; 187.5 kg N/ha [N 93.7kg (planting) + N 93.7kg (earthing)] + 62.5 kg P2O5 + 62.5
kg K2O /ha soil application; F2 ; 187.5 kg N/ha [N 84.7kg (planting) + N 84.7 kg (earthing) + 2 foliar
spray (2 % urea) at 60 and 80 days after planting] + 62.5 kg P2O5 + 62.5 kg K2O /ha; F3; 270 kg N/
ha [N 135 kg (planting) + N 135 kg (earthing)] + 62.5 kg P2O5 + 90 kg K2O /ha; F4; 270 kg N [N
126 kg (planting) + N 126 kg (earthing) + 2 foliar spray (2 % urea) at 60 and 80 days after planting]
+ 62.5 kg P2O5 + 90 K2O kg/ha.) in sub plots with three replications. French fry grade (FFG) tuber
yield was significantly higher in F1
than F3
, F4
and F2
. Tuber dry matter and French fry color were in
highly acceptable range throughout the fertility treatments. Significantly more number of Chip grade (45-
75mm), processing grade (>45mm), total and French fry grade tubers (>75mm) were noticed in Kufri
Chipsona 1 and Kufri Surya, respectively. Kufri Surya and Kufri Frysona produced significantly higher
FFG tuber yield, whereas chip grade tuber yield was significantly highest in Kufri Chipsona1 (18.8 t/
ha). Tuber dry matter was significantly higher in Kufri Frysona and Kufri Chipsona1 than Kufri Surya.
Key Words: Processing, Varieties, Nitrogen levels, French fry grade tubers, Processing attributes.
weight) and more than 20 per cent tuber dry matter
for crispy and light colored French fries (Marwaha,
1997). Important factors influencing French
fry grade as well as total tuber yield are nutrient
management and choice of cultivars. Enhanced
application of N and K in Kufri Chipsona 1 and
Kufri Chipsona 2 improved the both processing
quality and yield (Kumar et al 2007 a,b). Therefore,
first Indian processing variety Kufri Chipsona 1,
first heat tolerant and suitable for early planting
variety Kufri Surya and first high yielding variety
for French fries Kufri Frysona were evaluated for
maximum French fry grade tuber production under
different fertility levels at Amritsar.
The field experiment was conducted on sandy
loam soil (Typic Ustochrept) during rabi seasons of
2013 to 2014 at Students’ Farm, Khalsa College,
Amritsar, India (74o
55’ N, 31o
37’ N, 236 m above
Corresponding Author’s Email: kanwaljit74@gmail.com
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 28-31

29
mean sea level) in split-plot design with three
replications. The main plot treatments consisted
of three potato varieties with long tubers (Kufri
Frysona, Kufri Chipsona 1 and Kufri Surya), while
sub-plots consisted of four fertilizer management
treatments (F1; 187.5 kg N/ha [N 93.7kg (planting)
+ N 93.7kg (earthing)] + 62.5 kg P2O5 + 62.5 kg
K2O /ha soil application; F2 ; 187.5 kg N/ha [N
84.7kg (planting) + N 84.7 kg (earthing) + 2 foliar
spray (2 % urea) at 60 and 80 days after planting]
+ 62.5 kg P2O5 + 62.5 kg K2O /ha; F3; 270 kg N/
ha [N 135 kg (planting) + N 135 kg (earthing)] +
62.5 kg P2O5 + 90 kg K2O /ha; F4; 270 N kg [N
126 kg (planting) + N 126 kg (earthing) + 2 foliar
spray (2 % urea) at 60 and 80 days after planting]
+ 62.5 kg P2O5 + 90 K2O kg/ha.) in sub plots with
three replications. The inter-row spacing was kept
67.5 cm with intra-row spacing of 25 cm. Chemical
analysis of the soil (0-15 cm) showed neutral pH
(7.05), low organic carbon content (0.31%) and low
alkaline KMnO4
-N (157.4 kg/ha), high Olsen’s (0.5
M NaHCO3
extractable) P (29.6 kg/ha) and medium
1N ammonium acetate extractable K (146.8 kg/
ha). Half N (as per treatment), full P and full K (as
per treatment) were applied at the time of planting
as band placement. The remaining half N (as per
treatment) was applied in soil at the time of earthing
up (25 days after planting) as band placement. In
two treatments (F2
and F4
), foliar spray of urea (2%)
was also done at 60 and 80 days after planting (DAP)
with the view to extend the maturity period to have
higher French fry grade tuber number and yield.
Nitrogen was applied through calcium ammonium
nitrate at the time of planting and through urea at
earthing up. Phosphorus and potash were applied
through diammonium phosphate and muriate of
potash, respectively. The experimental crop was
planted on 2nd
and 4th
October during 2013 and 2014,
respectively. Well-sprouted seed tubers (weighing
50-60 g and about 40-45 mm in size) were planted
in plots of 4.05×4 m size. The experimental crop
was raised under assured irrigation using the furrow
method. Dehaulming was done manually at 100
DAP and harvesting was done two weeks later after
skin setting. Total, French fry grade (> 75 mm),
chip grade (45-75 mm) and small (<45 mm) tuber
number and yield were recorded at harvest from the
whole produce of the plot. To estimate tuber dry
matter content five French fry grade tubers from
each plot were chopped in fine pieces and 50 g
sample was oven dried at 80 o
C till constant weight
was achieved (Kumar et al 2007a).
At harvest five French fry size tubers were
selected randomly from each plot and used for
determining French fry colour score. Potato fries
were prepared at laboratory scale which involved
peeling of tubers in abrasive peeler, cutting into
1×1cm thick French fries using manual French fry
cutter, washing and drying on paper towel. Dried
fries were then fried in refined sunflower oil in a
thermostatically controlled deep fat fryer at 180
o
C till 5 min. Fries were evaluated for fry colour
on a scale of 1-10, subjectively with the help of
colour cards (Ezekiel et al 2003), where scale 1
represents white fries, free from any browning and
of highly acceptable colour while 10 is brown and
unacceptable colour. The fries with colour range
of 1 to 3 were considered acceptable. Data of each
character collected from the experiments were
statistically analyzed using standard procedures
of variance analysis with the help of statistical
software IRRISTAT (IRRI, 199).
Tuber Number
Except French fry grade, there was no significant
variation in chip grade, total processing grade,
small and total tuber yield under different fertility
levels (Table 1). Maximum and significantly higher
French fry grade tubers were noticed in F1
than
F3
, F4
and F2
which were statistically at par with
each other. On the other hand, F4
produced slightly
higher number of chip grade, processing grade,
small and total tubers than others three treatments.
Most suitable fertility treatment for French fry grade
and chip grade tubers were F1
and F4,
respectively.
An increase in number of tubers by N fertilization
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 28-31
Sandhu et al

30
has also been on record (Kumar et al 2007a) and
(Kumar et al 2012).
Among varieties, Kufri Surya and Kufri
Chipsona 1 produced maximum and significantly
higher French fry grade and chip grade tubers than
other verities, respectively. Kufri Chipsona 1 gave
significantly higher processing grade, small and
total tuber number than Kufri Surya (Table 1). This
variation in tuber setting among varieties may be
ascribed to their genetic makeup (Horton, 1987).
Tuber yield
Different fertility levels did not show significant
change in tuber yield recorded under different size
categories. Except chip grade tubers, yield of all
others categories was slightly higher in F1
(Table
2). Nitrogen application at the rate of 187.5 kg/ha
seems to be sufficient to potato crop throughout the
growing period leaving no scope for improvement
of tuber yield under different categories either by
higher rate or by foliar spray of nitrogen. These
results corroborate the findings of Kumar et al
(2007a) and Kumar et al (2012).
Kufri Surya being at par with Kufri Frysona gave
significantly higher French fry grade (FFG) tuber
yield than Kufri Chipsona 1, whereas, significantly
highest chip grade as well as small tuber yield
was recorded in Kufri Chipsona 1 (Table 2). Total
processing and total tuber yield was also slightly
higher in Kufri Chipsona-1 than other varieties.
Singh et al (2010) observed similar variation among
different genotypes.
Processing quality
Tuber dry matter is an important parameter from
processing point of view because it determines the
recovery of final fried products. Tuber dry matter
was slightly higher in treatment F4
(21.2%) than
other three fertility level (Table 2) whereas, variety
Kufri Frysona exhibited significantly more tuber
dry matter (23.1%) than Kufri Chipsona 1 (21.8%)
and Kufri Surya (17.8%) which may be ascribed
to their genetic make-up (Kumar and Kang, 1998).
Tuber dry matter content already reported to be
significantly influenced by nitrogen levels (Kumar
et al 2007a) as well as varieties (Kumar et al 2007b).
Table 1. Effect of fertilizer management and varieties on growth and graded tuber number of po-
tato (Pooled data of two years)
Treatment Emergence
(%)
Tuber number (thousand/ha)
French fry
grade
(>75 mm)
Chip grade
(45-75 mm)
Processing
Grade
(>45 mm)
Small
(<45 mm)
Total
Fertilizer Management
F1
94.5 99.0 200.3 299.3 169.3 468.6
F2
94.9 81.0 218.2 299.2 164.5 463.7
F3
95.1 87.3 202.8 290.1 161.1 451.2
F4
94.9 82.1 225.6 307.7 171.3 478.9
SEm+ 0.6 4.4 10.1 11.1 10.4 18.0
CD (0.05) NS 13.0 NS NS NS NS
Varieties
Kufri Frysona 94.2 92.7 203.1 295.8 169.1 464.9
Kufri Chipsona 1 95.2 58.6 263.7 322.3 199.3 521.6
Kufri Surya 94.7 110.6 168.5 279.1 131.2 410.3
SEm+ 0.5 7.2 5.5 8.8 7.7 16.0
CD (0.05) NS 28.4 21.5 34.3 30.2 63.2
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 28-31
Effect of Fertility Levels and Varieties on Tuber Yield

31
French fry colour did not show significant variation
and was, in highly acceptable colour range (<3CCS)
throughout the fertility levels (Kumar et al 2007a)
and varieties (Table 2).
CONCLUSION
It was concluded that fertility treatment F1
was
suitable for the production of higher FFG, TPG and
total tuber yield. Among varieties Kufri Frysona,
Kufri Surya and Kufri Chipson 1 were suitable
for FFG and Chip grade tubers with acceptable
processing attributes, respectively.
REFERENCES
Ezekiel R, Singh Brajesh and Kumar Dinesh (2003). A
reference chart for Potato chip color for use in India.
Journal of Indian Potato Association 30 (3, 4): 259-265.
Horton D (1987). Potatoes: Production, Marketing and
programs for developing countries. IT Publications,
London, U.K. pp. 36-47.
IRRI (1991). IRRISTAT for windows version 4.0 Biometrics
Unit, IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines
Kumar P, Pandey S K, Singh B P, Singh S V and Kumar
D ( 2007a). Effect of nitrogen rate on growth, yield,
economics and crisp quality of Indian potato processing
cultivars. Potato Research 50 (20): 143-155.
Kumar P, Pandey S K, Singh B P, Singh S V and Kumar D
(2007b). Influence of source and time of potassium
application on potato growth, yield, economics and crisp
quality, Potato Research 50 (1): 1-13.
Kumar Parveen, Pandey S K, Singh S V, Kumar Dinesh,
Singh B P, Singh Sukhwinder, Rawal S and Meena R L
(2012). Influence of N and K rates on yield and quality
of chipping variety Kufri Chipsona-3. Potato Journal 39
(2) : 191-196.
Kumar Parveen, Pandey S K, Singh S V, Kumar Dinesh, Singh
B P, Singh Kapur, Rawal S and Singh Sukhwinder (2011).
Effect of growth duration, N application and row spacing
on productivity, profitability and processing quality of
potato. Potato Journal 38 (2) : 137-142.
Marwaha R S (1997). Processing of potatoes: current status,
need, future potential and suitability of Indian varieties
- A critical appraisal. Journal of Food Science and
Technology 34: 457-471.
Singh S V, Pandey S K, Kumar Dinesh, Marwaha R S,
Manivel P, Kumar Parveen, Singh B P, and Bhardwaj
Viney (2010). Kufri Frysona: First high yielding potato
variety for French fries in India. Potato Journal 37 (3,4):
103-109.
Table 2. Effect of fertilizer management and varieties on graded tuber yield and processing quality
of potato at harvest (Pooled data of two years)
Treatment Tuber yield (t/ha) Tuber dry
matter
(%)
French
fry colourFrench fry
grade
(>75 mm)
Chip
grade (45-
75 mm)
Process-
ing grade
(>45 mm)
Small
(<45 mm)
Total
Fertilizer management
F1
12.35 14.21 26.56 4.22 30.78 21.0 1.84
F2
11.13 15.04 26.17 3.92 30.08 20.3 1.80
F3
11.97 14.32 26.29 3.91 30.20 21.0 1.78
F4
10.90 15.53 26.43 3.81 30.23 21.2 2.01
SEm+ 0.57 13.85 0.76 0.25 0.89 0.55 0.17
CD (0.05) NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
Varieties
Kufri Frysona 12.60 13.85 26.46 3.99 30.45 23.1 1.88
Kufri Chipsona-1 7.70 18.79 26.49 4.79 31.28 21.8 1.82
Kufri Surya 14.45 11.67 26.12 3.11 29.24 17.8 1.81
SEm+ 0.92 0.50 0.80 0.13 0.89 0.42 0.17
CD (0.05) 3.62 1.95 NS 0.53 NS 1.67 NS
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 28-31
Sandhu et al

32
INTRODUCTION
Mushrooms belong to the group of edible
fungi and are a rich source of protein. The most
commonlygrownmushroomsareAgaricusbisporus
commonly known as white button mushroom. They
are highly perishable with high nutritional value and
short shelf life of 3-4 days(Lee, 1999) compared to
most of the vegetables at ambient temperatures,
because they have no cuticle to protect them from
physical or microbial attack or water loss (Martine
et al 2000). The transpiration rate of mushrooms
is 2.5mg/cm2
which is higher than tomato due to
absence of protective skin which leads to higher
moisture loss (Mahajan et al 2008).There is a need
to extend the shelf life of the mushrooms for which
special handling is required.Minimally processed
fruits and vegetables are getting a good response
commercially as they have some advantages of cost
and labour (Hoover, 1997).
Polythene is the cheapest and most widely used
for food packaging in developing countries. It is
available in a wide range of thickness and grades, all
Effect of Packaging Material and Temperature on Firmness of
Minimally Processed Button Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)
Gagan Jyot Kaur*
and Jagbir Rehal2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Moga-142 001 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) are one of the most perishable horticultural produce with high nutritional
value and short shelf life usually 1-3 days at ambient temperature. The market acceptance of mushroom
is mainly affected by its colour and firmness. In the current study, experiments were carried out to
evaluate the effect of storage conditions on firmness ofminimally processed mushrooms. Mushrooms
were packed in polythene bags (a) 100 gauge (b) 200 gauge (c) 300 gauge (with and without macro-
perforations)and stored at (i) 13°C (ii) 18°C (iii) 24°C (iv) 4±1 °C (refrigeration temperature) and (v)-
18°C (deep freezer). It was observed that the samples packed in 200gauge polythene bags and stored
at refrigeration temperature had a longer shelf life due to delayed deterioration in the firmness when
compared to mushrooms stored at13,18 and 24˚C.The mushrooms stored at deep freezer (-18˚C) showed a
different trend as the firmness increased significantly due to phase change of water present in the produce.
Key Words: Button Mushroom,Packaging, Shelf life, Temperature.
of which are flexible,relatively tough,heat sealable
andtransparent.TheLowDensityPolythene(LDPE)
has relatively poor barrier properties in comparison
to HDPE (High Density Polythene) 200-500 gauge
as they have comparatively better barrier properties
against moisture, air and odours. The current
study was carried out with an objective to assess
the effect of the packaging material and storage
temperate on the firmness of freshly harvested
minimally processed mushrooms. To investigate the
mushrooms were packed in polythene bags (a) 100
gauge (b) 200 gauge (c) 300 gauge (with and without
macro-perforations) and stored at (i) 13°C (ii) 18°C
(iii) 24°C (iv) 4±1 °C (refrigeration temperature)
and (v)-18°C (deep freezer)at atmospheric and sub
atmospheric conditions.
White button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus)
were obtained during the first stage of maturity
and transported in the refrigerated van to the
laboratory within 3 hours of picking. The damaged
Corresponding Author’s Email:engg-gagan@pau.edu
2
Department of Food Science & Technology, PAU, Ludhiana
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 32-36

33
and bruised mushrooms were removed while
the sound mushrooms were packed in polythene
bags of 200,300,400 gauge (with and without
perforations).The area under macro perforations
was 1per cent of the total packed area uniformly.
The sub atmospheric conditions were created with
a vacuum pump, the pipe attached was used to
eliminate the air present in the polythene bag and
sealed with a sealing machine. These samples were
stored at different roomtemperatures (13°C, 18°C,
24°C), refrigeration temperature ( 4±1° C) and deep
freezer(-18±1°C).
Texture
Softening of mushrooms was determined by
penetration test using penetrometer(Mc Cormick
Fruit Tester FT-327)in the range 0.2-5 kg/cm2
and
1.5-12 kg/cm2
.The needle of penetrometer was
axially inserted through the button portion parallel
to stipe. With the uniform application of force,
the needle on the dial moved and the reading was
recorded as firmness (kg/cm2
). The study was so
designed that the initial firmness for a lot under
specific storage conditions were taken as constant.
Firmness=Reading on the gauge (kg)/Area of
the penetrometer (cm2
)
Statistical Analysis
Experiments were arranged in completely
randomized design and each composed of three
replicates. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
computed using statistical program for social
sciences (SPSS 13.0) and the differences at P≤0.05
was considered significant.
Effect of packaging material on the firmness
The initial firmness of mushrooms varied from
3.35kg/cm2
to 4.95 kg/cm2
.These were packed in
polythene bags and stored at constant temperature.
The firmness of the mushrooms packed in polythene
bags of variable thickness decreased with time.
The parameters had a significant effect on the
firmness of the mushroom. The minimum loss of
15.6 per cent in the firmness was recorded for the
samples packed in 200 gauge and 12.7 per cent for
mushrooms packed in 400 gauge polythene bags
with macro pores at atmospheric pressure. The
effect of packaging at 13°C under sub atmospheric
pressure was non-significant. The bags without
macro-perforations showed precipitation of water,
the moisture within the package appeared to have
Table 1. Effect of packaging material on the firmness (kg/cm2
)of the mushrooms.
Parameter Initial 200 gauge 300 gauge 400 gauge Packaging
Material
Shelf Life
(d)
CD
3rd
Day at 13°C
AP 3.7 3.12 2.9 2.97 0.41 0.69 0.54
MP 3.7 2.6 2.96 3.23 0.19 0.52 0.34
SAP 3.7 2.82 3.0 2.57 NS 0.63 NS
3rd
Day at 18°C
AP 4.05 2.72 2.35 2.3 0.21 0.89 0.43
MP 4.05 2.62 2.90 2.78 N.S 0.96 NS
SAP 4.05 2.62 2.72 2.57 N.S 0.87 NS
3rd
day at 24°C
AP 4.95 4.35 4.43 4.65 0.66 1.17 0.87
MP 4.95 4.15 4.15 4.18 0.19 1.47 0.61
SAP 4.95 4.35 4.46 4.45 NS 1.23 NS
AP (Atmospheric Pressure),MP (Macro Perforations),SAP (Sub Atmospheric Pressure)
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 32-36
Kaur and Rehal

34
no effect on the mushroom softening (Beecher et
al 2001).The condensation rather depends upon the
water uptake during cultivation and storage at RH
90-95 per cent (Table 1).
At18°Ctheeffectofpackagingmaterialwasnon-
significant for both the samples stored in polythene
bags with macro perforations and samples packed
in polythene bags at sub atmospheric conditions.
Minimum loss of firmness of 32 per cent was
observed for mushrooms stored in polythene bags
200gauge, in comparison to the control (41.6%).
At 24˚C, the effect of packaging material with
macro perforations was non-significant. Minimum
loss of 14.2 and 14.4 per cent was recorded for the
samples packed in 200 and 300 gauge at atmospheric
pressure while the control recorded a loss of 41.8
per cent. The mushrooms packed in 200gauge
at atmospheric pressure retained the maximum
firmness. With the increase in temperature the
gradient increased resulting in the transfer of water
from the mushrooms to the surroundings. As the
temperature increases the loss of water increases
and the texture deteriorated at a fast pace. Similar
results of water loss and senescence have been
reported by Nerya et al (2006).
Table 2. Effect of packaging material on the firmness of the mushrooms on the 12th
day at Refriger-
ation Temperature (4± 1 °C)
Material
Shelf
Life(d)
CD
AP 4.95 3.6 3.85 3.36 0.66 1.17 0.87
MP 4.95 2.41 2.23 2.03 0.19 1.47 0.61
SAP 4.95 3.25 2.93 2.90 NS 1.23 NS
AP (Atmospheric Pressure), MP (Macro Perforations), SAP (Sub Atmospheric Pressure)
At refrigeration temperature the quality
of mushrooms on the 12th
day of storage was
comparable to the 3rd
day at room temperature
so the data for that period is reported. Maximum
firmness was retained by mushrooms packed
in 300 gauge followed by those packed in 200
gauge and 400gauge, respectively at atmospheric
conditions. Similarly, the loss in firmness was
higher at higher temperature when compared
to refrigeration temperature. Similar trend was
recorded by Zivanovic et al (2000) and it could
be attributed to protein and polysaccharide
degradation, hyphae shrinkage, central vacuole
disruption and expansion of intercellular space at
pileal surface. The mushrooms packed under sub
atmospheric conditions had a non-significant effect
on the packaging material. Comparing the firmness
at different room temperatures (13, 18, 24°C) and
the refrigerated temperature, it was observed that
the firmness decreased in comparison to fresh
mushrooms but the deterioration of the samples
stored at refrigeration temperature was delayed
(Table 2).
A reverse trend was recorded for the samples
stored in the deep freezer. Due to low temperature
Table 3. Effect of packaging material on the firmness of the mushrooms on the 8th
day at Deep Freez-
er (-18°C)
Material
Shelf Life
(d)
CD
AP 3.35 5.03 5.53 5.25 1.38 1.22 0.87
MP 3.35 5.3 5.5 5.31 NS 1.37 NS
SAP 3.49 4.39 4.3 5.25 0.18 0.89 0.47
AP (Atmospheric Pressure), MP (Macro Perforations), SAP (Sub Atmospheric Pressure)
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 32-36
Effect of Packaging Material and Temperature on Firmness of Minimally Processed

35
the water present in the mushroom (bound and
unbound) changed from liquid to solid form
resulting in the increased firmness. More force
was required to penetrate through the pelus. Slow
freezing led to the formation of big ice crystals
damaging the adjacent cell wall. When these
mushrooms were exposed to the room temperature
thawing took place and phase change of water from
solid to liquid occurred. The ruptured cells lost the
turgidity and resulted in poor textural properties
making it unacceptable for the market.
Itwasrecordedthattemperaturehadasignificant
effect when compared with the packaging material.
As the temperature increased the texture of the
mushroom deteriorated with time. This could be
due to increased respiration rate with the time. At
room temperature minimum loss in the firmness
was recorded for samples packed in 200gauge
polythene bags under atmospheric condition and
400 gauge macro perforated polythene bagsat24˚C
and 13˚C, respectively.
The macro perforation had a non-significant
effect on the in the packaging material and shelf life
of the mushrooms. The firmness of samples packed
in macro-perforated polythene bags was similar
to control due to absence of the barrier to control
the water vapor transmission rate. These samples
showed similar characteristics of veil opening,
turning the gills brown, elongation of the stem and
reduced texture (Lopez-Briones et al 1992).
The sub-atmospheric conditions created by
eliminating the oxygen with the vacuum pump
reduced the concentration of oxygen present.
The small amount of oxygen present restricted
the respiration rate thus reducing the moisture
content maintaining the firmer texture, retarded
cap development, reduced aerobic deterioration
and weight loss. Similar results of decrease in rate
of senescence stored in LDPE at 12°C though the
concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen varied
were reported by Roy et al ( 1995).It was reported by
Martin and Beelman (1996) that less than 2 per cent
of oxygen can cause anaerobic microbial growth
such as Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus
aureus. For the packs stored at sub- atmospheric
condition detrimental deterioration was observed,
mushrooms with dark brown blotches and opening
oftheveil.Carbondioxideconcentrationhigherthan
12 per cent causes loss of firmness and an increase
in the enzymatic browning of Agaricus bisporus
due to cell membrane damage. The concentration
of carbon dioxide and oxygen is very critical. The
degree of sensitivity towards carbon dioxide varies
with the type of mushrooms. Excessive carbon
dioxide inside the package can cause physiological
injuries resulting in severe browning and off flavors
(Jacxsens et al 2002).
CONCLUSION
The samples stored at refrigeration showed
the maximum shelf life for the samples packed
in 200gauge polythene bags. The size of
the perforations was big which subsided the
characteristics of the individual polythene sheet.
Small openings uniformly distributed can be
considered for further studies. The samples stored
in deep freezer showed an increase in the firmness
but due to slow freezing the rupture of adjacent
cells took place and it destroyed the texture which
was prevalent during thawing. Mushroom is highly
nutritious horticulture produce and for maximum
retention of the nutrients there is a lot of scope in
freeze drying of mushrooms.
REFERENCES
Beecher T M, Magan N and Burton K S (2001). Water
potentials and soluble carbohydrate concentrations
in tissues of freshly harvested and stored mushrooms
(Agaricus bisporus). Post Harvest Bio. and Tech 22:121-
131.
Hoover D G (1997). Minimally processed fruits and
vegetables. Reducing microbial load by non-thermal
physical treatments. Food Tech 51(6):66-69.
Lee J S (1999). Effect of modified atmosphere packaging
on the quality of chitosan and CaCl2
coated mushrooms
(Agaricus bisporus). Korean J Fd Sci Tech 31(5): 1308-
1314.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 32-36
Kaur and Rehal

36
Lopez- Briones G L,Varoguaux P, Chambroy Y, Bouquant
J, Bureau G and Paseat B (1992) . Storage of common
mushroom under controlled atmosphere. Intl J Fd Sci
Tech 27:493-503.
Mahajan P V, Rodgrigues F A S , Motel A and Leonhard A
(2008). Development of moisture absorber for packaging
of fresh mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus). Post Harvest
BioTechnol 48:408-414.
Martin S T and Beelman R B (1996). Growth and Enterotoxin
production of Staphylococcus aureus in fresh packaged
mushrooms(Agaricus bisporus). J Fd Prot 59 (8):819-
826.
Martine B, Gaelle L P and Ronan G (2000). Post harvest
treatment with citric acid or hydrogen peroxide to extend
the shelf life of fresh sliced mushroom. Leben-Wissen
and Technol 33:285-289.
Nerya O, Ben-Arie R, Luzzatto T M, Khativ S and Vaya J
(2006). Prevention of Agaricus bisporus post-harvest
browning with tyrosinase inhibitors. Post harvest Bio and
Technol 39: 272-277.
Roy S, Anantheswaran R C and Beelman R B (1995).Fresh
mushroom quality as affected by modified atmosphere
packaging. J Fd Sci 60:334-340.
Zivanovic S, Buescher R W and Kim K S (2000). Textural
changes in mushrooms(Agaricus bisporus)associated
with tissue ultrastructure and composition. J Fd Sci
65:1404-1408.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 32-36
Effect of Packaging Material and Temperature on Firmness of Minimally Processed

37
INTRODUCTION
Probiotics are defined as live microbial feed
supplements that improve the health of livestock,
or in other words, organisms or substances that
contribute to intestinal microbial balance referred
as probiotics (Parker, 1974). The main objectives
of application of probiotics in the rearing of young
animals are improved survival, inhibition of
diarrhea, superior growth and better feed conversion
efficiency (Jin et al 1996). Dietary use of probiotics
is thus preferred to that of antibiotics to enhance
nutrient utilization, improve feed efficiency and
maintain health status because of their non-harmful
effect on consumers (Onifade et al 1999).
A wide range of microbial feed additives for
ruminants has been described, including bacterial
cultures and mixtures of bacteria and fungi.
Beneficial bacterial concentrates, i.e., probiotics
used in feed enhance growth rate and metabolic
activities by stimulating digestion and immunity and
also to act as prophylactic and therapeutic medium
(Fuller, 1992; Rolef, 2000). Saccharomyces is one
of the major species of beneficial micro-organism
in the gut of monogastric animals (Blaut, 2002).
The fore-stomach of ruminants in very early life is
Effect of Probiotic Supplementation on Growth Performance of
Pre-Ruminant Buffalo Calves
P K Sharma, K A Prajapati and M K Choudhary
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kheda -387810 ( Gujarat)
ABSTRACT
To study the effect of Probiotic ( Saccharomyces cervisiae) supplementation in pre-ruminant (0-3 months
age) buffalo calves, twenty buffalo calves were divided into two groups of ten calves each according
to their body weight. One group was the control while the other group was supplemented with bacteria
Saccharomyces cervisiae -containing Probiotic @ 15g/calf/d in milk for a period of two months under field
condition. Fortnightly growth rate of calves revealed that the effect of Saccharomyces cervisiae was more
effective (P<0.01) during first month of supplementation but could not sustain in the second month. Never
the less, probiotic supplementation led to an overall improvement (P<0.05) in the growth rate of buffalo
calves. It also helped in preventing occurrence of diarrhea and reduced mortality during early stage of life.
Key Words: Saccharomyces cervisiae, Probiotic, Buffalo calves, Growth performance.
similar to that of monogastric animals and hence
supplementation with Saccharomyces cervisiae
improves digestibility of nutrients and ultimately
growth in pre-ruminant calves. Hence, this study
was undertaken with a view to note down effect of
probiotic supplementation on growth performance
in pre-ruminant buffalo calves.
The experiment was conducted on growing
pre-ruminant (0-3 month’s age) buffalo calves. A
total of twenty buffalo calves were divided into two
groups of ten calves each according to their body
weight.
Calves were maintained individually in
concrete-floored, well-ventilated pens in a properly
managed shed. The body weight of the calves was
recorded with standard method using the formula
of measuring the heart girth and length at the start
of experimental feeding and thereafter regularly at
fortnightly intervals. Weighing was done before
feeding and watering in the early morning. One
group served as the control, while the other was
supplemented with probiotics (Saccharomyces
cervisiae) @ 15 g/animal/d with milk. Milk was
Corresponding Author’s Email : mukesh.choudhary96@gmail.com
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 37-39
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 37-39 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00009.X

38
fed according to the age of calves. The amount was
1/10th of the body weight from 0-20 days of age,
thereafter up to one month of age, it was 1/15 of
their body weight, from 1-2 months, it was 1/20th
of their body weight, and thereafter till three months
of age, it was 1/25th of body weight. Milk feeding
was done in the morning at 7.00 a.m. and in the
evening at 5.00 p.m. in divided doses, calves had
access adlib to water for two hours in the morning
as well as in the evening. The probiotic supplement
was given daily for a period of two months, and the
average daily gain (ADG) was calculated.
Effect on body weight gain
The data pertaining to average body weight gain
indicated that out of the total period, in the initial
one month, body weight gain was significantly
(P<0.01) improved in the supplemented group,
while the effect was non-significant in the second
month leading to a reduced overall (P<0.05) effect
on the growth performance of the buffalo calves
(Table 1).
Similar finding were reported by Mudgal et al
(2010). They described that feeding of probiotic
to calves up to two months of age did not have
significant effect on body weight gain of calves as
compared to controlled groups. In contrast to above
findings, Malik and Sharma (1998), Pandey and
Agrawal (2001), Prahalada et al (2001), Magalhaes
et al (2008) Hossain et al (2012) and Gupta et
al (2015) also reported higher growth rate and
feed conversion efficiency in cross bred acalves
Table 1. Effect of probiotic supplementation on average body weight gain of buffalo calves.
Group Birth wt
(kg)
1st
fortnight
(kg)
2nd
Fortnight
(kg)
ADG at
1 month
3rd
Fortnight
(kg)
4th
Fortnight
(kg)
Overall
ADG at
2 month
(g)
T1 (Control) 30.9 32.8 36.6 187g/d 41.6 45.8 247g/d
T2 (Probiotics) 30.2 33.2 37.9 257 **g/d 42.9 47.1 281*g/d
* (P<0.05) and ** (P<0.01)
supplemented with probiotics. Similarly, when
Pashupathy et al (2002) added Lactobacillus
acidophilus to the diet of growing mongrel pups,
they observed improved growth rate in the early
stage of life, while in later stages when there was
higher fiber in the diet, reduction in the growth rate
was observed, so that ultimately the growth what at
the level of the control group.
CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that supplementation with
Saccharomyces cervisiae is more beneficial in
initial stages of calves’ life when the fiber level in
the diet is low and that the effect was found to be
declining with the advancement of age.
REFERENCES
Blaut M (2002). Relationship of probiotics and food to
intestinal microflora. Euro J Nutri 41: 148-150.
Fuller R (1992). History and development of probiotics,
p. 1-7. R. Fuller (Ed.) Probiotics: The Scientific Basis.
Chapman & Halt, London, United Kingdom.
Gupta P, Sharma K S, Porwal M and Joshi M (2015). Biological
performance of female calves fed diets supplemented with
different strains of Lactobacilli. Int J of Sci Environment
and Technology 4: 1181 – 1187.
Hossain S A, Parnekar S , Haque N, Gupta R S, Kumar D and
Tyagi A K (2012). Influence of dietary supplementation
of live yeast (Saccharomyces Cervisiae) on nutrient
utilization, ruminal and biochemical profiles of Kankrej
calves. Int J App Anim Sci 1: 30-38.
Jin L Z, Ho Y W, Abdullah N, Ali A M and Jalaudin S
(1996). Effect of adherent Lactobacillus spp. on in vitro
adherence of Salmonellae to the intestinal epithelial cells
of chickens. J Appl Bacteriol 81: 201-206.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 37-39
Sharma et al

39
Magalhaes V J A, Susca T F, Lima F S, Yoon, A F T and
Santos J E P (2008). Effect of Feeding Yeast Culture on
Performance, Health and Immunocompetence of Dairy
Calves. J. Dairy Sci 91:1497–1509.
Malik R and Sharma D D (1998). Influence of mixed probiotic
on growth, feed conversion efficiency and incidence of
diarrhoea in young calves. Indian J Anim Nutr 15: 228-
231.
Mudgal V and Baghel R P S (2010). Effect of probiotic
supplementation on growth performance of pre-ruminant
buffalo (Bubalus Bubalis) calves. Buffalo Bulletin 29: 3
Onifade A A, Odunsi A A, Babatunde G M , Olorede B
R and Muma (1999). Comparison of the supplemental
effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and antibiotics in
low protein and high fiber diets fed to broiler chickens.
Arch Tierernahr 52: 29-39.
Pandey D and Agrawal I S (2001). Nutrient utilization and
growth response in crossbred calves fed antibiotic and
probiotics supplemented diets. Indian J Anim Nutr 18:
15-18.
Parker R B (1974) Probiotics, the other half of the antibiotics
story. Anim Nutr Health, 29: 4-8.
Pashupathy K, Sahoo A, Kamra D N and Pathak N N (2002).
Effect of Lactobacillus supplementation and increased
fiber level on growth and nutrient utilization in growing
pups. Indian J Anim Nutr 19: 359-64.
Prahalada H K, Kamra D N and Pathak N N (2001). Effect
of feeding Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus
acidophilus on nutrient utilization and performance of
crossbred cattle calves. Indian J Anim Sci 16: 103-107.
Rolef R D (2000). The role of probiotics cultures in the
control of gastrointestinal health. J Nutr 130: 396-402.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 37-39
Probiotic Supplementation on Growth Performance of Pre-Ruminant Buffalo Calves

40
INTRODUCTION
Empowerment is a multidimensional process
and refers to the expansion of freedom of choice and
action in all spheres of life –social, political, cultural
and economic. It implies control over resources and
autonomy in decision making. At the individual
level, it refers to enhancing individual capabilities
and at the collective level, it stands for the ability to
organize and mobilize, to take action and to solve
their problems. Economic Empowerment involves
the ability of women to engage in income generating
activities which will give them an independent
income. Economic independence requires that
women be provided opportunities for acquiring
knowledge and skills which leads to technical as
well as social empowerment. Income generating
activities are considered as those initiatives that
Empowerment of Farm Women through Income Generating
Activities
L Pradhan1
, P Das2
and M P Nayak3
Krishi Vigyan Kendrs, Keonjhar
Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
ABSTRACT
Women empowerment is a process in which women gain greater share of control over resources
material, human and intellectual and financial resources and control over decision making in the home,
community, society, nation and to gain power. Economic independence is one of the means to empower
the women. This study was undertaken in five blocks of Bhadrak district of Odisha comprising 150
numbers of respondents. The study revealed that, among various income generating activities, the extent of
involvement of farm women in agro-processing (Rank I) then vegetable cultivation, mushroom cultivation,
backyard poultry rearing, dairy farming, Goat farming , Craft making and vermin- composting etc.
Promotion of income generating activities in rural areas not only enhance national productivity, generate
employment but also help to develop economic independence, personal and social capabilities farm
women. Economic empowerment, improved standard of living, self confidence, enhanced awareness, sense
of achievement, increased social interaction, engagement in political activities, increased participation
level in meeting, improvement in leadership qualities, involvement in solving problems related to
women and community, decision making capacity in family and community are the positive outcome.
Key Words: Empowerment, Economic independence, Farm women, Income generating activities.
affect the economic aspects of people’s lives
through the use of economic tools such as credit.
Income generating activity is an important tool for
empowerment of rural women. The self-help group
provides an appropriate platform for initiating
and sustaining income generating activities for
the women. The State Odisha is an agrarian state
with agriculture and animal husbandry sector
contributing less than 20 per cent to the State’s Gross
Domestic Product (GSDP) providing employment
directly or indirectly to 60 per cent of the total work
force. Different agencies have been promoting
different Income generating activities for economic
empowermentoffarmwomen.Agricultureandallied
departments along with Krishi Vigyan Kendras of
Odisha are taking initiative for economic upliftment
of the farm families. Therefore, the present study
Corresponding Author’s Email: laxmiouat@yahoo.co.in
1. Scientist, KVK, Keonijhar.
2. Professor, College of Home Science, OUAT.
3. Joint Director Information, OVAT, Bhubaneswar.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 40-43

41
was undertaken to study the extent of involvement
and empowerment of farm women through income
generating activities.
The present study was undertaken in Bhadrak
district of Odisha. Purposively the five blocks
namely Basudevpur, Bhadrak, Bonth, Dhamnagar
and Tihidi were selected, in which the Krishi
Vigyan Kendra and Agriculture departments of
Bhadrak district were carrying out various income
generating activities. 30 farm women selected from
each blocks thus making a total sample size of 150
participants. Data were collected through schedule
questionnaire, group discussion, observation during
field visit and personal interview. The data were
tabulated, analysed and presented with the help of
frequency and percentage.
Table1. Involvement of form women in income generating activities.
Sr.No. Income Generating Activity Extent of Involvement
Very Much Much Little
1 Agro-processing 48 54 48
2 Mushroom cultivation 42 60 48
3 Backyard poultry farming 32 54 64
4 Vegetable cultivation 30 55 65
5 Dairy farming 28 46 76
6 Goat farming 27 45 78
7 Craft making 25 42 83
8. Vermi- composting 15 32 103
Table 2. Extent of involvement in different activities.
Sr.No. Activity Extent of Involvement
Score Mean Score Rank
1 Agro-processing 300 2.0 I
2 Mushroom cultivation 294 1.96 II
3 Vegetable cultivation 265 1.77 III
4 Backyard poultry farming 264 1.76 IV
5 Dairy farming 252 1.68 V
6 Goat farming 249 1.66 VI
7 Craft making 242 1.61 VII
8 Vermi-composting 212 1.41 VIII
Involvement of farm women in different
activities:
The extent of involvement of farm women was
studied and presented in Table 1.
It was noticed that the farm women were very
much involved in agro-processing like badi and
papad making, chhatua, rice puffed, paddy puffed,
rice flake, rice flour preparing, rice ladu (mudhi
& chuda muan), arisa making, dal making etc.
and much involvement in mushroom cultivation
and least interested in vermi-composting. Less
interest shown in composting activity may be due
to unawareness about its utility and techniques.
The extent of involvement of farm women
was much in agro-processing (Rank I) because in
all the blocks, the farm women were engaged in
agro-processing activities. Mushroom cultivation
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 40-43
Pradhan et al

42
Table 3. Extent of Economic Empowerment.
Sr.No. Economic Parameter Extent of Empowerment
Score Mean Score Rank
1 Self Confidence 345 2.30 I
2 Food habit 307 2.04 II
3 Decision on Expenditure 295 1.96 III
4 Family Standard 288 1.92 IV
5 Decision making in financial aspect 280 1.86 V
6 Helping in family finance 278 1.85 VI
7 Saving 265 1.76 VII
Average mean score was 1.96
Table 4. Extent of Social Achievement.
Sl.No Social Parameter Extent of achievement
Score Mean Score + / - than aver-
age
Rank
1 Education of the children 328 2.18 + I
2 Health care 282 1.88 - II
3 Social participation 281 1.87 - III
4 Social identity 270 1.80 - V
5 Cosmopolitanisms 283 1.89 - IV
Maximum Obtainable Score was 4.5 and Average Mean Score was 1.92
secured Rank II because the paddy straw is plenty
available in Bhadrak district. Likewise, vegetable
cultivation followed by backyard poultry farming,
dairy farming, goat rearing, craft making and vermi-
composting in order of rank ( Table 2).
Extent of economic empowerment
The data (Table 3) revealed that after adopting
the agri-enterprises the farm women got self-
confidence which is highly essential for any
development or empowerment and secured rank I.
Food habit secured rank II, because their attitude
changed from food quantity to its quality. Decision
making regarding spending of money secured rank
III. Likewise, increase in family standard, decision
making in financial matters, helping in family
finance and saving were in order of rank (Table 3).
Extent of Social Achievement
Lot of research indicated that social and
economic development must go together and should
be complementary and supplementary in nature.
Social participation indicated that participation of
an individual in different social organization, which
are prevalent in the society and do have influence
on the social behaviour of the inhabitants. In this
study, following social parameter achieved through
income generating activities.
The table 4 revealed that the farm women were
more concerned about their child education as
they thought that education change the behaviour,
attitude and knowledge of a child but in social
participation, social identity, cosmopolitanisms and
health care, the farm women don’t have so much
liberty and thus need to be strengthen.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 40-43
Empowerment of Farm Women through Income Generating Activities

43
CONCLUSION
Income generating activities are the important
tool for empowerment of rural women. Farm
women much involved in agro-processing and
mushroom cultivation than vegetable cultivation,
poultry farming, dairy farming, goat rearing, craft
making and vermin- composting. The farm women
built self-confidence, changed food habit from
quantity to quality and enhanced decision making
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 40-43
Pradhan et al
ability. Regarding social participation, the farm
women were more concerned about their children
education but in social participation, social identity,
cosmopolitans and health care, the farm women
were not so much empowered and thus, need to
be strengthened. Women empowerment never be
possible if they will not achieve social, economical,
political and technological empowerment.

44
INTRODUCTION
Sapota (Manilkara acharas Mill.) is also called
as Chikoo is an evergreen tree known for producing
delicate flavour, melting pulp with sweet taste. It is
hardy, highly productive and generally free from
major pests, diseases and physiological disorders.
Hence, it is most popular and widely cultivated in
the country. In India it is cultivated on area of 1.77
lakh ha. with production of 17.44 lakh MT and
productivity of 9.90 MT per hectare. Maharashtra is
leading state in which sapota is grown on 73,000 ha.
with production of 4.74 lakh MT and Productivity
of 6.50 MT per hectare (Anonymous, 2014). Most
of the present day cultivars are seedling selections
and its cultivation is based on narrow genetic base.
Therefore, an attempt was made to evaluate eight
year old eight sapota cultivars viz. Kalipatti, PKM
1, PKM 2, PKM Hy 7/1, Cricket Ball, CO 1, CO
2 and Kirti Bharti under National Agriculture
Research Project, Ganeshkhind, Pune.
The present investigation was carried out
under National Agriculture Research Project,
Evaluation of Sapota Cultivars for Growth and Yield
Under Pune Conditions
S G Bhalekar1
and S U Chalak2
College of Agriculture, Pune -411 005 ( Maharashtra)
ABSTRACT
A study on evaluation of eight year old eight sapota cultivars viz. Kalipatti, PKM 1, PKM 2, PKM
Hy 7/1, Cricket Ball, CO 1, CO 2 and Kirti Bharti was carried out under National Agriculture
Research Project, Ganeshkhind, Pune. The study revealed that the cv. PKM 1 was found vigorous
in growth by showing maximum East-West spread (3.77 m), North- South spread (3.96 m). The
average number of fruits/tree/ yr (523.5) and fruit yield (46.2 kg ) was recorded in cv. PKM 1 whereas
the average fruit yield of other cultivars ranged between 2.16 kg/tree/yr for Cricket Ball to 24.0 kg/
tree/yr for (PKM 2). It was noticed that maximum fruit weight (99.3 g) was found in cv. PKM 2,
however, the varietal differences for fruit diameter and number of seeds/fruit were non-significant.
Key Words : Sapota, Varieties, Yield, Quality.
Ganeshkhind, Pune for two years. Eight leading
sapota cultivars grafted on Khirni (Manilkara
hexandra L) planted in June 2002 with spacing of 10
X 10 m in deep black alluvial soil. The experiment
was laid out in randomized block design with
three replications. The observations were recorded
on two plants of each cultivar in each replication
considered as a plant unit. The various observations
recorded were plant height, east west spread, noth
south spread, trunk girth at 30 cm above the ground
level, number of fruits/tree/yr, fruit dimensions,
total soluble sugars (TSS), number of seeds/fruit
and shape of fruit. The data were analyzed as per
method suggested by Panse and Sukhatme (1985).
Growth characters
The cv. PKM Hy 7/1 recorded maximum plant
height (4.4 m) and trunk girth (38.7 cm), whereas
the minimum plant height (3.3 m) and trunk girth
(28.0 cm) were observed in cv. cricket ball. The
maximum east west (EW) and north south (NS)
spread was observed in PKM 1 and Kalipatti
cultivers. The plant height varied between 3.3 m
*Corresponding Author’s Email : sunilchalak@gmail.com
1Associate Professor, Horticulture
2Senior Research Assistant, NARP, (PZ) Ganeshkhind Pune.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 44-46

45
to 4.0 m., trunk height at 30 cm between 28.0 cm
to 38.7 cm. ( Table 1). These wide variations for
growth characters among the cultivars may be due
to their genotypic differences and adaptability to the
local conditions. Similar results have been reported
by Shirol et al (2009) and Saraswathy et al (2010).
Fruit yield
Significantly maximum fruit length (6.4 cm)
was observed in PKM 2 whereas the varietal
differences for fruit diameter were found to be
non significant. PKM Hy 7/1 recorded 5.8 cm fruit
length and minimum fruit diameter (3.8 cm), which
was mainly due to its characteristic long oval fruit
shape. However, PKM 2 recorded significantly
maximum fruit weight (99.3 g.) which was 66.5
g. in PKM Hy 7/1. The major yield influencing
character is number of fruits/tree. In this context
PKM 1 recorded profuse bearing (523.5 fruits/tree/
yr) that resulted in significantly maximum fruit
yield (46.2 kg/tree/ yr). The maximum fruit yield
in PKM1 might be due to more canopy spread
and adaptability to the local climatic conditions.
These findings were in agreement with Saraswathy
et al (2010) for PKM 1. Kadam et al (2005) have
reported that fruit yield from a tree is influenced
by its age. It has also been revealed that in sapota,
Table 1. Growth and yield performance of different Sapota cultivars under Pune conditions.
Sr.
No.
Cultivar Plant
height
(m)
Trunk
girth
at 30
cm
(cm)
Plant
spread
(EW)
(m)
Plant
spread
(NS)
(m)
Fruit
Length
(cm)
Fruit
dia.
(cm)
Av.
fruit
weight.
(g)
No. of
fruits
tree-1
Yield
(kg
tree-1
)
TSS
(o
Brix)
No. of
Seeds
fruit-1
Shape of
fruit
1 Kallipatti 3.6 34.3 3.8 3.7 5.8 4.8 83.2 140.2 12.1 19.7 1.7 Oval
2 PKM 1 4.0 34.7 3.8 3.9 5.3 5.5 88.3 523.5 46.2 14.5 2.7 Oval
3 PKM 2 3.5 32.1 3.5 3.5 6.4 4.5 99.3 261.2 24.0 16.1 2.3 Oblong to
oval
4 PKM HY
7/1
4.4 38.7 3.3 3.3 5.8 3.9 66.5 217.7 14.7 16.8 1.0 Long oval
5 Cricket
Ball
3.3 28.0 2.3 1.9 5.2 4.8 74.3 28.7 2.2 18.5 1.7 Round
6 CO 1 3.3 32.5 3.1 2.8 4.7 4.8 82.1 41.0 3.3 18.2 1.7 Long oval
7 CO 2 3.8 32.8 3.6 3.4 4.9 4.9 85.1 40.3 3.4 15.4 2.7 Ovate
round
8 Kirti
Bharti
3.4 29.0 3.0 3.4 5.0 7.5 83.9 39.5 3.2 18.6 2.7 Egg shape
S.E.± 0.16 1.80 0.16 0.19 0.15 0.81 3.64 7.05 0.89 0.22 0.44
C.D. at
5%
0.47 5.18 0.47 0.54 0.44 N.S. 10.49 20.34 2.58 0.69 N.S.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 44-46
Bhalekar and Chalak

46
fruit yield go on increasing up to 30 years of age
of the tree. Chundawat and Bhuva (1982) indicated
great variation in fruit size, production and quality
of fruits in sapota.
Quality characters
The variety Kalipatti recorded highest TSS
(19.67 o
Brix) which was superior over rest of
cultivars however, minimum TSS (14.50 o
Brix)
was recorded in cv. PKM 1. The varietal differences
with respect to number of seeds/fruit were non-
significant. Regarding the fruit shapes, it was
observed that, cv. Kalipatti and PKM 1 have oval
shape fruits, PKM 2 have oblong to oval fruits,
PKM Hy7/1 and CO 1 have long oval shape fruits
and CO 2 have ovate to round. The variety Kirti
Bharti produced egg shaped fruits with ridges on the
rind. These results were in agreement with Shirol et
al (2009). The cv. PKM 1 recorded maximum fruit
yield but the TSS of the fruit was less and which was
not desirable for commercial sapota cultivation. In
sapota the negative co-relation between yield and
TSS has been reported by Saraswathy et al (2010).
CONCLUSION
The findings revealed that sppota cultivar PkM 1
was vigorous and recorded highest fruit yield (46.2
kg/tree/year) whereas TSS was highest (18.75°
Brix) in Cricket Ball. Further, a negative correlation
existed between fruit yield and the quality.
Literature Cited
Anonymous(2014).HorticultureDatabase,NationalHorticulture
Board, Govt. of India publication , pp 122-123.
Chundawat B S and Bhuva, H P (1982). Performance of some
cultivars of sapota (Acharas sapota L ) in Gujarat.
Hariyana J Hort Sci 11: 154-159.
Kadam D D, Jadhav Y R and Patgaonkar D R (2005). Linear
relationship between yield and number of fruits of sapota
and sweet orange trees. South Indian Hort 53:15-17.
Panse V G and Sukhatme P V (1985). Statistical Methods for
Agricultural workers. 4th
ed. ICAR New Delhi.
Saraswathy S, Parameswari C, Parthiban S, Selvarajan M, and
Ponnuswami V(2010). Evaluation of sapota genotypes
for growth, yield and quality attributes, Electronic J of
Plant Breeding 1(4):441-446
Shirol A M, Kanamadi V C, Patil Shankargouda and
Thammaiah N(2009). Studies on the performance of
new sapota cultivars under Ghataprabha command area.
Karnataka J Agric Sci 22 (5):1056-1057.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 44-46
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 44-46

47
INTRODUCTION
There is a worldwide trend to plant fruit trees
at higher density in order to control tree size and
maintain desired architecture for better light
interception and ease in operations such as pruning,
pest control and harvesting. The high density
planting and several other operations are involved
in improving the yield and quality of guava fruits.
Among them, heading back and pinching were
important factors to sustain the yield and quality
of fruits in high density planted guava (Sahay and
Singh, 2001; Mehta et al 2012). There are number
of horticultural economic and practical reasons
for heading back and pinching in guava to obtain
productive and efficient trees and orchards. Some
of these are firstly to control tree size and shape and
secondly,forrenewalofbearingshoots,rejuvenation
of older plants especially in high density planting,
fruit thinning to improve fruit size, yield and
quality. Pinching of current season’s growth is an
alternative practice used to control vigor.
Impact of Heading Back and Pinching on Vegetative and
Reproductive Parameters of Guava (Psidium guajava L.) under
High Density Plantation
Hemant Saini*, S Baloda and Vijay
Department of Horticulture
Choudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 (Haryana)
ABSTRACT
An investigation to evaluate the effect of heading back and pinching on growth and yield parameters of Guava (Psidium
guajava L.) under high density plantation was carried out at experimental orchard, Department of Horticulture, CCS
HaryanaAgricultural University, Hisar during the year 2013-14. There were two treatments i.e. heading back and pinching.
Heading back at the level of 150, 175 and 200 cm was done in the month of March and compared with control (no
heading back). Pinching i.e. no pinching, one pinching (last week of June), two pinchings (last week of June and July)
and three pinchings (last week of June, July and August) were done on the headed back plants. The study revealed that
all the treatments were effective in increasing the growth characters, however, heading back at the level of 200 cm and
two pinchings were found most effective in increasing the growth characters i.e. number of sprouts per shoot, flowering
intensity, fruit setting, number of fruits/plant and yield over control and other treatments. Plant height, plant spread and
tree volume were significantly reduced by various heading back treatments, however, the effect of different numbers of
pinching was found non significant in altering the plant height, spread and volume.
Key Words: Heading back, Pinching, Growth, Yield, High density plantation, Guava
At present there is little documentation
regarding the effect of heading back and pinching
on the subsequent tree growth and productivity of
guava especially under North Indian conditions.
Thus, to gather the requisite information about the
aforesaid cultural practice, an investigation to note
down the effects of heading back and pinching on
vegetative and reproductive characters of guava
(Psidium guajava L.) under high density plantation
was undertaken.
The study was carried out at experimental
orchard, Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana
Agricultural University, Hisar during the year
2013-14. The experiment was laid out in factorial
randomized block design allocating four levels
of heading back i.e. Control (no heading back),
150, 175 and 200 cm above ground level and
four pinchings i.e. no pinching, one pinching in
last week of June, two pinchings in last week of
*Corresponding Author’s Email: sainihemant721@gmail.com
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53 DOI : 10.5958/2349-4433.2016.00012.X

48
July and three pinchings in last week of August
with three replications, comprising 16 treatment
combinations.
Trees taken for the study were uniformly
grown six year old, spaced at the distance of 6 m
x 2 m. They were kept under uniform condition
of orchard management during the study period
where all the agronomic practices were carried out
as per package of practices. The number of sprouts
on each experimental tree were counted on four
selected branches one in each direction during
second fortnight of April. On each experimental
tree the shoot length was recorded from four tagged
branches, one in each direction. The average shoot
length per branch was calculated and expressed in
centimeter (cm). Height of the trees was measured
with the help of measuring pole up to the maximum
point of height ignoring only the off type shoots and
expressed in meters. The distance between points
to which most of branches of a tree had grown in
the North-South and East-West directions were
measured and expressed in meters (m). The tree
volume was calculated in (m3
) by formula given by
Roose et al (1986) as V = 4⁄6 πr2
h
where, h= height of tree (m) and
sum of E-W and N-S directions (m)
r = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
4
E-W= East – West; N-S= North – South
Flowering intensity was measured by fixing a
meter cube (quadrat) in the plants and counting the
numbers of flowers in the cube. It was expressed
as flowers/m3
. The per cent fruit set was calculated
one month after anthesis from four tagged branches.
The average per cent fruit set was calculated by
formula given below-
Number of fruits set
Fruit set (%) = ––––––––––––––––––––– x 100
Total flowers counted
The number of fruits was counted on four tagged
branches and average was worked out. The total fruit
yield per tree was calculated by multiplying total
number of fruits per plant with the average fruit
weight and expressed in kilogramme (kg).
Number of sprouts per shoot
Heading back at 200 cm and 175 cm level
significantly increased the number of sprouts per
shoot over control (Table 1). Pinching numbers
and interaction between heading back levels and
pinching numbers were found non-significant in
increasing the number of sprouts per shoot. Increase
in number of sprouts per shoot by heading back
may be due to overcome of apical dominance and
supply of more food materials. These results were
in line with earlier work carried out by Lakhpathi
et al (2013). It was reported that pruning intensity
at 30 cm increased the number of sprouts per shoot
Table 1. Effect of heading back and pinching on number of sprouts per shoot of guava under high
density plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
pinchings
Mean
Control 2.00 2.20 2.26 2.03 2.12
150 cm 2.36 2.38 2.35 2.25 2.34
175 cm 2.20 2.55 2.67 2.63 2.51
200 cm 2.65 2.40 2.76 2.55 2.59
Mean 2.30 2.38 2.51 2.37
CD at 5%: Heading back (H) - 0.38, Pinching (P) – NS, H x P - NS
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53
Saini et al

49
whereas, Dubey et al (2001) in guava reported that
25 per cent pruning intensity produced maximum
number of sprouts per shoot as compared to control.
Shoot length
There was marked increment in shoot length
per branch of guava hybrid Hisar Safeda due to
severe pruning (heading back at 150 cm) and
least shoot length was found in control (Table 2).
This increase in shoot length may be attributed to
the reserve food material in the main scaffolds or
branches due to which new growth was put forth
just after the heading back. In present study, shoot
length decreased with increasing numbers of
pinchings. This decrease in shoot length may be due
to overcome of apical dominance and emergence
of lateral shoots. Shoot length was significantly
Table 2. Effect of heading back and pinching on shoot length (cm) of guava under high density
plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
pinchings
Mean
Control 25.80 23.10 21.20 20.80 22.73
150 cm 49.40 45.20 42.30 41.20 44.53
175 cm 48.10 40.10 38.00 36.20 40.60
200 cm 36.30 30.70 32.90 27.50 31.85
Mean 39.90 34.78 33.60 31.43
CD at 5%: Heading back (H) - 0.68, Pinching (P) – 0.68, H x P – 1.37
affected by the interaction of heading back levels
and pinching numbers. Increase in shoot length
with increase in pruning level was also reported by
Mohammed et al (2006) in guava.
Plant height
Plant height decreased significantly with
increasing severity of heading back (Table 3).
Minimum plant height was found with severe
heading back (150 cm) and maximum plant height
was recorded with control (no heading back). It
might be due to the fact that pruned trees were
unable to make up the loss of growth caused by
severe pruning in this short period. Numbers of
pinchings and its interaction with different levels
of heading back were found non significant in
altering the plant height of guava. Similar findings
Table 3. Effect of heading back and pinching on plant height (m) of guava under high density
plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
pinchings
Mean
Control 5.47 5.33 5.27 5.24 5.33
150 cm 3.18 2.95 3.00 2.95 3.02
175 cm 3.73 3.63 3.60 3.37 3.58
200 cm 3.73 3.83 3.83 3.68 3.77
Mean 4.03 3.94 3.93 3.81
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53
Impact of Heading Back and Pinching on Vegetative

50
were obtained in guava cv. Sardar by 30 cm pruning
level by Rajwant and Dhaliwal (2001). Kumar and
Rattanpal (2010) also reported similar results in
guava by removal of half the vegetative growth.
The present investigation was also in consonance
with the findings of Singh et al (2012) and Prathiba
et al (2013) in guava.
Plant spread
There was marked reduction in plant spread of
guava cultivar Hisar Safeda due to severe heading
back at 150 cm (Table 4). In present study, pinching
numbers and interaction of different levels of
heading back and pinching numbers had non
significant effect on plant spread. The reduction
in plant spread with increasing severity of heading
back might be attributed by the fact that pruned trees
were unable to make up the loss of growth caused
by severe pruning in this short period. Likewise,
in mango, Lal and Mishra (2008) reported greater
canopy spread in unpruned trees than in pruned
trees. Similar findings were observed by Kumar and
Rattanpal (2010), Singh et al (2012) and Prathiba et
al (2013) in guava.
Tree volume
With severe heading back, there was significant
reduction in tree volume (Table 5). The fact that
pruned trees was unable to make up the loss of
growth caused by severe pruning in this short
period. Pinching numbers and interaction of
heading back levels and pinching numbers were
found non significant in altering trees volume of
guava. Similar results were observed by Kumar
and Rattanpal (2010) where they found maximum
tree volume (118.8 m3
) in control trees and was
Table 4. Effect of heading back and pinching on plant spread (m) of guava under high density
plantation
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
pinchings
Mean
Control 5.58 5.45 5.32 5.30 5.41
150 cm 3.70 3.40 3.43 3.55 3.52
175 cm 4.05 4.10 4.22 4.14 4.13
200 cm 4.42 4.51 4.45 4.34 4.43
Mean 4.44 4.37 4.35 4.33
Table 5. Effect of heading back and pinching on tree volume (m3
) of guava under high density
plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
Pinchings
Three
Pinchings
Mean
Control 89.81 86.55 79.15 75.87 82.84
150 cm 33.01 29.64 28.53 28.15 29.83
175 cm 42.19 42.36 40.64 44.15 42.34
200 cm 48.93 51.54 51.29 50.01 50.44
Mean 53.48 52.52 49.90 49.55
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53
Saini et al

51
minimum (57.1 m3
) under pruning treatment by
removal of half vegetative growth in guava. Singh
et al (2012) showed that pruning decreased the tree
canopy volume in guava.
Flowering and fruiting characters
It is appropriate to mention here that after
heading back of guava plants in March 2014, there
was no flowering up to one year i.e. following rainy
and winter season except in control plants because
the plants entered into juvenile phase. Hence, the
discussion given below is for rainy season crop of
2015.
Flowering intensity
Flowering intensity was found significantly
higher in plants headed back at 200 cm in
comparison to control because less current season
wood was available due to no pruning in control
plants (Table 6). Similarly, the pinching numbers
also had a significant effect on flowering intensity
in comparison to control. Trees pinched twice
(June and July) produced maximum number of
flowers, whereas, minimum flowering intensity
was recorded in trees which were not pinched. The
interaction between heading back and numbers of
pinching was also found significant. The increase
in flowering intensity with pinching as compared to
the unpinched trees indicates that pinching resulted
in production of new growing points on the pinched
trees. The trend of results of the present study was
similar to Mohammed et al (2006) who reported
that maximum flowering intensity was recorded
in 60 cm pruning treatment in guava. However,
these results of present study were in contradiction
with the earlier findings of Jadhav et al (2002)
who showed that number of flowers per shoot on
severely pruned (60%) trees of guava were more
than mild pruned (30 %) trees and control.
Fruit setting
Per cent fruit set was significantly increased
with decreasing severity of heading back (Table 7).
Maximum fruit set was recorded with trees headed
back at 200 cm level and minimum in control. The
increase in fruit set with pruning as compared to
the unpruned trees indicates that pruning resulted
in production of new growing points on the pruned
trees. Further, it also reduced flower drop, thus
directly increase the number of fruits per tree and
resulted in higher fruit set. Numbers of pinchings
also significantly affected the fruit set in guava.
Highest fruit set was recorded in plants pinched
two times (June and July). This increase in fruit set
may be attributed to the fact that pinching produces
lateral shoots which in turn gives new growing
points. Dhaliwal and Singh (2004) and Brar et
al (2007) also reported higher fruit set in pruned
trees of guava. However, the results are contrary
to the findings of Dubey et al (2001) who found,
maximum fruit set in control and minimum with
100 per cent pruning intensity in guava.
Table 6. Effect of heading back and pinching on flowering intensity (flowers/m³) of guava under
high density plantation
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
Pinchings
Three
Pinchings
Mean
Control 58.0 62.3 68.0 64.7 63.3
150 cm 72.3 77.0 83.3 83.0 78.9
175 cm 90.7 94.0 103.0 99.3 96.8
200 cm 98.0 105.3 110.0 108.7 105.5
Mean 79.8 84.7 91.1 88.9
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53

52
Number of fruits per plant
There was marked increment in number of fruits
per plant with decreasing severity of heading back
where 200 cm heading back level increased the
fruits significantly in comparison to other heading
back levels and control (Table 8). The increment in
fruit number may be attributed to the increment in
the bearing shoot on the tree due to heading back
and pinching. In respect to pinching numbers, trees
pinched twice (June and July) produced maximum
number of fruits. Number of fruits per plant was
found significant with the interaction effect of
different heading back levels and numbers of
pinching. In unpinched plants number of fruits per
plant is less due to shading effect of close planting.
Similar observations were reported by Mohammed
et al (2006) and Brar et al (2007) in guava.
Table 7. Effect of heading back and pinching on fruit setting (%) of guava under high density
plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
Pinchings
Mean
Control 76.8 77.8 77.9 77.9 77.6
150 cm 80.8 81.5 85.5 81.8 82.4
175 cm 84.8 85.3 85.5 85.9 85.4
200 cm 88.6 88.7 90.7 89.2 89.3
Mean 82.8 83.3 84.9 83.7
CD at 5%: Heading back (H) - 1.2, Pinching (P) – 1.2, H x P - NS
Fruit yield
Yield was affected significantly by all the
heading back levels as well as by pinching numbers
(Table 9). Regarding level of heading back, plants
headed back at 200 cm level registered the highest
yield. In case of pinching numbers, trees pinched
twice (June and July) gave maximum yield. The
better effect of heading back on the yield per plant
may be ascribed to production of shoots conducive
tofloweringandfruiting.Theyieldinsevereheading
back was lower due to reduced number of fruits. In
unpinched plants yield is poor due to shading effect
of close planting. A similar observation was also
reported by Sahay and Singh (2001) and Mehta et
al (2012) in guava.
Table 8. Effect of heading back and pinching on number of fruits per plant of guava under high
density plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
pinchings
Mean
Control 146.0 153.0 156.3 155.2 152.6
150 cm 163.7 173.3 190.3 189.4 179.2
175 cm 178.3 188.3 194.0 190.3 187.8
200 cm 194.3 197.3 212.3 208.1 203.0
Mean 170.6 178.0 188.3 185.8
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 47-53
Saini et al

53
CONCLUSION
From the experimental results it can be inferred
that heading back and pinching in guava under
high density plantation in north-western Indian
conditions is effective in improving growth, yield
and yield attributes. Heading back at the level of 200
cm and two pinchings were found most effective in
increasing the parameters particularly number of
sprouts per plant, flowering intensity, fruit setting,
number of fruits per plant and finally the yield over
other treatments. These intercultural operations
might have helped in controlling and managing
the excessive growth and vigour of the plant which
ultimately helped in enhancing the productivity of
the crop.
REFERENCES
Brar J S, Thakur A and Arora N K (2007). Effect of pruning
intensity on fruit yield and quality of guava (Psidium
guajava L.) cv. Sardar. Haryana J Hort Sc 36(1/2): 65-66.
Dhaliwal G S and Singh G (2004). Effect of different pruning
levels on vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting in
Sardar guava. Haryana J Hort Sci 33 (3&4): 175-177.
Dubey A K, Singh D B and Dubey N (2001). Deblossoming
of summer season flowering of guava (Psidium guavjava
L.) by shoot pruning. Prog Hort 33(2): 165-168.
Jadhav B J, Mahurkar V K and Kale V S (2002). Effect of time
and severity of pruning on growth and yield of guava
(Psidium guavjava L.) cv.Sardar. Orissa J Hort 30(2):
83-86.
Kumar Y and Rattanpal H S (2010). Effect of pruning in guava
planted at different spacings under Punjab conditions.
Indian J Hort 67: 115-119.
Table 9. Effect of heading back and pinching on fruit yield (kg/tree) of guava under high density
plantation.
Pinching
Heading back
No
Pinching
One
Pinching
Two
pinchings
Three
pinchings
Mean
Control 12.89 14.07 15.86 14.88 14.43
150 cm 13.79 15.26 15.99 15.87 15.23
175 cm 14.55 15.80 16.50 16.54 15.85
200 cm 17.77 19.09 22.16 21.03 20.01
Mean 14.75 16.06 17.63 17.08
CD at 5%: Heading back (H) - 0.65, Pinching (P) – 65, H x P - NS
Lakhpati G, Rajkumar M and Chandersekhar R (2013). Effect
of pruning intensities and fruit load on growth, yield
and quality of guava (Psidium guajava L.) cv. Allahabad
Safeda under high density planting. International J
Current Research 5(12): 4083-4090.
Lal B and Mishra D (2008). Studies on pruning in mango for
rejuvenation. Indian J Hort 65(4): 405-408.
Mehta S, Singh S K, Das B, Jana B R and Mali S (2012).
Effect of pruning on guava cv. Sardar under ultra high
density orcharding system. Vegetos - An International J
Plant Res 25(2): 192-195.
Mishra H K and Pathak RA(1998). Effect of shoot pruning on
crop regulation in guava (Psidium guavjava L.) cv. L-49
(Sardar). Prog Hort 30(1-2): 78-81.
Mohammed S, Sharma J R, Kumar R, Gupta R B and Singh S
(2006). Effect of pruning on growth and cropping pattern
in guava cv. Lucknow-49. Haryana J Hort Sci 35(3&4):
211-212.
Pratibha Lal Shant and GoswamiAK (2013). Effect of pruning
and planting systems on growth, flowering, fruiting and
yield of guava cv. Sardar. Indian J Hort 70(4): 496-500.
Roose M L, Cole D A, Atkin D and Kuper R S (1986). Yield
and tree size of four citrus cultivars on 21 rootstocks in
California. J Amer Soc Hort Sci 114: 135-140.
Rajwant K and Dhaliwal G S (2001). Effect of time and
pruning intensity on tree canopy volume, girth and plant
height in Sardar guava. Haryana J Hort Sci 30: 154-156.
Sahay S and Singh S (2001). Regulation of cropping in guava.
Orissa J. Hort 29(2): 97-99.
Singh N K, Shrivastava D C and Bhandarkar A P (2012).
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54
INTRODUCTION
Mushroom is considered to be a nutritious
food, rich in protein, low in fat and carbohydrates.
However, mushroom growing can help in a long
way in the efficient utilization of agricultural and
industrial waste. It can also play a significant role
to alleviate poverty and generate employment
opportunityforeducatedunemployedyouth(Rachna
et al 2013). In this context, the Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana organized vocational training
course for farmers, farm women and rural youth on
various aspects of cultivation of mushroom. During
the year 2015-16, two vocational training courses
of 5 days duration each in which a total of 85 rural
youth and farmers participated. An evaluation
study of such self employment oriented programme
would help to throw more light on the possibility
of improving the programme in future. In order to
know the impact of these training programmes on
the gain in knowledge of the trainees, the present
study was undertaken.
A questionnaire was formulated comprising of
general information, background of participants,
Impact of Training Course on Knowledge
Gain of Mushroom Trainees
Kulvir Kaur
Directorate of Extension Education
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana- 141 004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT
Eighty five trainees were imparted training on mushroom cultivation by conducting two vocational training
courses. In order to evaluate these training prgrammes, present study was undertaken to find out knowledge
gainbytheparticipantsandsuggestionsfromthetraineesinordertobringimprovementinthecomingtraining
courses. It was found that majority of respondents joined the training course to adopt mushroom cultivation
as an occupation and only 10.5 percent joined training course just to get certificate of training. Maximum
gain in knowledge (94.1% and 92.9%) was observed for diseases of mushrooms, its prevention and variety
of mushrooms, respectively. More emphasis on practical classes, supplying of printed material and wide
publicity were three suggestions given by the participants for bringing improvement in future programmes.
Key Words: Mushroom cultivation, Training, Gain in knowledge.
landholding etc. A pre test was conducted to know
the level of knowledge of participants regarding
variety, diseases of mushrooms as well as their
storage and preservation etc. Similarly, after
completion of the training course, post evaluation
was performed in order to assess the knowledge
gained by the trainees and effectiveness of
training. To test the knowledge of trainees, a set
of 11 questions related to mushroom growing,
nutrients present in mushroom, different products
prepared from mushroom, storage and harvesting
of mushroom etc. were used. Hence, gain in
knowledge was calculated from the difference of
scores obtained in pre and post knowledge test of the
trainees. Likewise, the suggestions from the trainees
were recorded for bringing further improvement in
the training. The data were tabulated and analyzed
using frequency, percentages and ranking.
Socio-economic profile
The participants differed in age, education,
occupation and landholding. The data (Table 1)
showed that the age of participants was between
*Corresponding Author’s Email : kulvirkaur70@pau.edu
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55
20 to 68 years. More than half of trainees were
in age group of 20-30 whereas 22.4 per cent were
above 40 years of age. Information with respect to
caste showed that participants irrespective of caste
system were involved in the training. Assessment of
the trainees with respect to education indicated that
35.3 per cent studied up to senior secondary level
followed by graduation (24.7%) and matriculate
level (20.0%). More than half of trainees belonged
to farming background and only 8.2 per cent
belonged to service class. It was also inferred
(Table 1) that 29.4 per cent farmers were having
small land holding whereas few farmers (3.5%)
were large landholders. Further, 21.1 per cent
participants were from landless category and thus
it was evident that mushroom farming enterprise
does not require much land and therefore, landless
farmers were found to be interested to adopt this
enterprise to supplement their family income.
Reasons of participation
The factors which motivated the respondents
to join the training course were given for ranking
in order of importance as perceived by them. As
Table 1. Socio-economic profile of trainees (n=85)
Sr. No. Particulars Frequency Percent
1. Age
Up to 30 yrs
31-40 yrs
Above 40 yrs
50
16
19
58.8
18.8
22.4
2. Caste
Scheduled caste
Backward Caste
Others
11
7
67
12.9
8.2
78.8
3. Education
Primary
Middle level
Matriculate
Senior Secondary
Diploma holder
Graduate
Postgraduate
2
4
17
30
3
21
8
2.3
4.7
20.0
35.3
3.5
24.7
9.4
4. Occupation
Farming
Business
Service
Housewife
Others (Retiree, student)
46
14
7
9
9
54.1
16.5
8.2
10.6
10.6
5. Landholding
Landless
Marginal (<1 ha)
Small (1-2 ha)
Semi medium (2-4 ha)
Medium (4-10 ha)
Large (>10 ha)
18
15
25
15
9
3
21.2
17.6
29.4
17.6
10.6
3.5
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Kaur Kulvir

56
shown in the table 2, 63.5 per cent respondents
joined training course to adopt mushroom growing
as an occupation, 12.9 per cent wanted to learn about
mushroom growing techniques for self consumption
and 10.6 per cent joined the training course just to
get the certificate of training. Lesser participants
showed their interest to establish linkage with
university, knowledge about mushroom growing
and to teach fellow farmers about mushroom
growing. Similar results were also reported by
Suharban et al (1991). It was evident that majority
of respondents joined the training course to adopt
mushroom growing as an enterprise.
Increase in level of knowledge
In pre-evaluation test, the knowledge range of
different participants was 3.5 per cent regarding
preparation of mushroom seed to 49.4 percent in
case of knowledge about identification of usable
and non usable mushrooms. Post training score
of various practices ranged from 90.5 per cent in
case of cost and income from mushroom to 100
per cent in case of various practices like variety of
mushrooms, presence of nutrients in mushroom,
diseases of mushrooms, storage and harvesting,
value addition to mushroom, identification of usable
and non usable mushroom (Table 3).
It was thus noticed that pre training knowledge
score was not much satisfactory for all the aspects
of training programme. However, the knowledge
score gained by participants after taining was more
Table 2. Reasons of participation in training programme in mushroom cultivation.
Sr. No. Reasons Number Percentage
1. To adopt mushroom growing as an enterprise 54 63.5
2. To learn about mushroom growing techniques for self consumption 11 12.9
3. Just to know about mushroom growing 5 5.9
4. To get certificate of training course 9 10.6
5. To establish linkage with university 4 4.7
6. To teach fellow farmers about mushroom growing 2 2.4
Table 3. Gain in knowledge after acquiring training with respect to different operation . n=85
Sr.
No.
Parameter Pre-evaluation
(%)
Post-evalua-
tion (%)
Gain in
knowledge
1. Variety of mushrooms 7.0 100.0 93.0
2. Nutrients present in mushroom 24.7 100.0 75.3
3. Diseases prevented by nutrients present in mush-
room
17.6 96.5 77.9
4. Knowledge about identification of usable and non
usable mushrooms
49.4 100.0 50.6
5. Diseases of mushrooms and its prevention 5.9 100.0 94.1
6. Cost and income from mushroom 21.1 90.6 69.5
7. Method of compost making 8.2 96.5 88.3
8. Preparation of mushroom seed 3.5 94.1 90.6
9. Method of preparation of casing 9.4 97.6 88.2
10. Storage and harvesting mushroom 25.9 100.0 74.1
11. Value addition to mushroom 31.8 100.0 68.2
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Impact of Training Course on Knowledge Gain of Mushroom Trainees

57
satisfactory in all aspects. The reason behind
the satisfactory gain in knowledge might be well
educational background of participant also having
keen interest of participants.
Suggestions given by the trainees
The suggestions offered by the trainees for
further improvement of the training course were
presented in table 4. The results showed that
more importance to practical classes, supply of
printed materials and wide publicity on mushrooms
were the main suggestions as more than 40 per
cent participants viewed that by applying these
suggestions, trainees might got knowledge
regarding required information for mushroom
growing with more satisfaction level that would be
beneficial to start and flourish mushroom enterprise
in future. Besides these suggestions, 39 per cent
of the respondents felt that financial assistance by
government should be provided for mushroom
growing and 27 per cent respondents also gave
Table 4. Suggestions given by the trainees.
Sr. No. Suggestion Frequency Ranking
1. Give more importance to practical classes 54 I
2. Supply printed informatic materials 49 II
3. Give wide publicity on mushrooms 40 III
4. Help to get financial assistance 39 IV
5. Increased duration of training 27 V
6. Organize training at different out stations of the university 13 VI
stress on increase in duration of training.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the study that good
conduct of training provide trainees needed
information and guidance to start and flourish any
enterprise. Mushroom growing is such an enterprise
in which requirement of land is not a big issue so
even landless farmers can augment their income
through mushroom cultivation.
REFERENCES
Rachna, Goel R and Sodhi G P S (2013). Evaluation of
vocational training programmes organized on mushroom
farming by Krishi Vigyan Kendra Patiala. J Krishi
Vigyan 2(1): 26-29.
Suharban K, Rahman O and Nair M C (1991). An evaluation
of mushroom cultivation course. Indian Journal of
Extension Education 27(3-4): 118-121.
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58
INTRODUCTION
The Garo Hills of Meghalaya which is bordered
by state Assam and the country Bangladesh. With
its undulating topography and high intensity
of rainfall, suffers from erosion problem and
ecosystem degradation. The tribal population is
highly dependent on agriculture and horticulture for
their food security and income (Meena and Punjabi,
2012). In Meghalaya, the Garo Hills has highest
tribal population of different communities but the
area is mainly dominated by the Garo tribes. Several
village of the district are the homeland of some
Indo-Mongoloid tribes like the Hajong, Rabha,
Banai, Koch, Bodo etc. (Deka et al, 2009).The
tribal population is highly dependent on horticulture
Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Different Tribes of Garo
Hills districts of Meghalaya towards Scientific Horticulture
Tanmay Samajdar, Tarun Kumar Das and Biswajit Lahiri1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR, Tura
West Garo Hills, Meghalaya-794 104 (Meghalaya)
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in tribal areas of Garo Hills, Meghalaya during 2013 to evaluate the knowledge
attitude and practices of different tribal farmer community towards scientific horticulture. A total of 150
tribal respondents, 30 each from Rabha, Hajong, Koch, Banai and Garo tribal area were selected randomly.
The selected respondents were interviewed with the help of a semi structured interview schedule. It was
found that majority (48%) of the respondents have primary level of education. 83.3 per cent of the farmers
cultivate in their own land except Banai tribe where almost 50 per cent of the respondents cultivate on
leased land. 70.7 per cent of the respondents have annual income between Rs. 30,000/- to Rs. 60,000/-
from main source. Eighty four per cent of the respondents have farming experience between 3-9 years
and above 12 years. It was also revealed that 96 and 81.3 per cent of the respondents have land under
vegetables cultivation and orchard is less than 0.4 ha, respectively. In the study area it was found that 49.3
per cent of the respondents have farming as primary occupation and majority (68%) of the respondents
have poor level of knowledge and neutral attitude towards modern horticulture, respectively. It was also
found that education, source of land and farming experience were negatively correlated with knowledge
level which was mainly because with higher education, respondents loose interest in farming and their
involvement in farming reduces and thus knowledge level in horticulture comes down. Results of the
study revealed that knowledge, attitude and cultivation practices level were considerably low among
almost all the tribes though it varied from one community to other living in a same geographical area.
Key Words: Tribal Farmers, Knowledge level, Attitude, Practices, Scientific farming, Adoption.
for their livelihood. The tribal people earn by
forestry, shifting cultivation, settle agriculture
and horticulture, and industrial labour, animal
husbandry, fishing, traditional commerce including
handicraft. Most of the tribal, whether young or old
have limited knowledge about modern horticultural
methods and food production (Nidheesh , 2010).
The main livelihood occupation for most of the
Garo tribes is through horticulture/Jhum cultivation
and the commercial commodities produced in the
district are Arecanut, Cashewnut, Paddy, Maize,
Ginger, Tuber crops, Vegetables and rearing of
pig, dairy and poultry bird. The major sources of
water for cultivation are through rivers, streams
and rainfall. They grows paddy in plain land and
*Corresponding Author’s Email:tsamaj@rediffmail.com
1
College of Home Science, Central Agricultural University, Tura, West Garo Hills, Meghalaya
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59
mixed horticultural crops in jhum land. They were
very rarely used fertilizer in their field but practices
mono cropping, mulching and farm yard manure in
to their field. This study was mainly undertaken to
study the socio-economic status of main different
tribes, the knowledge level in horticultural practices
and the adoption of the modern horticultural
practices by the different tribes in Garo Hills.
The study was conducted in Garo hills districts
of Meghalaya, India namely West Garo Hills, South
Garo and South West Garo Hills during April
to September, 2013 because the districts are
dominated by different communities( Garo, Rabha,
Hajong, Koch and Banai). Four blocks i.e, Dalu and
Selsella in West Garo Hills, Zikzak and Betasing
in South West Garo Hills and Gasuapara in South
Garo Hills were selected for the study. Two village
from each block were selected. The village were
selected on the basis of distribution of inhabitants of
the five different tribes.15 numbers of respondents
were selected from each village through simple
random sampling. Therefore, 30 respondents were
selected from each tribe making the total number
of respondents to 150. The selected respondents
were interviewed with the help of a semi structured
interview schedule in order to get relevant
information. The data collected were tabulated and
statistically analyzed using simple statistical tools
to interpret the results.
Characteristics of different tribes
Rabha community
Horticulture is also the main occupation of the
Rabha community. Earlier they used to practice
shifting cultivation but later on they shifted to
settled cultivation. Besides horticulture they also
engaged in forest based activities and handloom
weaving. Basically the Rabha women are engaged
in weaving since the early ages. In the ancient period
when these Rabha tribes used to dwell in the forests,
maximum of them practice shifting cultivation.
Apart from these, the Rabha people are also
engaged in government jobs and other occupations
but their development is less as compared to other
communities.
Hajong Tribes
Hazong tribes are a small tribal group spread
across the north east India. This tribal group resides
in North Cachar Hills district, Karbi Anglong
district and in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya. The
villages are located on elevated grounds close to
wet paddy lands and people build their houses in
clusters in the courtyard of the village headman
called `Adhikari. Agriculture and horticulture is
the primary occupation of the Hajong tribes. The
womenfolk are skilled weavers. Almost every
house here has a loom and the dresses required
by the female members of the family are mostly
handmade. It is custom of the Hajong to weave the
clothesrequiredduringweddingsatthefamilyloom.
Hajongs are also good carpenters and are experts in
manufacturing of bamboo and cane products.
Koch (Rajbongshi)
Koch (Rajbongshi) community can be found
in entire parts of present Assam, West Bengal,
Kishanganj in Bihar, Meghalaya and country
Nepal and Bangladesh. It is a tradition for Koch
Rajbongshi to go for hunting in a group. Usually
every house has a mango , Jackfruit and a small
kitchen garden, a small pond where they keep fish.
Koch Rajbonshi people have their ancient tradition
of treatment which is not very well known to the
modern world and even not known to Ayurveda
Medicine Scientists. Majority of them depend on
cultivation of paddy and vegetables and rearing of
cattle and poultry for their food security.
Banai
TheBanaiisasub-tribeoftheKochesisregarded
as a tribe of India. The Banai was mentioned in the
census report of 1891 which states about the sub-
communities of the Koches. The term “Dasgaya”
actually refers to the areas on the southern tract of
Garo Hills of Meghalaya and includes the villages
Batabari, Kapasipara, Gasuapara, Jatrakona,
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Samajdar et al

60
Makkabaripara etc, which had been inhabited by
the Banai since ancient times. These areas are still
referred to as Daskaniya or Dasgaya by the oldest
living people of the area. Majority of them depend
on cultivation of rice, vegetables and rearing
of livestock but they are very much backward
and lacking of knowledge in scientific crop and
livestock production. The educational level among
them is also low. The Government of Meghalaya
recognizes the importance of horticultural sector in
terms of its potential to address the key challenges
of unemployment and poverty in the tribal region
of Garo Hills districts. The Central Governments as
well as Government of Meghalaya have undertaken
a number of projects, programmes and initiatives
such as an Innovative Project for Enhancement of
Livelihood of Farmers to improve the a horticulture
situation and reduce poverty.
Educational status
Majority of the respondents (48.7%) have
primary level of education where as only 0.6 per cent
of the respondents have higher secondary onwards
(Table1). It was evident that maximum number
of respondents had primary status of education in
case of Garo, Hajong, Banai and Rabha where as
in Koch tribe, there are less number people having
primary education but literate people are more. Only
one respondent had higher secondary onwards but
number of people who does not have even primary
Table 1. Distribution of the Tribes according to their Education status.
Tribes Education Status
No formal
Education
Literate Primary
Education
Secondary Education Higher
Secondary
onwards
Garo 6 4 18 2 0
Hajong 2 1 15 12 0
Banai 12 0 13 5 0
Rabha 0 2 20 8 0
Koch 8 10 7 4 1
Total 28 (18.7%) 17 ( 11.3%) 73 (48.7%) 31 ( 20.7%) 1 (0.6%)
education among these tribe is considerably high
and overall educational status is not so good.
Land holding and farming experience
It was noticed that 83.3 per cent of the
respondents had their own land where as only 10.7
per cent had rented land or leased in because they
are poor and marginal farmers. It was observed that
almost all the respondents cultivate in their own
land except Banai tribe (50%), because most of
them does not have their own land. Further, 84.0
percent of the respondents have farming experience
in between above 3 & below 9 years and above
12years of farming experience where as 13.3 and
2.7 percent have in between less than 3 years and in
between above 9 and below12 years, respectively
(Table 2).
Table 2. Frequency of distribution of respondents
in relation to their farming experience.
Farming Experience(Yrs) Frequency Percent
Less Than 3 4 2.7
Above 3 & below 9 63 42.0
Above 9 & below12 20 13.3
Above 12 63 42.0
Total 150 100
Marital status
The data (Table 3) revealed that 94.0 per cent of
the respondents were married where as 3.3 and 2.0
per cent were single and divorced, respectively.
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Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Different Tribes of Garo Hills districts

61
Table 3. Frequency distribution of respondents
in relation to their marital status.
Marital Status Frequency Percent
Single 5 3.3
Married 141 94.0
Divorce 1 0. 7
Widow 3 2.0
Total 150 100
Cultivation of vegetables and fruits
It was inferred that 96.0 per cent of the
respondents cultivate vegetables in less than 0.4
ha of area where as only 4.0 percent cultivate in
between 0.4 - 1.07 ha. Likewise, 81.0 per cent of
the respondents have less than 0.4 ha of area under
orchard where as only 16.0 and 2.7 per cent had in
between 0.4-1.07 ha and more than 1.07-1.47 ha,
respectively.
Table 4. Frequency distribution of respondents
in relation to the primary occupation.
Income Frequency Percentage
Farming 74 49.3
Agricultural Labour 13 8.7
Non agricultural Labour 19 12.7
Service 31 20.6
Bussiness 13 8.7
Total 150 100
The data (Table 4) show that 49.3 per cent of the
respondents have farming as primary occupation
and only 21.3 per cent of the respondents perform
agricultural or non agricultural labour. After
farming, service ( 20.6%) and business ( 8.7%) was
preferred by the participants.
It was found that 70.7 per cent of the
respondents had annual income between Rs. 30,
000/- to 60,000/- from their main source where
as only eight numbers of respondent had annual
income in between Rs,1,50,000-2,00,00/ and above
Rs.2,00,000/- .respectively (Table 5).
Table 5. Frequency of distribution of respondents
in relation to their Annual income from primary
occupation.
Yearly income ( ) Frequency Percent
30,000-60,000 106 70.7
60,001-90,000 18 12
90,001-1,20,000 13 8.7
1,20,001-1,50,000 4 2.7
1,50,001-2,00,000 4 2.7
Above 2,00,000 5 3.3
Total 150 100
Relationship between knowledge level of
farmers with different independent variables.
It was found that education, source of land and
farming experience were significantly (P<0.01)
negatively correlated with knowledge level mainly
because with higher education, respondents loose
interest in farming and their involvement in farming
reduces and thus, the knowledge level in agriculture
also comes down. It was also found that with more
farming experience lower was the knowledge level
in horticulture because most of the tribal farmers
are traditional bound especially elder people and
their knowledge level in modern horticultural
practices was less. On the other hand, it was found
that type of land holding status and knowledge level
in horticulture was significantly (P<0.01) positively
correlated and was higher in case of those farmers,
who have their own land (Table 6).
Table 6. Correlation between knowledge level
and other independent variables.
Independent Variables Correlation
Coefficient (r)
Age 0.089
Marital Status -0.123
Education -0.211**
Source of Land 0.566**
Farming Experience -0.327**
Yearly income from Main source -0.103
Area under Vegetables 0.058
Area under Orchard 0.016
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62
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Knowledge level in modern horticultural
package and practices
The data (Table 7) indicated that 68.7 per cent
of the respondents have poor level of knowledge in
modern horticultural package and practices and 8.7
per cent of the respondent have very good level of
knowledge. Among the five major tribes, the Rabha
tribe were found to possess poor level of knowledge.
Use of recommended horticultural practices
It was found that 80.7 per cent of the respondents
used poor level of horticultural practices and which
Table 7. Distribution of the tribes according to their knowledge level.
Category Tribes Total
Garo Hajong Banai Rabha Koch
Knowledge Level Poor Number 20 (13.3) 23(15.3) 9(6.0) 26 (17.3) 25 (16.7) 103 (68.7)
Average Number 10 (6.7) 2 (1.3) 2 (1.3) 4 (2.7) 5 (3.3) 23 (15.3)
Good Number 0 (0.0) 4 (2.7) 7 (4.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 11 (7.3)
Very Good Number 0 0.0% 1(0.7) 12 (8.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 13 (8.7)
Figures in parenthesis represent percentage.
Table 8. Distribution of the Tribes according to the horticultural practices.
Category Tribes Total
Garo Hajong Banai Rabha Koch
Practice Poor Count 28 (18.7) 12 (8.0) 22 (14.7) 30 (20.0) 29 (19.3) 121 (80.7)
Average Count 0 (0.0) 16 (10.7) 7 (4.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 23 (15.3)
Good Count 1 (0.7) 1 (0.7) 1 (0.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (2.0)
Very Good Count 1 (0.7) 1 (0.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.7) 3 (2.0)
Figures in parenthesis represent percentage.
the Garo tribe found more. Only two percent of the
tribes have very good level of horticultural practices
(Table8).
Attitude level and other independent variables
The data (Table 9) revealed that farming
experience was negatively correlated (P<0.01) with
attitude level of farmer. The aged farmers with
higher farming experience were mostly tradition
bound and possess negative attitude towards
modern agricultural practices. However, type of
land holding was positively correlated with attitude
level, which was significant (P<0.05). Those
respondents, who have their own land have positive
attitude towards modern horticultural practices.
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63
Table 9. Correlation between attitude level and
other independent variables.
Independent Variables Correlation
Coefficient (r)
Age -0.013
Education 0.091
Type of Land Holding 0.174*
Farming Experience -.487**
Area under Vegetables 0.129
Area under orchard 0.082
Attitude 1
N 150
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Correlation between farming practice level and
other independent variables
An attempt has been made to find out
relationship between practice level of farmers with
other independent variables. The correlation existed
but it was non significant ( Table 10).
Regression analysis of knowledge, Attitude and
Practice level (KAP) of farmers
The regression analysis of knowledge, attitude
and practice level (KAP) of farmers was presented
by β-values(unstandardized partial regression co-
efficient), Standard Errors of unstandardized partial
regression coefficients, β –values (standardized
partial regression coefficients), the coefficient
of multiple regression determination (R2
) and
the corresponding F-values. From the table12,
it was evident that type of land holding, farming
experience, age, marital status, annual income from
primary occupation have substantial effect on KAP
level of tribal farmers. Thus, an unit change in
age, marital status, type of land holding, farming
experience, annual income from primary occupation
will contribute a change in KAP level farmer to the
extent of 0.103, -0.0152, 0.438,-0.342, 0.084 units,
respectively.
Table 10. Correlation between practice level and
other independent variables.
Independent Variable Correlation
Coefficient (r)
Age -0.052
Education 0.072
Type of Land Holding 0.018
Farming Experience -0.124
Area under Vegetables -0.018
Area under Orchard 0.045
Practice 1
N 150
*. Correlation was significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation was significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The R2
value was found to be 0.422 which means
all the casual variables put together, the amount
of variation in the consequent variable has to be
the tune of 42.2 per cent and its F- value suggest
that it was significant (P<0.01). So, on the basis of
this regression analysis, the following model can
be suggested for KAP level of tribal farmers of
Meghalaya.
Y= 48.71+ 0.1X1
- 0.15X2
+ 0.44X4
- 0.34X5
+
0.08X8
Where, X1
X2,
X3…………………
X8
are independent
variables and Y is dependent variables.
Again, another attempt was made to find out
any significant difference present among the five
different tribes of Garo Hills in relation to their
KAP level towards scientific horticulture. For this
purpose, a non parametric Chi-square test(Kruskal
– Wallis) has been conducted. The result of the test
have been presented in the Table 13.
• Based on 150 sampled tables with starting
seed 299883525.
• Kruskal- Wallis Test ;
• Grouping Variable: Tribes
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Samajdar et al

64
The mean rank of the KAP level of different
tribes suggested that Banai tribe has the highest
KAP level, which was followed by Hajong tribe
(Table 13). The KAP level of Garo, Koch and
Rabha tribes was much lower than that of other
two tribes. The Chi-square value of Kruskal-Wallis
test was found to be 82.113 with P-value 0.02 at
4 degrees of freedom. The P-value was less than
0.05 which inferred that Chi- square value was
significant (P<0.05) and alternate hypothesis was
accepted. Thus, non- parametric Chi- square test
(Kruskal – Wallis) suggested that there exists a
significant difference among the different tribes of
Table 12. Values of regression Co-efficient of KAP Level of Famers.
Coefficients(a)

Model
B
Unstandardized Coeffi-
cients
Standardized Co-
efficients
Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 48.713 15.91 -
AGE(X1
) 3.056 2.184 0.103*
Marital Status(X2
) -8.784 3.883 -0.152*
Education(X3
) -1.006 1.423 -0.051
Type of Land Holding (X4
) 28.394 4.681 0.438**
Farming Experience(X5
) -7.048 1.659 -0.342*
Area under Vegetable(Bigha) (X6
) 1.238 7.28 0.012
Area under orchard(Bigha) (X7
) -0.826 3.482 -0.019
Yearly income from primary occupation(X8
) 1.356 1.121 0.084*
a. Dependent Variable: KAP Level
R2
=0.422; F=11.365**; **Both 5% and 1% level of significance
Table 13. Mean rank distribution of KAP level of
different tribes.
Tribes N Mean Rank
KAP Lev-
el
Garo 30 49.55
Hajong 30 105.12
Banai 30 122.78
Rabha 30 43.90
Koch 30 56.15
Total 150
Table 14. Kruskal – Wallis test statistics.
Test Statisticsb,c
KAP
Level
Chi-Square 82.113
Df 4
Asymp. Sig. 0.000
Monte Carlo
Sig.
Sig. 0.000a
95% Con-
fidence
Interval
Lower
Bound
0.000
Upper
Bound
0.020
Garo Hills in terms of KAP level towards scientific
horticulture.
CONCLUSION
Among the five tribes, the knowledge level of all
the tribes was poor accept the Banai tribes which has
average level of knowledge. The knowledge level
of all the tribal farmers on scientific horticulture
is still need to be improved by imparting training
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 58-65

65
and awareness programme. As their attitude level
towards scientific horticulture among all the tribes
was neutral, it can be converted to favourable
condition by pursuing the viable modern technology
through method and result demonstration etc. In
terms of practices, all the tribes still depend on
traditional method. It was also found that majority
of the tribal farmers never use fertilizers whether its
chemical or biochemical. It was essential to make
tribal farmers aware of the benefit of scientific
horticulture. So, the institution, both governmental
and non Governmental, need to join hand to enhance
their knowledge leading to favourable attitude
towards scientific horticulture and persuade them
to practice the same in their life which will lead to
better productivity of the horticultural crops in the
Garo Hills and ultimately better livelihood for the
farmers of the region.
REFERENCES
Deka D and Sarma G C (2009). Traditonal used herbs in the
preparation of rice-beer by the Rabha tribe of Goalpara
district, Assam. Indian J Traditional Knowledge 9(3) :
459-62.
Meena, G L and Punjabi N K (2012). Farmers Perception
Towards Agriculture Technology in Tribal Region of
Rajasthan. Rajasthan Ext Edu 2: 92-96.
Nidhees, K.B. (2010). Agriculture Knowledge and Perception
of Tribal Communities. Indian Journal of Traditional
Knowledge 9(3); 531-535.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 58-65
Samajdar et al

66
INTRODUCTION
Application of potassium plays a regulatory
role in many physiological and biochemical
processes of fruit plants such as photosynthesis,
nucleic acid metabolism, protein and carbohydrates
biosynthesis which in result increase leaf mineral
content (Krauss and Jiyun, 2000) and fruit yield
(Alva et al 2006). Foliar application of K has been
found to rectify the deficiencies of nutrients as the
availability of nutrients through foliar application
is easy and quick to the plants (Miller and Hofman,
1988). The present investigation was carried out to
evaluate the effect of foliar application of potassium
and spray schedule on nutrient concentration of the
leaf of sweet orange cv. Jaffa.
The present investigation was conducted
at experimental orchard of Department of
Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar (Haryana). Forty five sweet orange cv. Jaffa
trees having uniform size and plant vigour were
selected for investigation. All the fifteen treatments
were replicated three times taking one plant as a
Nutritional Status of Leaf and Fruit Yield of Sweet Orange
Influenced by Foliar Application of Potassium
Vijay*, R P S Dalal and Hemant Saini
Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004(Haryana)
ABSTRACT
A field study to evaluate the effect of foliar application of potassium sources at various concentration
and spray schedule on sweet orange cv. Jaffa was undertaken at experimental orchard, Department of
Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during the year 2013-14. The results revealed
that the foliar application of potassium nitrate @ 2 and 4 per cent and potassium sulphate at 1.5 and 3.0
per cent improved nitrogen and potash content of leaf over control (water spray) irrespective of spray
schedule. Phosphorus content of leaf was not influenced due to K sources at various concentrations.
Spray schedule did not affect the nutritional status of the leaf. There was an increase in fruit yield with
the increase in K doses of KNO₃ and K₂SO₄. The maximum yield (74.76 kg/plant) was recorded with
the application of KNO₃ at 4 per cent. Fruit yield was found the highest with three sprays of K in the
last week of April, May and August but at par with two sprays in the last week of April and August.
Key Words: Sweet orange cv. Jaffa, Foliar application, K sources, Leaf NPK, Yield
single unit which was carried out in randomized
block design (RBD). Uniform cultural practices and
plant protection measures were followed for these
trees throughout the study period as per package
of practices (Anonymous, 2013). The experiment
comprised of four treatments of K fertilizers and its
rate of application viz. potassium nitrate at 2 per
cent (T₁) and 4 per cent (T₂), potassium sulphate at
1.5 per cent (T₃) and 3.0 per cent (T₄) which were
compared with T i.e. control (water spray). There
were three spray schedules i.e. S₁ (two sprays at the
last week ofApril andAugust), S₂ (two sprays at the
last week of May andAugust) and S₃ (three sprays at
the last week of April, May and August). Nitrogen
and phosphorus content of the leaf was estimated
by using the method described by Jackson (1967)
and potassium by Piper (1966) and expressed in per
cent. Total yield per plant was recorded at harvest
and the data was analyzed in RBD.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potash content of leaf
The results of the present study revealed that
nitrogen content of the leaves was found maximum
Corresponding Author’s Email: shotreturns@gmail.com
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67
(1.66%) with foliar application of KNO₃ at the rate
of 4 per cent which was found at par with all other
potassiumtreatmentsexceptcontrol(Table1).Foliar
application of Potassium nitrate was marginally
superior to potassium sulphate in enhancing
nitrogen content of leaf. Potassium spray
schedules did not influenced leaf nitrogen content
significantly. The increase in nitrogen content with
KNO₃ may be due to additional supply of nitrogen
to the leaves. The results are in accordance with the
findings of Mostafa et al (2005) and Mostafa and
Saleh (2006) in Balady mandarin.
Phosphorus content of leaves was recorded
non-significant with foliar application of potassium
doses from various sources and spray schedules
(Table 2). Similar results were found by Haggag
(1988) in Washington Navel orange. In Clementine
Table 1. Effect of foliar application of potassium and spray schedule on nitrogen content (%) in
leaves of sweet orange cv. Jaffa.
Treatments Spray schedule Mean
S₁ S₂ S₃
T₁ : KNO₃ 2 % 1.62 1.60 1.62 1.61
T₂ : KNO₃ 4 % 1.65 1.65 1.67 1.66
T₃ : K₂SO₄ 1.5% 1.60 1.62 1.59 1.60
T₄ : K₂SO₄ 3% 1.60 1.60 1.58 1.59
T₅ : Control (water spray) 1.51 1.55 1.50 1.52
Mean 1.60 1.60 1.59
CD at 5% Spray Schedule (S)= NS, Treatments (T) = 0.08 , SxT= NS
citrus, Hamza et al (2012) observed that levels of
leaf P were not affected by foliar K application (5
and 8% KNO₃ and 2.5 and 4% K₂SO₄ sprayed two
or three times).
Leaf potassium content increased significantly
with all potassium treatments and there was an
increase in leaf potassium content with an increase
in K doses of KNO₃ and K₂SO₄, irrespective
of spray schedule (Table 3). Foliar application
of KNO₃ @ 4% gave maximum leaf potassium
content (1.40%). Spray schedule of potassium did
not significantly influence leaf potassium content
however, maximum value was with three sprays
of potassium in the last week of April, May and
August. These results were in accordance with the
findings of Mostafa et al (2005) and Mostafa and
Saleh (2006).
Table 2. Effect of foliar application of potassium and spray schedule on phosphorus content (%)
in leaves of sweet orange cv. Jaffa
S₁ S₂ S₃
T₁ : KNO₃ 2 % 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15
T₂ : KNO₃ 4 % 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15
T₃ : K₂SO₄ 1.5% 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15
T₄ : K₂SO₄ 3% 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.14
Mean 0.14 0.15 0.15
CD at 5% Spray Schedule(S) = NS, Treatments(T) = NS, SxT= NS
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Vijay et al

68
Fruit yield
Yield increased significantly with all potassium
treatments over control and there was an increase in
fruit yield with an increase in K doses of KNO₃ and
K₂SO₄, irrespective of spray schedule (Table 4).
Maximum yield (74.76 kg) was recorded
with KNO₃ at the rate of 4 per cent. Similarly,
increased frequency of K sprays increased the
yield. Maximum yield (70.72kg) was observed
with three sprays of potassium in the last week of
April, May and August followed by two sprays
during April and August. The increase in yield
might be attributed to increased fruit reserves in
the plant due to the foliar application of K. Similar
results were also observed by Sangwan et al (2008)
where they found maximum yield with KNO₃ at 2
Table 3. Effect of foliar application of potassium and spray schedule on potassium content (%) in
leaves of sweet orange cv. Jaffa.
S₁ S₂ S₃
T₁ : KNO₃ 2 % 1.26 1.22 1.31 1.26
T₂ : KNO₃ 4 % 1.42 1.36 1.43 1.40
T₃ : K₂SO₄ 1.5% 1.18 1.17 1.31 1.22
T₄ : K₂SO₄ 3% 1.24 1.26 1.30 1.27
Mean 1.24 1.24 1.30
CD at 5% Spray Schedule (S) = NS, Treatments (T)= 0.09, S xT= NS
Table 4. Effect of foliar application of potassium and spray schedule on yield (kg/plant) of sweet
orange cv. Jaffa
S₁ S₂ S₃
T₁ : KNO₃ 2 % 71.24 67.91 72.34 70.50
T₂ : KNO₃ 4 % 76.90 71.05 76.32 74.76
T₃ : K₂SO₄ 1.5% 67.88 66.12 68.79 67.60
T₄ : K₂SO₄ 3% 69.71 69.05 70.47 69.74
Mean 70.19 67.75 70.72
CD at 5% Spray Schedule(S) = 2.32 , Treatments (T) = 3.45, SxT= 5.62
per cent in Kinnow mandarin. Mostafa and Saleh
(2006) reported that spraying potassium nitrate
with girdling had a positive effect on fruit yield of
Balady mandarin. Dutta et al (2011) found similar
results with foliar application of K₂SO₄ at the rate
of 1.0 per cent in mango.
CONCLUSION
From the study it can be inferred that foliar
application of potash in the form of potassium nitrate
or potassium sulphate at different doses influenced
nutritional status of the leaves which, in turn, might
have helped in enhancing fruit yield of sweet orange
cv. Jaffa. Potassium nitrate @ 4 per cent was found
most effective and produced significantly higher
yield than other treatments. Foliar application of
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 66-69
Nutritional Status of Leaf and Fruit Yield of Sweet Orange

69
K in the last week of April and August was found
better than that in the month of May and August but
at par with 3 sprays in the month of April, May and
August.
REFERENCES
Alva A K, Mattos D J, Paramasivam S, Patil B, Dou H
and Sajwan K S (2006). Potassium management for
optimizing citrus production and quality. International
Journal of Fruit Science 6:3-43.
Anonymous (2013). Package of Practices for Horticultural
Crops and Products. Directorate of Publications, Haryana
Agric. Univ., Hisar, India.
Dutta P, Ahmed B and Kundu S (2011). Effect of different
sources of potassium on yield, quality and leaf mineral
content of mango in West Bengal. Better crops-South
Asia. pp. 16-18.
Haggag M N (1988). Effect of spraying different potassium
salts on fruit creasing, quality and leaf mineral
composition of Washington Navel orange. Alexandria
Journal of Agricultural Research 33(3)
Hamza A, Bamouh A, Guilli M El and Bouabid R (2012).
Response of Clementine citrus var. Cadoux to foliar
potassium fertilization; Effects on fruit production and
quality. e-ifc No. 31, pp:8-15.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 66-69
Vijay et al
Jackson M L (1967). Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi.
Krauss A and Jiyun J (2000). Strategies for improving
balanced fertilization. International Potash Institute,
Basel, Switzerland.
Miller J E and Hoffman P J (1988). Physiology and nutrition
of citrus fruit, growth with special reference to Valencia.
A mini-review. Proc. 6th
Int. Citrus Cong., Tel Aviv, pp.
503-510.
Mostafa EAM, Hassan H SAand SabagAS (2005). Influence
of spraying GA₃ and KNO₃ on yield, fruit quality and
leaf mineral contents of Balady mandarin trees. Minufiya
J Agric Res 30(1):283-295.
Mostafa E A M and Saleh M M S (2006). Response of Balady
mandarin trees to girdling and potassium sprays under
sandy soil conditions. Res J Agric and Biol Sci 2(3):137-
141.
Piper C S (1966). Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publications,
Bombay. pp:368.
SangwanAK, Rattanpal H S,Arora N K and Dalal R S (2008).
Effect of foliar application of potassium on fruit yield and
quality of Kinnow mandarin. Environment and Ecology
26(4C):2315-2318.

70
INTRODUCTION
In Punjab, about 91 per cent of area under paddy
cultivation is harvested by combines and generally
not fed to the animals whereas, paddy straw has
some end uses in areas like briquetting, bedding
for ruminants, thermal power generation, liquid
and gaseous fuel. Despite several uses of paddy
straw, major portion goes as waste and is generally
burnt in fields because of its availability in loose
form scattered on the farms. Thus, paddy straw
management in combine harvested paddy fields is a
major problem in paddy-wheat rotation. About 60-
70 per cent farmers opt for burning paddy straw,
as it is assumed to be quick and easy method for
disposal of paddy residue which enables the farmers
to plant the next wheat crop well in time. In general,
farmers operate stubble shaver on paddy straw after
harvesting the crop by combine harvester and then
burn it. In this process about 12.6 MT of paddy
straw is burnt in Punjab every year. It is estimated
that paddy straw worth crores of rupees is burnt
in the field and 38.0 lakh tons of organic carbon,
59.0 thousand tons of nitrogen, 2.0 thousand tons of
Performance Evaluation of Tractor Operated
Paddy Straw Mulcher
AseemVerma*, Arshdeep Singh, Amandeep Singh, Gurinder Singh Sidhu and Anoop Dixit
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 (India)
ABSTRACT
Paddy straw management in combine harvested paddy fields is a major problem in paddy-wheat rotation.
A study was conducted to evaluate the performance of tractor operated paddy straw mulcher in combine
harvested paddy field. Effective field capacity of the tractor operated paddy straw mulcher was 0.32 ha/h at
forward speed of 2.64 km/h. Average fuel consumption for the machine was 5.88 l/h. The percent chopped
straw size by paddy straw mulcher up to 10 cm was 83.44 %. No or very little straw accumulation was
observed in operation of spatial no till drill for direct drilling of wheat after the operation of paddy straw
mulcher. Average grain yield for treatment T1 (Paddy straw mulcher + wheat sowing with spatial no-till
drill) was 2.39 and 0.33% less than T2 (paddy straw chopper-cum-spreader + wet mixing with rotavator +
no till drill) and T3 (clean field + disc harrow + cultivator x 2 + planter + traditional seed drill) respectively
whereas the cost of operation for treatment T1 was 24.38 and 23.55% less than T2 and T3 respectively.
Key Words: Direct seeding, Paddy straw mulcher, Straw management, Wheat sowing.
phosphorus and 34.0 thousand tons of potash is lost
every year in burning of paddy straw.
To incorporate the leftover paddy straw into
soil, farmers generally undertake 4-5 harrowing +
2-3 cultivator operations + 2-3 planking operations
accounting for 8-11 tractor operations (Chokkar et
al 2005). Incorporation of straw improves the soil
fertility but excessive tillage is energy, time and
cost consuming and has adverse effects on different
soil physical, chemical and biological properties
(Shukla et al 1996).
Direct drilling helps in timely sowing of wheat
after paddy in paddy-wheat rotation. It reduces cost
of production, controls soil erosion and weeds,
conserves soil moisture and also increases the
quantity of organic matter in the soil. However,
direct drilling in combine harvested paddy field is
not possible due to loose straw and chaff spread over
the field surface after combine operation. During
direct drilling of wheat in combine harvested paddy
field there is problem of accumulation of straw
in drill’s furrow openers, traction problem in the
* Corresponding author, E-mail: aseemverma@pau.edu
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71
ground wheel due to the presence of loose straw
and non-uniform depth of seed placement due to
frequent lifting of the implement under heavy trash
conditions (Shukla et al 2002).
Recently, a new machine named paddy straw
mulcherhasbeenintroducedinPunjab.Thefunction
of mulcher is to cut the standing stubbles and loose
straw of paddy left after combine harvesting and
the press wheel fitted on the machine presses the
chopped straw and makes a layer of chopped straw
which serves as mulch for the field. The present
work was conducted to study the performance of
tractor operated paddy straw mulcher in combine
harvested paddy field and to evaluate the wheat
sowing technologies under different paddy residue
conditions.
Description of tractor operated paddy straw
mulcher
The tractor operated paddy straw mulcher
consisted of a rotary shaft mounted with blades
named as flails for chopping the paddy straw. The
working width of the machine was 1600 mm.
Diameter of the rotary shaft was 200 mm. Total 18
flail blades were mounted on the rotary shaft in spiral
form. The shape of the flail blades was Inverted
“Y” type. The power from the tractor PTO to the
machine gear box was supplied through universal
shaft. Power to the rotary shaft was supplied through
belt and pulley from the shaft passing through the
gear box. The gear box had a gear ratio of 6:9 and
the diameter of the drive pulley was 225 mm. A
cylindrical press roller was provided at the rear of
machine. Diameter of the press roller was 160 mm
and length of the press roller was 1600 mm. Brief
Table 1. Specifications of tractor operated paddy straw mulcher.
Sr. No. Parameters Specification
1. Type of machine PTO driven, Mounted type
2. Power source Tractor (45 hp or above)
3. Overall dimensions
Length, mm 1670
Width, mm 1160
Height, mm 930
4. Diameter of the rotary shaft, mm 200
5. Number of spirals on shaft 2
6. Number of flails / spiral 9
7. Flail spacing, mm 200
8. Shape of flail Inverted “Y” type
9. Press roller dimensions (DxL), mm 160 x 1600
10. Depth adjustment settings 3
11. Transmission
Gear ratio 6:9
Diameter of drive pulley, mm 225
Type of pulley C-section, V-belt
Number of pulleys 2
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72
specifications of the tractor operated paddy straw
mulcher are given in Table 1. Stationary views
of the machine are shown in Fig. 1 and detailed
drawings are shown in Fig. 2 and 3.
Evaluation Procedure
The field experiments for the evaluation of
the tractor operated paddy straw mulcher were
carried out at Research Farm of Department of
Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Tractor of 50
hp was used for operating the machine during the
experiment. A view of tractor operated paddy straw
mulcher in operation is shown in Fig.4. Paddy
variety PR-111 was chopped with a tractor operated
paddy straw mulcher. Paddy field conditions after
combine operation are given in Table 2.
Fig. 3: Front view of tractor operated
paddy straw mulcher
Fig. 1: Stationary view of tractor operated paddy straw mulcher
Fig. 2: Side view of tractor operated
paddy straw mulcher
Table 2. Paddy field conditions after combine
harvesting.
Parameter Observation
Moisture content, % (wb) 48.4-53.1
Height of standing stubble, cm 41-50 (Av. 43.66)
Length of loose straw, cm 33-64 (Av. 55.16)
Straw load (standing stubble +
loose straw), t/ha
10.39
For measuring chopped straw size, chopped
straw samples of 100 g were collected from each
plot. For this study, chopped straw was categorized
in to five different ranges of sizes viz. up to < 2 cm.
2-4 cm, 4-7 cm, 7-10 cm and > 10 cm. The weight
of straw retained on each sieve was noted using
electronic weighing balance and size was expressed
in percent weight.
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Performance Evaluation of Tractor Operated Paddy Straw Mulcher

73
Comparative performance evaluation of two
wheat seeding technologies in straw chopped
conditions was carried out and compared with
traditional method. Different wheat seeding
treatments were as T1 = Paddy straw mulcher
+ spatial drill; T2 = Paddy straw chopper-cum-
spreader + wet mixing with rotavator + No till
drill and T3 = Control (Clean field + disc harrow +
cultivator x 2 + planter + traditional seed drill).
A spatial drill is a modified no-till drill having
framewiththreerowsoffurrowopenersascompared
to two in the conventional no-till drills. Furrow
openers were staggered to provide maximum lateral
clearance of 80 cm between the adjacent openers.
Vertical clearance of the frame from the ground
was increased from 30 cm to 60 cm by using longer
shank of furrow opener. Other components of the
machine like inverted T-type furrow opener, seed
and fertilizer boxes etc. are same as already used in
conventional no-till drill.
Clogging of seed drill was determined by
weighing the straw accumulated/entangled within
the frame and tynes during 15 meter run of the drill.
Number of times when it was fully blocked with
straw was also observed. A view of spatial zero till
drill in operation is shown in Fig. 5.
The different crop growth parameters viz.
germination count, tiller height, tiller count,
ear head length, number of grains per ear head,
thousand grain weight and grain yield were
Fig. 4: View of tractor operated paddy
straw mulcher in field.
recorded. The germination count for 7, 14 and 21
days after sowing (DAS) was recorded. The number
of seedlings per one meter row length at four places
was recorded in each plot and their mean value was
determined. The effective tiller count was taken at
the time of maturity of crop. One meter row length
was marked for measuring the effective tiller count.
Five observations were recorded in each treatment
and average of these values was calculated.
Wheat crop was manually harvested randomly
at four places in each treatment having an area
of 4 m2
each with the help of square meter. Crop
was manually harvested and threshed with a plot
threshed and yield per hectare was calculated. Cost
of operation of the three wheat seeding technologies
was done using straight line method (Sahay, 2010).
Rate of interest was taken as 12 per cent per annum.
The fuel cost and the labour cost were taken as per
the market rate during November 2014. Cost of
fuel was taken as Rs 53.37/liter whereas cost of
skilled labour was taken as Rs 320.53/day and that
of unskilled labour was Rs 266.03/day. The cost of
operation of different wheat seeding technologies
was calculated in terms of Rs/ha.
Field performance of tractor operated paddy
straw mulcher
The data ( Table 3) showed that the effective
working width of the tractor operated paddy straw
Fig. 5: View of wheat sowing being done in chopped
straw field with spatial zero till drill.
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74
Table 3. Performance of tractor operated paddy
straw mulcher.
Sr.
No.
Parameter Observation
1. Effective working width, m 1.6
2. Effective field capacity, ha/h 0.32
3. Forward speed, km/h 2.64
4. Fuel consumption, l/h 5.88
5. Chopped straw size, %
<2 cm 13.90
2-4 cm 35.21
4-7 cm 18.66
7-10 cm 15.67
>10 cm 16.56
Table 4. Straw accumulations during operation of spatial drill in paddy straw mulcher operated
field.
Furrow opener 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weight of clogged
paddy residue, gm
119.7 91.4 118.5 134.6 84.5 128.8 35.5 55.0 129.9
SD 122.1 74.18 214.05 80.06 31.08 134.82 41.63 26.23 124.66
CV 1.02 0.81 1.8 0.59 0.36 1.04 1.16 0.47 0.95
mulcher was 1.6 m. Effective field capacity of the
tractor operated paddy straw mulcher was 0.32 ha/h
at forward speed of 2.64 km/h and average fuel
consumption was 5.88 l/h. The percent chopped
straw size in < 2 cm category was 13.90, 2-4 cm
was 35.21, 4-7 cm was 18.66, 7-10 cm was 15.67
and > 10 cm was 16.56.
Straw accumulation
Straw accumulated/entangled within the frame
and tines of spatial drill was collected for 15 m
run of spatial drill while drilling in chopped paddy
residue conditions after tractor operated paddy straw
mulcher. The paddy residue accumulated/entangled
in each tine was collected and the average clogged
residue in each tine is given in Table 4.
Table 5. Comparative performance of different wheat seeding techniques.
Sr. No. Parameter Treatment
T1 T2 T3
1. Germination count, (DAS)
7 20.6 28.1 28.6
14 36.6 40.5 42.6
28 51.2 55.6 56.1
2. Tiller height, cm 70-99 (82.06) 67-95(79.18) 82-97 (92.25)
3. Tiller count/m 58-70 (64) 52-68 (60) 60-79 (68.8)
4. Ear head length, cm 10-13 (11.5) 6-11(10) 9-12 (10.77)
5. Number of grains per ear head 47-67 (55.75) 40-61(51.92) 39-76(58.16)
6. Thousand grain weight, gm 41.5-45.5 (43) 40.5-46(42) 42-43.5(42.75)
7. Grain yield, kg/ha 3850-4550
(4183.33)
3900-4350
(4285.87)
3850-4275
(4197.33)
8. Cost of operation, Rs/ha 3541 4683 4632
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Performance Evaluation of Tractor Operated Paddy Straw Mulcher

75
Comparative performance of different wheat
seeding techniques
The germination count under treatment T1, T2
and T3 was 20.6, 28.1 and 28.6, respectively at 7
DAS; 36.6, 40.5 and 42.6 respectively at 14 DAS
and 51.2, 55.6 and 56.1 respectively at 28 DAS
(Table 6). Tiller height under T1 varied from 70-99
cm, T2 was 67-95 cm and T3 was 82-97 cm. The
range of tiller count/m for T1 was 58-70, for T2 was
52-68 and for T3 was 60-79 with an average of 64,
60 and 68.8 respectively.
Ear head length for T1, T2 and T3 varied from
10-13, 6-11 and 9-12 cm, respectively. Number of
grains/ear head for T1 was 47-67, for T2 was 40-61
and for T3 was 39-76. Thousand grain weight for
T1 was 41.5-45.5 g, for T2 was 40.5-46 g and for
T3 was 42-43.5 g with an average of 43, 42 and
42.75 g, respectively (Table 6).
Average grain yield for T1, T2 and T3 were
4183.33 kg/ha, 4285.87 kg/ha and 4167.33 kg/ha
respectively. The cost of operation for treatment
T1, T2 and T3 was Rs. 3,541/-, Rs. 4,683/- and Rs.
4,632/-ha, respectively.
CONCLUSION
Effective field capacity of the tractor operated
paddy straw mulcher was 0.32 ha/h at forward
speed of 2.64 km/h. Average fuel consumption for
the machine was 5.88 l/h. The percent chopped
straw size by paddy straw mulcher up to 10 cm was
83.44 per cent. No or very little straw accumulation
was observed in operation of spatial no till drill for
direct drilling of wheat after the operation of paddy
straw mulcher. Average grain yield for treatment
T1 was 2.39 and 0.33 per cent less than T2 and
T3, respectively whereas the cost of operation for
treatment T1 was 24.38 and 23.55 per cent less than
T2 and T3, respectively.
REFERENCES
Chokkar R S, Sharma R K, Gathala M K, Pundir A K and
Kumar V (2005). Grow zero-till wheat for more profit.
Intensive Agriculture 43:11-12.
Garg I K (2004). Design and development of rice straw
chopper-cum-spreader. J Res Punjab Agric Uni 41(1):
130-138.
Shukla LN, ChauhanAM, Dhaliwal I S and Verma S R (1996).
Development of minimum till planting machinery. Agric.
Mech. In Asia, Africa and Latin America 15(3): 19-21.
Shukla L N, Sidhu H S and Bector V (2002). Design and
development of loose straw thrower attachment for direct
drilling machine. Agricultural Engineering Today 26(3-
4):23-29.
Singh A, Dhaliwal I S and Dixit A (2011). Performance
evaluation of tractor mounted straw chopper cum
spreader for paddy straw management. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Research 45(1): 21-29.
Sahaj J (2010). Elements of agricultural engineering. Standard
Publisher & Distributors, Delhi, 4:160-61.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 70-75
Verma et al

76
INTRODUCTION
In order to exploit full potential of hybrids, it is
necessary to assess the performance of promising
hybrids at graded levels of nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium. Effective nitrogen management
plays an important role in increasing the response
of the plant to fertilizers. Inadequate N application
adversely affects the grain production, while
excess nitrogen may lead to excess vegetative crop
growth, favorable conditions for attack of insect
pests and diseases (Ohm et al 1996). Therefore, the
present investigation was undertaken to study the
performance of rice (Oryza sativa L.) hybrids under
three different fertility levels.
Field experiment was conducted at Agronomy
Research Farm of Narendra Deva University of
Performance of Various Hybrids and Fertility Levels on Yield
Attributes, Yield and Economics of Hybrid Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Somendra Nath * Sandeep Kumar **and S K Kannaujiya***
Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology
Kumarganj, Faizabad-224 229 (Uttar Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was conducted at Agronomy Research Farm of Narendra Deva University
of Agriculture and Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad for two years. Twenty one
treatment combinations comprised of three levels of fertility (N120
P60
K60
kg ha-1
, N150
P75
K75
kg ha-1
and
N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
) with seven hybrids viz. (SHP 01, SHP 02, SHP 03, SHP 04, SHP 05, SHP 06 and
NDRH 2) were executed in split plot design keeping fertility levels in main plot with four replications.
The soil of experimental plot was silty loam in texture with low in organic carbon and nitrogen, medium
in phosphorus and high in potassium. The crop received normal recommended agronomic practices
and plant protection measures. The highest grain and straw yield was recorded with N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
,
which remained at par with N150
P75
K75
kg ha-1
but significantly superior over N120
P60
K60
kg ha-1
. Hybrid
SHP 04 registered significantly higher values of grain, straw yield and nutrient uptake components over
hybrids SHP 01, SHP 02, SHP 03, SHP 05 and SHP 06 and was found at par with NDRH 2 during
both the years. The interaction effect of the fertility levels and rice hybrids was found non significant
increase in grain yield of hybrid SHP 04 (71.37 q ha-1
). The highest net return of Rs. 45,082/- and Rs.
54,495/- and B:C ratio of 1.69 and 1.96 was recorded with SHP 04 fertilized with N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
.
Key Words: Grain yield, Nutrient uptake, Fertility levels, Hybrid rice.
Agriculture and Technology, Narendra Nagar
(Kumarganj), Faizabad during two kharif seasons of
2008 and 2009. Twenty one treatment combinations
comprised of three levels of fertility (N120
P60
K60
kg
ha-1
, N150
P75
K75
kg ha-1
and N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
) with
seven hybrids (SHP 01, SHP 02, SHP 03, SHP 04,
SHP 05, SHP 06 and NDRH 2) were executed in
split plot design keeping fertility levels in main plot
with four replications. The soil of experimental plot
was silty loam in texture with low in organic carbon
and nitrogen, medium in phosphorus and high in
potassium. The crop received normal recommended
agronomic and plant protection measures.
Effect of fertility levels on grain and straw yields
Grain and straw yield increased with increase in
*Corresponding Author’s Email: snathkvkjnp82@gmail.com
*Subject Matter Specialist (Agronamy), KVK, Jaunpur
**Subject Matter Specialist (Plant Protection) KVK, Jaunpur
***Programme Coordinator, KVK, Jaunpur
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 76-79

77
Table 1 NPK uptake (kg ha-1
) as affected by fertility levels.
Treatment Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year
Fertility levels
N120
P60
K60
120.74 126.05 21.12 21.78 135.14 137.32
N150
P75
K75
137.21 144.56 24.56 25.44 169.55 175.47
N180
P90
K90
142.30 148.40 25.25 25.96 177.47 181.53
SEm±
1.89 1.67 0.34 0.33 2.59 2.40
CD (P=0.05) 6.56 5.77 1.19 1.14 8.95 8.30
Hybrids
SHP 01 123.91 129.29 22.61 23.04 149.87 152.09
SHP 02 135.29 138.57 22.85 23.56 159.11 159.87
SHP 03 133.23 138.47 23.90 24.23 162.66 165.76
SHP 04 158.62 161.66 28.36 29.14 187.09 191.12
SHP 05 134.09 139.12 24.13 24.64 164.79 167.50
SHP 06 109.44 123.95 19.17 21.35 132.96 147.37
NDRH 2 150.84 153.79 26.61 26.73 178.54 182.79
SEm±
2.92 2.86 0.83 0.79 3.12 3.07
CD (P=0.05) 9.14 8.62 2.52 2.48 9.42 9.25
F x V NS NS NS NS NS NS
Table 2 Available NPK (kg ha-1
) in soil after crop harvest as affected by fertility levels and various
rice hybrids
Treatment Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year
Fertility levels
N120
P60
K60
190.70 193.20 17.90 18.10 225.70 228.30
N150
P75
K75
205.70 209.10 20.00 20.30 236.30 240.20
N180
P90
K90
211.80 215.20 21.30 21.60 248.20 252.10
SEm± 3.70 4.27 0.40 0.41 4.30 3.46
CD (P=0.05) 12.81 14.76 1.39 1.43 14.89 11.99
Hybrids
SHP 01 208.53 211.72 20.46 21.57 258.50 262.03
SHP 02 200.15 203.21 19.45 19.74 233.71 237.10
SHP 03 204.11 207.23 19.83 20.14 223.34 226.80
SHP 04 192.91 195.86 18.70 19.03 210.27 213.53
SHP 05 208.07 211.25 20.27 20.53 257.96 261.49
SHP 06 222.64 227.21 21.70 22.05 272.82 276.78
NDRH 2 171.73 174.36 17.69 16.94 200.53 203.44
SEm± 5.41 5.90 0.51 0.58 6.36 6.63
CD (P=0.05) 15.34 16.72 1.45 1.65 18.04 18.79
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 76-79
Nath et al

78
fertility levels and highest grain yield (65.36 q ha-1
and 67.54 q ha-1
) and straw yield (74.83 q ha-1
and
75.91 q ha-1
) were recorded under highest fertility
level of N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
(Table 3), which showed
an increase of 8.9 and 9.9 per cent in grain and 7.49
and 8.19 per cent in straw yield over N120
P60
K60
kg ha-1
and remained at par with N150
P75
K75
kg
ha-1
. Similar findings were reported by Dwivedi et
al (2006) and Singh et al (2005).
Nutrients uptake
Nutrient (NPK) uptake increased with increase
in fertility levels. On an average, highest values of
uptake of 145.35 kg N, 25.60 kg P and 179.5 kg K
ha-1
was recorded with N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
, which was
21.95 kg N, 4.15 kg P and 43.27 kg K more than that
of lowest fertility level of N120
P60
K60
kg ha-1
(Table
2). The differences between both the higher fertility
levels were non-significant. Dwivedi et al (2006) and
Fageria (2005) also reported an increase in available
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium with N180
P90
K90
kg ha-1
, which was at par with N150
P75
K75
kg ha-1
and
significantly higher over N120
P60
K60
kg ha-1
showing
an increase of 21.55 kg N, 3.45 kg P and 23.15 kg
ha-1
over that of N120
P60
K60
kg ha-1
.
Grain yield
On an average, highest grain yield of 71.69 q
ha-1
and straw yield of 81.63 q ha-1
was recorded
in hybrid SHP 04, which was significantly higher
than those of other hybrids (SHP01, SHP-02, SHP-
03, SHP-05 and SHP-06) and at par with NDRH 2,
respectively (Table 3). Similarly, maximum nutrient
uptake of 160.14 kg N, 28.75 Kg P and 189.10 kg
K was recorded with hybrid SHP 04 which was
significantly higher over other rice hybrids but at
par with NDRH 2 during both the years (Table 1).
Economic returns
Highest net return of Rs. 45,082/- and Rs.
54,495/- was recorded with N 180 P 90 and K 90 kg
Table 3. Grain yield, straw yield and harvest index as influenced by fertility levels and hybrid rice
Treatment Grain yield
(q ha-1)
Straw yield
(q ha-1)
Harvest Index
(%)
1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year
Fertility levels
N120
P60
K60
56.72 57.62 67.34 67.72 45.75 45.98
N150
P75
K75
63.71 64.50 73.77 75.72 46.31 46.41
N180
P90
K90
65.36 67.54 74.83 75.91 46.64 46.69
SEm±
1.32 1.17 1.50 1.41 0.00 0.00
CD (P=0.05) 4.56 4.05 5.17 4.89 NS NS
Hybrids
SHP 01 58.93 59.68 69.12 69.53 46.07 46.15
SHP 02 61.14 61.54 72.30 71.84 45.79 46.08
SHP 03 62.35 62.84 74.04 74.25 45.72 45.83
SHP 04 71.37 72.01 81.34 81.93 46.72 46.81
SHP 05 60.56 61.13 69.23 69.82 46.65 46.68
SHP 06 52.46 57.86 60.82 66.71 46.32 46.45
NDRH 2 66.70 67.48 76.98 77.75 46.42 46.46
SEm±
1.78 1.70 2.04 1.99 0.00 0.00
CD (P=0.05) 5.06 4.81 5.79 5.63 NS NS
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 76-79
Performance of Various Hybrids and Fertility Levels on Yield Attributes

79
Table 4 Comparative economics of various treatment combinations
Combinations Gross Returns
(Rs./ha)
Net Returns
(Rs./ha)
Benefit : Cost Ratio
1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year 1st
year 2nd
year
N120
P60
K 60
SHP-01 50,070 59,244 25,751 33,675 1.06 1.32
N120
P60
K 60
SHP-02 51,990 61,084 27,670 35,515 1.14 1.39
N120
P60
K 60
SHP-03 53,053 62,449 28,734 36,880 1.18 1.44
N120
P60
K 60
SHP-04 60,566 71,393 36,246 45,824 1.49 1.79
N120
P60
K 60
SHP-05 53,924 63,634 29,604 38,065 1.22 1.49
N120
P60
K 60
SHP-06 44,555 57,409 20,236 31,840 0.83 1.25
N120
P60
K 60
NDRH-2 54,088 63,925 29,768 38,355 1.22 1.50
N150
P75
K 75
SHP-01 55,161 65,276 29,696 38,557 1.16 1.44
N150
P75
K 75
SHP-02 56,812 67,420 31,347 40,700 1.23 1.52
N150
P75
K 75
SHP-03 57,492 68,878 32,027 42,159 1.26 1.57
N150
P75
K 75
SHP-04 67,939 80,671 42,475 50,351 1.67 1.88
N150
P75
K 75
SHP-05 59,350 70,239 33,885 43,520 1.33 1.62
N150
P75
K 75
SHP-06 48,986 63,194 23,521 36,474 0.92 1.36
N150
P75
K 75
NDRH-2 59,665 71,675 34,201 44,955 1.34 1.68
N180
P90
K 90
SHP-01 57,637 68,318 31,048 40,479 1.17 1.45
N180
P90
K 90
SHP-02 59,782 704,29 33,192 42,590 1.25 1.53
N180
P90
K 90
SHP-03 60,943 719,84 34,353 44,145 1.29 1.59
N180
P90
K 90
SHP-04 71,672 823,34 45,082 54,495 1.69 1.96
N180
P90
K 90
SHP-05 62,111 733,60 35,521 45,521 1.34 1.64
N180
P90
K 90
SHP-06 51,251 661,89 24,661 38,349 0.93 1.38
N180
P90
K 90
NDRH-2 63,172 752,05 36,582 47,365 1.37 1.70
ha-1
with hybrid SHP 04 which was closely followed
by other hybrids fertilized with N150
P75
and K75
kg
ha-1
against lowest net return of Rs. 20,236/- and
Rs. 31,840/- obtained with SHP 06 fertilized with
N120,
P60
and K60
kg ha-1
, respectively. The highest
B:C ratio of 1.69 and 1.96 was obtained with hybrid
SHP 04 at N 180, P 90, K 90 (Table 4).
CONCLUSION
It was concluded that for obtaining higher yield
and monitory benefit from rice, hybrid SHP 04 may
be adopted with a fertilizer dose of 180 kg N, 90 kg
P2
O5
and 90 kg K2
O ha-1
under irrigated conditions
of Uttar Pradesh.
REFERENCES
Dwivedi A P, Dixit R S and Singh G R (2006). Effect of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium levels on growth,
yield and quality of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.). Oryza,
43 (1): 64-66.
Dwivedi A P, Dixit R S, Singh S P and Kumar I I (2000).
Response of hybrid rice to N, P and K levels (in) extended
summaries of National Symposium on Agronomy:
Challenges and Strategies for the New Milleneium, held
during 15-18 November 2000 at Gujrat Agricultural
University Campus, Junagarh, p. 38.
Fageria N K and Baligar V C (2005). Enhancing nitrogen use
efficiency in crop plant. Advances in Agronomy 88: 97-
185.
Ohm H, Kalyal SK and Dhiman SD 1996. Response of rice
hybrid PMS 2A/IR 31802 to seedling vigour and nitrogen
levels in Haryana, India. Int. Rice Res Notes 21: 47-48
Singh K K, Singh K, Singh C S and Singh R, (2005). Nitrogen
nutrition in rice a review. Crop Research 29 (2): 330-336.
Srivastava, B.K. and Tripathi. R.S (2000). Effect of fertility
levels in rice cultivars, Oryza 36(4): 386-388.
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80
INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays L) is one of the most important
cereals having wider adaptability under varied agro-
climatic conditions. Globally, maize is known as
queen of cereals because it has the highest genetic
yield potential among the cereals. In India, maize
occupies third position both in area and production
after rice and wheat.According to advance estimate,
maize is cultivated in 8.7 m ha (2010-11) mainly
during Kharif season which covers 80 per cent area.
Maize in India, contributes nearly 9 per cent in the
national food basket and more than Rs.100 billion
to the agricultural GDP at current prices apart from
the generating employment to over 100 million
man-days at the farm and downstream agricultural
and industrial sectors. In addition to staple food for
human being and quality feed for animals, maize
serves as a basic raw material as an ingredient
to thousands of industrial products that includes
starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food
sweeteners, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, film, textile,
gum, package and paper industries etc.
Popularization of Maize Production Technology through Front
Line Demonstration in Tribal Areas of East Godavari
Jyothi Swaroopa V1
, Mounica D2
Pavani U3
and Dhanu Sree4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pandirimamidi, East Godavari District 533 288 (Andhra Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out during 2011-14 at farmer’s fields of 7 agency mandals of East Godavari District
of Andhra Pradesh. Front Line Demonstration on maize crop was conducted on an area of 100 ha with
active participation of 250 farmers with improved technologies composed of DHM 117 variety and
integrated crop management (deep ploughing + seed treated with thiram 75% WP @ 3g/kg seed). The
results revealed that maximum mean grain yield 85.3 q/ha with an increase in 75.6 per cent over local
check (64.6 q/ha). Improved technologies of maize recorded progressively increased average grain yield
during four years of study, from 62.0 to 85.3 q/ha. The extension gap can be bridged by popularizing
package of practices of maize including improved variety (DHM 117), use of optimum seed rate, balanced
nutrition and recommended plant protection measures. Improved technologies gave higher net return of Rs.
67,925/-ha with benefit cost ratio 3.87 as compared to local check (Rs. 63,543/-ha, benefit cost ratio 3.82).
Key Words: Maize, Yield, Improved technology, Benefit cost ratio.
In Andhra Pradesh it is grown on 1m ha area
with production of 1.1 MT and productivity of
1,100 kg/ha. Farmers of area are preferring maize
as a suitable alternative to soybean and rice in
soybean –wheat and rice – wheat cropping system.
Water-limiting potential yield for a site could be
determined by growing crops without any growth
constraints, except water availability (Singh et
al, 2001) However, the productivity of maize in
Godavari district is very low as compared to average
national productivity(2,435 kg/ha). Lack of suitable
high yielding varieties as well as poor knowledge
about production practices are described as main
reasons for low productivity of maize in the district.
The productivity of maize per unit area could be
increased by adopting recommended scientific and
sustainable management practices using a suitable
high yielding cultivar. Taking into account the
above considerations, frontline demonstrations
(FLD) were carried out in a systematic manner on
farmers’field to show the worth of a new variety and
convincing farmers to adopt improved production
management for enhancing productivity of maize.
Corresponding Author’s Email: jyothivadlamudi2@gmail.com
1,2,3
Research Associate, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pandirimimidi East Godavari District.
4
Assistant Professor, College of Home Science.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 80-82

81
In agency area of East Godavari District, Paddy
is grown under rain fed condition in kharif season
and the land is kept fallow during rabi season or
used for cultivation of less remunerative crops.
In order to bring the fallow land into cultivation
front line demonstrations for promotion of maize
cultivation in the agency area were laid out.
Front line demonstrations on Maize were
conducted in collaboration with Directorate of
Maize Research, New Delhi and Agricultural
Technology Management Agency ( ATMA), East
Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh during 2011-12
to 2013-14. The demonstrations were laid out in 7
agency mandals of East Godavari District ofAndhra
Pradesh. Each demonstration was conducted in a
block of 0.4 ha area in order to have better impact
of the technologies demonstrated against the local
checks. A total area of 100 ha was put under FLD.
Production and economic data for FLDs and local
practices were collected.
Front line demonstration technology and
farmer’s practices
ThedatainTable1showthecomparisonbetween
the FLD and farmer’s practices and it was noticed
that maize variety DHM 117 was grown under the
guidance of KVK scientist. Similarly, farmers were
not using seed treatment, plant protection measures
and integrated crop management practices which
were demonstrated under FLD plot. Likewise,
time of sowing was also different and no chemical
control of weeds was followed by the farmers.
Yield attributes and grain yield
The data (Table 2) revealed that number of
cobs under the demonstration were more (2 cobs/
plant) compared to farmer’s practice (1 cob/plant).
Table 1. Comparison between demonstrated package and existing farmer’s practice of maize
production
Sr. No. Intervention Demonstrated package Farmers’ practice
1 Farming situation Rabi Rainfed
2 Variety DHM 117 Local
3 Seed treatment Seed treated with thiram 75% WP@3g/kg Nil
4 Time of Sowing 15th
to 30th
October 1st
to 10th
November
5 Method of Sowing Line sowing with proper crop geometry Broadcasting
6 Seed rate 18 to 20 kg/ha 20-25kg/ha
7 Fertilizer dose 100:50:40 (NPK kg/ha) 100:40:0
8 Plant protection Need based application of carbofuran 3G@10
kg/ha to protect against stemborer
Nil
9 Weed management Atrazine @2.5kg/ha as pre-emergence, Para-
quat 2.5l/ha as post-emergence followed by
one hand weeding at 30 days after sowing
One hand weeding at 30-
35 days after sowing
Table 2. Yield attributes obtained under demonstration v/s farmer’s practice in maize.
Sr. No. Parameter Demonstration Farmer’s practice
1 Number of cobs/plant 2 1
2 No. of Kernel rows 18-20 15-18
3 Length of cob (cm) 18.5-21.5 16.0-20.5
4 1000 grain wt (g) 220.5-248.0 186.0-210.5
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 80-82
Swaroopa et al

82
Similarly, 1000 grain weight was also high (220.5-
248.0 g) under demonstration compared to the
farmer’s practice (186-210.5g) which ultimately
resulted in higher grain yield of 85.3q/ha.
On an average, maize grain yield under front
line demonstration was higher by 32 per cent as
compared to farmer’s practices (64.6 q/ha) (Table
3). The results indicated that the demonstration has
given good impact in terms of yield and income.
The higher productivity of maize under improved
technologies was due to the sowing of latest high
yielding crop variety and adoption of improved
nutrient and pest management techniques. Similar
results have been reported earlier by Jeengar et al
(2006) and Dhaka et al (2010).
Economical analysis
It can be inferred that conductance of
demonstrations on new technologies help the
farmers in increasing the farm income. The net
returns under the FLD plots (Rs. 67,925 /ha)
increased by 6.8 per cent over the farmer’s practice
(Rs. 63543/ha). During the years, 2011-12, 2012-13
and 2013-14, the benefit cost ratios were recorded
as 3.73, 3.97 and 3.92, respectively.
CONCLUSION
Front line demonstrations conducted under
the close supervision of scientists is one of the
most important tools of extension to demonstrate
crop management practices at farmers’ field.
Table 3. Economics of maize cultivation under FLD and farmer’s practice.
Sr.
No.
Year Cost of cultiva-
tion (Rs/ha)
Gross returns
(Rs/ha)
Net returns
(Rs/ha)
B:C ratio Grain Yield
(q/ha)
IP FP IP FP IP FP IP FP IP FP
1 2011-12 23,400 21,800 87,500 83,000 64,100 61,200 3.73 3.8 84.0 62.0
2 2012-13 23,125 22,450 92,000 86,000 68,875 63,550 3.97 3.83 87.0 68.0
3 2013-14 24,200 23,120 95,000 89,000 70,800 65,880 3.92 3.84 85.0 65.0
Mean 23,575 22,456 91,500 86,000 67,925 63543 3.87 3.82 85.3 64.6
IP – Improved practice (Demonstration); FP – Farmer’s practice
FLDs are playing important role in motivating
the farmers for adoption of improved agriculture
technology resulting in increasing their yield and
profits. Keeping in view of importance in transfer
of technology, FLDs should be designed and
conducted carefully and effectively and provisions
should be made for other supportive extension
activities such as field days, technical trainings,
interaction meeting, etc. for speedy dissemination
of demonstrated technology among farming
community. The production under FLD created
awareness and motivated the other farmers to adopt
cultivation of maize during Rabi season particularly
in the agency area of the East Godavari district of
Andhra Pradesh.
REFERENCES
DhakaBL,MeenaBSandSuwalkaRL(2010).Popularization
of Improved Maize Production. Govt. of Rajasthan.
Agricultural Statistics Rajasthan. Directorate of
Economics and Statistics, Government of Rajasthan,
Jaipur. pp. 37-42.
Jeengar K L, Panwar P and Pareek O P (2006). Front line
demonstration on maize in Bhilwara District of Rajasthan.
Current Agriculture 30 (1-2): 115-116.
Singh P, Vijaya D, Chinh N T, Pongkanjana A, Prasad K S,
Srinivas K and Wani S P (2001). Potential Productivity
and Yield Gap of Selected Crops in the Rainfed
Regions of India, Thailand, and Vietnam. Natural
Resource Management Program Report no. 5, 50.
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics.pp.1-25.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 80-82
Popularization of Maize Production Technology through Front Line Demonstration

83
INTRODUCTION
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) – wheat (Triticum
aestivum L) cropping sequence of India occupying
25-30 per cent of the total cultivated area of Uttar
Pradesh. Wide adoption of this system is mainly
due to stable food to human being and fodder for
animals but continuous adoption of this sequence
led to reduce soil fertility which ultimately resulted
in declining the efficiency and productivity of
the system. More over sorghum –wheat cropping
sequence in an exhaustive cropping sequence
which deplete soil nitrogen and other essential
Physico-Chemical and Biological Properties of Soil under
Sorghum – Wheat Farming System of Bulandshahr and Meerut
Districts in Uttar Pradesh
Ravindra Kumar, R R Singh, Manoj Singh, Laxmi Kant and Yogesh Kumar
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Rampur,
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut-250 110 ( Uttar Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The depth wise soils of sorghum- wheat farming system from different locations were analyzed
to find the physico – chemical and biological properties like bulk density, pH, EC, CEC, organic carbon,
macro- micronutrients and bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes. The pH of soil samples varied from 7.9 to
8.7 and range of electrical conductivity of 1:2 soil water extraction was 0.139 to 0.347 d Sm-1
at 25 0
C.
None of the soil was found in saline category. CEC of soil varied from 9.21 to 18.25 c mol (p+
) kg-1
and
was positively and significantly correlated with clay content. The organic carbon content which declined
with soil depth varied from 2.4 to 7.5 g kg-1
soil. Organic carbon was correlated positively and highly
significantly with available nitrogen, total nitrogen, positively with available P, K, micronutrient and
microbial biomass carbon and negatively with bulk density and CEC in all the cropping sequences soil.
The available nitrogen ranged between 41.25 to 107.49 kg ha-1
. It decline with soil depth. The available
phosphorus and potassium ranged between 4.48 to 14.84 and 68.30 to 325.00 kg ha-1
and declined with
increasing soil depth. Among the different cationic micronutrients with exception of zinc the availability
of rest micronutrients was in sufficiency range. In some case the availability of zinc was in deficient
range. DTPA extractable Cu ranged from 0.075 to 1.983, Fe 2.221 to 8.474, Mn 0.408 to 5.551 and
Zn 0.107 to 1.232 mg kg -1
soil. The availability of these micronutrients declined with increase in soil
depth. Except Mn and available potassium others nutrients were significantly and positively correlated
with organic carbon. The biological properties of soil, the range of bacteria varied from 2.0x 102
to 6.5x
108
, fungi 1.0x 102
to 8.6x 104
and actinomycetes 1.0x 102
to 8.0x104
count g-1
soil. Microbial biomass
carbon 75 to 400 μg g-1
soil and dehydrogenase activity 10 to 90 μg TPF g-1
day-1
. All the microbial
population, microbial biomass carbon and dehyrogenase activity declined as the soil depth increases.
Key Words: Sorghum-wheat, Physico-chemical ,Biological properties.
nutrients extensively. So to maintain soil fertility
and sustained crop production in this sequence,
integrated nutrient management is the only option.
Presently fertilizer application by farmers is based
on the nutrient requirement of individual crop
and the carryover effect of the organic manures
or fertilizer or crop residues applied to preceding
crop are generally ignored. Fertilizer application
through inorganic source even in balanced amount
does not sustain soil fertility and productivity under
continuous cropping on same site.
Corresponding Author’s Email: ravindradrsoil@rediffmail.com
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 83-89

84
Recently stagnation or declining tread in rice-
wheat productivity at same location has been
reported (Singh et al 1992) which may be associated
with declining in soil organic matter content and
other edaphic factors. On the other hand, crop
residue in machine harvested area are being burnet
to clear the field for planting the next crop. This
practice results in loss of valuable organic matter
and nutrients particularly nitrogen and sulphur and
caused environmental problem. Further, continuous
cultivation of same crop on same field by the
farmers coupled with inadequate replenishment on
nutrients from the external sources has led to severe
depletion of soil available nutrients in this area. Soil
characterization in relation to evaluation of fertility
status of the soil of an area or region is an important
aspect for sustainable crop production because of
imbalance and inadequate fertilizer use efficiency
of chemical fertilizer has declined tremendously
under intensive cropping system in recent year
(Chandra et al 2008).
Information on soil fertility status of macro and
micro nutrients of the study area in not available,
therefore, present study was carried out to evaluate
the soil fertility status of sorghum– wheat cropping
system of Meerut and Bulandshar districts of Uttar
Pradesh. An attempt was also made to correlate soil
available nutrients content with other soil properties.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The soil samples of 0-15, 15-30 and 30-
45 cm depth were collected from four different
locations of Meerut and Bulandshar districts under
sorghum – wheat cropping sequence with the
help of auger and stored in plastic box. Collected
samples were air dried in shade, crushed gently
with a wooden roller and pass through 2.0 mm
sieve to obtain a uniform representative sample.
The processed soil samples were analyzed for
physico – chemical properties using standard
method for pH and electrical conductivity (1:2
soil water suspensions), organic carbon (Walkley
and Black, 1934), available nitrogen (Subhiah and
Asija, 1956), available phosphorus (Olsen et al
1954), available potassium (Jackson, 1973) and
cationic micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn) in
soil samples extracted with a diethylene triamine
penta acetic acid (DTPA) solution (0.005M) DTPA
+0.01 M Cacl2
+ 0.1 M triethanolamine , pH 7.3
as outlined by Lindsay and Norvell (1978). The
concentration of micronutrients was determined
by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (GBC
Avanta PM). For the biological properties Soil
samples were incubated at 25 ±1 °C for 7 days. Soil
moisture content during incubation was adjusted
to field capacity for all the microbial counts and
biochemical properties were studied as described
by Wollum (1982). All the analysis of soil samples
was carried out in laboratory of department of soil
science, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of
Agriculture and Technology, Meerut.
The Soil samples collected from different
villages at surface and sub surface soil where
sorghum- wheat farming system was followed.
Farmers usually apply 130-150 kg N/ha along with
60-80 kg P/ha. and 50-60 kg K/ha. Zinc application
in sorghum- wheat farming system done by all the
farmers and compost application was done by 40 per
cent of the farmers while green manuring practiced
by 10-12 per cent farmers and bio-fertilizers use was
not prevalent. It was noted that 85 per cent farmers
reported increased use of fertilizers to harvest same
quantity of grain yield at four different locations of
Meerut and Bulandshare districts.
Chemical properties
Soil Reaction (pH)
Soil pH estimated for soil of various depths
was usually found normal to alkaline in reaction
(Table 1). It was observed that soil pH ranged from
7.9 to 8.5 for surface soil (0 -15 cm) while 8.1 to
8.6 in subsurface soil (30 - 45 cm). The soil EC
ranged from 0.145 to 0.347 dSm-1
for surface soil
while 0.144 to 0.292 dSm-1
in subsurface soil. The
CEC ranged from 11.21 to 16.13 cmol (p+
) kg-1
for
surface soil (0-15 cm) while 9.21 to 18.25 cmol
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 83-89
Kumar et al

85
(p+
) kg-1
in subsurface soil (30-45cm) cmol (p+
) kg-1
soil.
Organic Carbon content
The organic carbon (OC) in surface (0-15cm)
and subsurface soil (30-45cm) varied from 4.8
to 7.5 and 2.4 to 3.3 g kg-1
soil, respectively. The
Maximum OC content 7.5 g kg-1
at surface (0-15
cm) was found in soil of Khanpur Meerut while
minimum 4.8 g kg-1
in Kalapuri, Bulandshahr. In
the sub surface soil maximum OC content 3.3 g
kg-1
was found in Nagli Isha, Meerut and minimum
2.4g kg-1
Khetanpur, Bulandshahr. Lower OC in the
area may be due to prevailing high temperature and
good aeration in the soil which increase the rate of
oxidation of organic matter content.
Nutrients status and soil fertility
Nitrogen
Soil fertility exhibits the status of different soils
withregardtotheamountandavailabilityofnutrients
essential for plant growth. The available nitrogen
(N) content in surface (0-15cm) and subsurface soil
(30-45cm) varied from 86.14 to 97.06 and 41.25 to
80.4 kg ha-1
(Table-1) suggesting that all soils were
low in available nitrogen. Available N was found
to be maximum 97.06 kg ha-1
in Nagli Isha and
minimum 86.14 kg ha-1
in Khetanpur, Bulandshahr
in surface soil (0-15 cm) while in sub surface soil
30-45cm) the highest available N 80.4 kg ha-1
in
Nagli Isha and minimum 41.25 kg ha-1
in Khanpur,
Meerut. The available N content was low and
found decreasing with increasing depth which may
be due to decreasing trend of organic carbon with
depth and moreover cultivation of crops is mainly
confined to the surface soil only at regular interval
and N is supplemented by the external addition of
fertilizers during crop cultivation (Rani et al 1992).
Walia et al (1998) reported that available N in the
soils of Bundelkhand region accounted for 12 to 40
peer cent of total N in the range of 95 to 159 N
kg-1
in surface soil and 51 to 159 mg N kg-1
in sub
surface horizon. The continuous mineralization of
organic matter in surface soils was responsible for
the higher values.
Phosphorus
In sorghum- wheat cropping sequence the
available phosphorus (P) in surface (0-15 cm) and
sub surface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm) varied from
5.33 to 14.84, 4.48 to 10.94 and 4.36 to 10.45 kg
ha-1
, respectively. Available P was found to be
maximum14.84 kg ha-1
in Khetanpur and minimum
5.33 kg ha-1
in Nagli Isha, Meerut in surface soil
(0-15 cm) while in sub surface soil 30-45cm) the
highestavailablenitrogen10.45kgha-1
inKhetanpur
and minimum 4.36 kg ha-1
in Nagli Isha, Meerut.
kg ha-1
. The highest available P was observed in the
surface soil and decrease with increasing depth. It
might be due to the confinement of crop cultivation
to the rhizosphere and supplementing the depleted
P by external sources. The lower P content in sub
surface soil could be attributed to the fixation of
released phosphorus by clay minerals (Leelavathi
et al 2009).
Potassium
In sorghum - wheat cropping sequence the
available potassium (K) in surface (0-15 cm) and
sub surface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm) varied between
97.19 to 307.12, 68.3 to 312.83 and 79.38 to 325.00
kg ha-1
, respectively. Available K was found to
be maximum307.12 kg ha-1
in Khanpur, Meerut
and minimum 97.19kg ha-1
in Nagli Isha, Meerut
in surface soil (0-15 cm) while in sub surface soil
30-45cm) the highest available nitrogen 325.00 kg
ha-1
in Khanpur, Meerut and minimum 79.38 kg
ha-1
in Nagli Isha, Meerut.kg ha-1
. The available
K was higher in surface soil and it declined with
increasing soil depth.
Micronutrients
Copper
The DTPA extractable Cu in sorghum - wheat
cropping sequence varied from 0.763 to 1.983 mg
kg-1
soil in surface (0-15cm) while 0.483 to 1.323
and 0.075 to 1.110 mg kg-1
in sub surface soil (15-
30 & 30-45cm), respectively. All the soil sample in
sorghum-wheat farming system were found to be
sufficient in available Cu content by considering
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 83-89
Physico-Chemical and Biological Properties of Soil under Sorghum

86
the critical limit of 0.20 mg kg1
soil suggested by
Lindsay and Norvell (1978). A decreasing trend in
available Cu with increasing depth was noticed in
all locations. The available Cu was more in surface
layer and decreased with depth.
Iron
In sorghum – wheat cropping sequence the
DTPA- extractable iron in surface (0-15cm) and sub
surface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm) varied from 3.512
to 8.474, 3.105 to 7.049 and 2.221 to 6.101 mg kg-1
soil, respectively. According to critical limit of 4.5
mg kg-1
soil as proposed by Lindsay and Norvell
(1978) all the surface soil (0-15cm) was sufficient
in available Fe. A decreasing trend with depth in
available Fe was noticed in all locations of sorghum
– wheat farming sequence.
Mn
In sorghum – wheat cropping sequence the
DTPA- extractable Mn content in surface (0-15cm)
and subsurface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm) varied from
1.952 to 5.551, 1.373 to 4.027 and 0.408 to 3.475 mg
kg-1 soil, respectively.. According to critical limit
of 1.0 mg kg-1
as proposed by Lindsay and Norvell
(1978) all the soil was sufficient in available Mn.
Zn
In sorghum - wheat cropping sequence the
DTPA -extractable Zn ranged from 0.543 to 1.163
mg kg-1
in surface (0-15cm) While 0.265 to 0.613
and 0.107 to 0.381 mg kg-1
soil in sub surface soil
(15-30 & 30-45cm), respectively. Considering
0.6 mg kg-1
as critical level (Lindsay and Norvell
1978) all the surface soil sample was sufficient in
available Zn content.
Microbiological Properties:
In sorghum –wheat cropping sequence the
population of bacteria in surface (0-15cm) and sub
surface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm) varied from 4.7 x
106
to 9.0 x 106,
5.0 x 104
to 8.0 x 104
and 4.8 x
102
to 7.0 x 102
count g-1
soil with an average value
of 6.4 x 106
, 6.2 x 104
and 5.6 x 102
count g-1
soil,
respectively. The population of fungi in surface
(0-15cm) and sub surface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm)
varied from 1.6 x 104
to 2.0 x 104
, 1.5 x 102
to 1.9
x 102
and 1.2 x 102
to 1.7 x 102
count g-1
soil with
an average value of 1.75 x 104
, 1.70 x 102
and 1.4
x 102
count g-1
soil, respectively. Actinomycetes
population in surface (0-15cm) and sub surface soil
(15-30 & 30-45cm) varied from 1.8 X 104
to 2.2
X 104
, 1.2 x 102
to 1.9 x 102
and 1.0 X 102
to 1.5
X 102
count g-1
soil with an average value of 2.0 x
104
, 1.6 x 102
and 1.2 X 102
count g-1
, respectively.
Microbial biomass carbon in surface (0-15cm) and
subsurface soil (15-30 & 30-45 cm ) varied from
198 to 293, 150 to 160 and 75 to 85 μg g-1
soil with
an average value of 219.75, 154.50 and 79.25 μg
g-1
soil, respectively . The mean value of microbial
biomass carbon for 0-45 cm depth varied from
142.66 to 154.33 μg g-1
soils.
In sorghum – wheat cropping sequence
dehydrogenase activity in surface (0-15) and sub
surface soil (15-30 & 30-45cm ) varied from 62
to 75, 18 to 28 and 10 to 13 μg TPF g -1
soil day-1
with an average value of 65.55, 23.00 and 11.25 μg
TPF g -1
soil day-1
, respectively. The mean value of
dehydrogenase enzyme activity in soil for 0-45 cm
depth varied from 30.00 to 38.00 μg TPF g -1
soil
day-1
.
Correlation study
Simple correlation coefficient of soil properties
with various elements revealed that the soil organic
carbon was positively and highly significantly
correlated with available N (r = 0.827**
), DTPA
extractable Cu (r = 0.708**
), Zn (r = 0.804**
) and
microbial biomass carbon (r = 0.728**
), positively
and significantly with total N (r = 0.596*
) while
positively correlated with CEC (r = 0.152), available
P (r = 0.315), available K (r = 0.281) Fe (r = 0.268)
and Mn (r = 0.055). A negative and significant
correlation of soil organic carbon (r = - 0.616) was
found with bulk density
The soil pH was negatively correlated with Cu
(r = - 0.154) and significantly negatively with Zn
(r = - 0.669*
). Soil pH was positively correlated
with Fe (r = 0.382) and Mn (r = 0.559). CEC of soil
was related negatively and highly significantly with
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87
Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of soil under Sorghum –wheat cropping sequence.
Locations Depth
(cm)
pH EC
(dSm-1
)
CEC(c-
mol(p+
)
kg-1
)
BD
mg/m3
O.C.
g/kg
Available macronutrients
N
(kgha-1
)
P
(kgha-1
)
K
(kgha-1
)
Kalapuri (B) 0-15
15-30
30-45
8.5
8.7
8.6
0.347
0.307
0.292
12.52
12.00
12.60
1.33
1.35
1.36
4.8
3.2
2.6
90.84
84.93
67.22
13.26
10.94
10.09
115.70
105.30
114.30
Khetanpur
(B)
0-15
15-30
30-45
7.9
8.0
8.4
0.263
0.160
0.144
11.21
9.21
9.21
1.35
1.38
1.40
5.8
4.2
2.4
86.14
80.61
50.32
14.84
10.82
10.45
125.55
86.94
88.20
Nagli Isha
(M)
0-15
15-30
30-45
8.0
8.1
8.1
0.184
0.144
0.139
15.31
10.01
16.00
1.35
1.38
1.45
4.9
3.8
3.3
97.06
83.40
80.40
5.33
4.48
4.36
97.19
68.30
79.38
Khanpur (M) 0-15
15-30
30-45
8.0
8.4
8.6
0.145
0.152
0.153
16.13
16.56
18.25
1.30
1.32
1.33
7.5
4.5
2.4
107.49
88.97
41..25
10.33
8.75
6.68
307.12
312.83
325.00
Mean 0-15
15-30
30-45
-
-
-
0.234
0.190
0.182
13.89
11.96
14.01
1.33
1.35
1.39
5.75
3.92
2.67
95.38
84.77
59.79
10.94
8.74
7.89
161.39
143.34
151.72
Table 2. DTPA extractable micronutrient (mg kg-1
) at various soil depths under Sorghum – wheat
cropping sequence
Locations Depth
(cm)
Available micronutrients
Fe
mgkg-1
Mn
mgkg-1
Cu
mgkg-1
Zn
mgkg-1
Kalapuri (B) 0-15
15-30
30-45
8.474
7.049
6.101
5.551
4.027
3.475
0.871
0.799
0.323
0.543
0.336
0.261
Khetanpur (B) 0-15
15-30
30-45
3.512
3.105
2.970
1.982
1.669
1.570
0.763
0.483
0.075
0.776
0.613
0.381
Nagli Isha (M) 0-15
15-30
30-45
4.613
4.257
3.277
1.952
1.373
0.408
0.837
0.677
0.587
1.232
0.357
0.270
Khanpur (M) 0-15
15-30
30-45
5.771
5.891
2.221
2.095
1.877
1.688
1.983
1.323
1.110
1.163
0.265
0.107
Mean 0-15
15-30
30-45
5.592
5.075
3.642
2.895
2.261
1.785
1.113
0.820
0.523
0.928
0.392
0.254
In parentheses B denotes Bulandshahr and M for Meerut.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 83-89

88
sand (r = - 773**
) however highly significantly and
positively with clay (r = 0.838**
) while significantly
and positively with silt (r = 0.645*
). A highly
significant and positive correlation was observed
between available soil nitrogen and microbial
biomass carbon (r = 0.723**
) while significant and
positive correlation with total N(r = 0.567) Sarade
and Prasad (2008).
CONCLUSION
The study of soil samples of Meerut and
Bulandshar districts revealed that the soil were
normal to moderately alkaline in reaction, low to
medium in organic carbon. As far as nutrient status
in concerned on the bases of mean value, the soils
were low in available nitrogen, low to medium in
available phosphorus and potassium and in general
sufficient in available Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn in surface
soil and declined with soil depth. Among the
biological properties of soil, the range of bacteria
varied from 2.0x 102
to 6.5x 108
, Fungi 1.0x 102
to 8.6x 104
and actinomycetes 1.0x 102
to 8.0x104
count g-1
soil. Microbial biomass carbon 75 to 400
μg g-1
soil and dehydrogenase activity 10 to 90 μg
TPF g-1
day-1
.All the microbial population, microbial
biomass carbon and dehyrogenase activity decline
as the soil depth increases.
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INTRODUCTION
Vegetable cultivation has become highly
commercialized but still there is a wide gap between
current production and potential productivity. With
the view to achieve a high level of production, it is
not only enough to develop farm innovations but is
also necessary to transfer the latest technology from
the research system to ultimate users i.e. farmers and
farm women. Women play a significant and crucial
role in vegetable production. It is most unfortunate
that the role of women and their contribution in
farm activities are yet to be recognized. Although
they perform almost all the activities in farm buy
by and large they have been remained as invisible
workers. Vegetable cultivation in Deoria district
has a vast potential of improving the economical
status of farming community. It has been observed
that in a farming family, the participation of
women in decision making as well as in the
implementation and management of farm planning
was very poor, although the contribution towards
Role and Contribution of Rural Women in Vegetable Production
Anuradha Ranjan Kumari1
, Laxmikant2
, Ravindra Kumar3
and Manoj Singh4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (IIVR) Malhana, Deoria (Uttar Pradesh)
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Salempur and Bhatpar Rani Blocks of Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh to
ascertain women participation in vegetable production. 120 houses having land for vegetable cultivation
were selected. 60 rural women from 60 houses selected from each block. Female respondents from each
house were interviewed. The data were collected personally through structured interview schedule. Data
collected included the extent of participation and decision making of women in various activities of vegetable
production. Study revealed that in vegetable cultivation various intervention points are addressable. Women
wereinvolvedinoperationssuchascleaningofland,sowingofseed,transplantingofvegetablenursery,hoeing
and weeding, scaring of birds and rodents, harvesting and processing of vegetable and storage of seed. Non
participation of women in various operations was due to more fatigue, requirement of more muscle power,
lack of knowledge and awareness with respect to decision making. It was observed that women played only
supportive role and less participation of women in decision making could be attributed to customs, traditions,
social barrier, their illiteracy, ignorance and less participation in extension programmes. Women’education,
technical training and adequate extension facilities can create a positive impact leading to a better tomorrow.
Key Words: - Rural women, Participation, Vegetable production.
total land and labour is significant. Therefore, the
study was carried out to determine the extent of
women participation in different activities and the
role in decision making, in vegetable cultivation
so that suitable interventions can be planned and
undertaken in future.
The present study was conducted in Deoria
district of Uttar Pradesh state. Out of twenty blocks,
two blocks namely Salempur and Bhatpar Rani
were selected and from each block, 10 villages were
selected. A total of 120 women respondents were
selected from twenty villages of these two blocks.
A structured schedule was used to collect the data
by personal interview method. The data collected
included information related to different farm
activities and decision making used for vegetable
production. The data were processed, tabulated and
presented in the form of table.
*Corresponding Author’s Email: anuradha_rau@rediffmail.com
1
Incharge, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, (IIVR), Makhana, Deoria (Uttar Pradesh)
2,3 & 4
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dhamora, Rampur (Uttar Pradesh)
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91
Socio economic characteristics
The socio-economic characteristics of
the respondents were presented in table 1. The
majority of the respondents belonged to middle
age group (53.3%) followed by young age (30.0%)
and old age (16.7%) group. It was also revealed
that majority (63.3%) belonged to nuclear family
followed by joint family (36.7%). Results on cast
categories indicated that maximum (63.9%) of
respondents were from backward caste followed by
schedule caste (27.2%) and only (6.7%) belonged
to general caste. Regarding educational status, it
was found that majority (54.4%) were illiterate
followed by educated up to fifth class (29.4%)
and only (16.2%) were having middle and above
level of education in the study area. Agriculture
and animal husbandry were the main occupation
of respondents (64.4%) followed by 21.7, 8.9 and
5.0 per cent in agricultural, animal husbandry and
service professions, respectively.
It was also revealed that majority (63.9%) of
respondents were from middle income group (Rs
10,000/- to Rs.30,000/-) followed by high income
group (27.2%) and only 8.9 per cent were low
income group. The data (Table 1) revealed that
most of the respondents (47.8%) had land holding
size less than 1 ha., 1 to 2 ha. (36.6%) and 15.6 per
cent were landless. In this situation income from
Table 1. Participation of women in various activities of vegetable Production. (N=120)
Sr. No. Activities Frequency Per cent
1. Land preparation
Ploughing 0 0.0
Cleaning of field 120 100.0
FYM application 0 0.0
Forming ridges and furrows 0 0.0
2. Pre sowing and sowing operations
Seed treatment 26 21.7
Sowing of seed 120 100.0
Plant treatment 0 0.0
Raising vegetable nursery 29 24.2
Nursery after care 68 56.7
Transplanting of vegetable nursery 120 100.0
3. Intercultural operations
Irrigation 19 15.8
Hoeing and weeding 120 100.0
Fertilizer application 64 53.3
Pesticide and weedicide application 13 10.8
Scaring of birds rodents and animals 120 100.0
4. Harvesting and post harvesting operations
Vegetable harvesting 120 100.0
Storage of seed 8 6.7
Marketing 28 23.3
Vegetable processing 120 100.0
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 90-93
Kumari et al

92
Table 3. Decision making of women in different operations of vegetable Production.
(N=120)
Sr.
No.
Operations Frequency Per cent
1. Land selection 22 18.3
2. Selection of crops to be grown 25 20.8
3. Method of cultivation 11 9.2
4. Selection of farm machinery and its implementations 9 7.5
5. Varietal selection 20 16.7
6. Fertilizer selection and application 7 5.8
7. Choice of irrigation 32 26.7
8. Sale of vegetable produce 39 32.5
9. Storage of seed 74 61.7
10. Vegetable processing 108 90.0
Table 2. Socio economic characteristics of farm women in vegetable production.
Sr. No. Parameter Categories Frequency Percentage
1. Age Young (< 25 years)
Middle (26-50years)
Old (>50 years)
54
96
30
30.0
53.3
16.7
2. Type of
family
Nuclear
Joint
114
66
63.3
36.7
3. Caste General
OBC
Schedule caste
Schedule tribes
12
115
49
4
6.7
63.9
27.2
2.2
4. Education Illiterate
Primary
Middle and above
98
53
29
54.4
29.4
16.2
5. Main occupation Agriculture
AH
Agriculture +AH
Service
39
16
116
9
21.7
8.9
64.4
5.0
6. Annual
income
Low (belowes 10,000)
Medium(Rs 10,000- 30,000)
High (above Rs 30,000)
16
115
49
8.9
63.9
27.2
7. Land Holding Landless
Marginal (<1hecture)
Small (<1-2hecture)
28
86
66
15.6
47.8
36.6
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Role and Contribution of Rural Women in Vegetable Production

93
livestock production play a major role for their
subsistence in such type of rural area.
Participation of women in vegetable production
activities
The data (Table 2) indicated that different
activities performed by female were cleaning of
land, sowing of seeds, transplanting of vegetable
nursery, scaring of birds, rodents and animals and
harvesting. In vegetable processing, cent percent
women showed their participation. These findings
were in agreement with those reported by Baba et al
(2010) for the study in Jammu Kashmir. Above fifty
per cent of women involved in nursery management
and fertilizer application while 24.2 and 21.7 per
cent participated in raising vegetable nursery and
seed treatment, respectively.
Non participation of women in ploughing,
forming ridge and furrows was due to hard labour
and in plant protection, due to lack of awareness
and knowledge. Similar case has been reported
by Srivastava and Singh (2011) for their study in
Ballia. Non participation in various agricultural
activities was due to drudgery faced in operations
by farm women.
Role of women in decision making
The data (Table 3) indicated that it was highest
(90.0%) in vegetable processing followed by 61.7
per cent engaged in storage of seed and 32.5 per
cent participation in selling of vegetable produce.
Choice of irrigation (26.7 %), selection of crops to
be grown (20.8%), land selection (18.3 %), varietal
selection (16.7%), method of cultivation (9.2%),
selection of farm machinery and its implements
(7.5 %) and lowest (5.8%) in fertilizer selection
and application. The study further revealed that
women has played only supportive role. Less
involvement of women in decision making could
be attributed to customs, traditions, social barrier
and illiteracy, ignorance and less participation in
extension programmes. These findings were in
conformation of Baba et al (2010) for their study in
Jammu Kashmir.
CONCLUSION
The study showed that in vegetable production
on commercial scale, women participation
was found more prominent in sowing of seed,
transplanting of vegetable nursery, hoeing and
weeding, scaring of birds and rodents, vegetable
harvesting and processing. With respect to decision
making, women played only supportive role.
Women’ education, technical training, adequate
extension facilities for women can create a positive
impact leading to a better tomorrow.
REFERENCES
Baba S H, Bilal A, Zargar, Ganaie, S A, Yousuf, Shoaib and
Sher Huma (2010). Gender participation in Kashmir
valley. Indian Res Ext Edu 10(2):60-66.
Srivastava P L and Singh B P (2011). Role of housewives and
agricultural farm female farm labourers in agricultural
operations. J Progressive Sci 2(1) :70-73.
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Kumari et al

94
INTRODUCTION
Fertiliser is defined as any substance intended
to be used as a source of one of more essential
plant nutrients and as specified by Fertiliser Control
Order, 1985 including mixtures of fertilisers and
special mixture of fertilisers. Mixture of fertilisers
includes physical mixtures and granulated mixtures.
Bio-fertilisers like bacterial fertilisers are not
included under the term fertilisers for the purpose of
regulation under Fertiliser Control Order. However,
from layman’s point of view, fertilisers may be
defined as the carriers of plant nutrients. These are
applied to the soil in order to meet the crop nutrient
requirement. Therefore, prevention of nutrient
depletion from the soil to sustain crop productivity
is the basis of fertilisation.
The environmental impacts of agriculture
can be classified into the beneficial and harmful
effects. Except for production of food, fodder, fibre,
etc, and generation of employment, agriculture is
not beneficial to the environment (Reddy, 2003).
The adverse and harmful effects of agriculture on
environment are far and wide. These effects are
direct and indirect in nature. The direct effects
are mainly due to the extensive use of chemical
fertilisers and pesticides in agricultural sector.
Suggested and Actual Application of Chemical Fertilizers in the
Agricultural Sector of Kerala
N Karunakaran
Post Graduate Department of Economics
EKNM Government College, Elerithattu – 671 314( Kerala)
ABSTRACT
The adverse effects of agriculture on environment are direct and indirect in nature. Direct effects are due
to the overuse of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Globally India ranks third in fertiliser consumption
compared to other countries. The consumption of chemical fertilisers in Kerala is also high with respect
to other states. To study the overuse of chemical fertilisers in the state, among six crops selected, rubber
and banana cultivators used overdose of chemical fertilisers and under use of organic manures and lime
compared to other crops. The overuse of NPK fertilisers compared to suggested dose as contrast to very
low NPK soil fertility status in the rubber plantations is a paradox in the agriculture sector of Kerala.
Key Words: Chemical fertilisers, Suggested dose, Actual dose used, Agricultural sector.
The growing use of fertilisers leads to chemical
pollution of water resources (Karunakaran, 2015).
The use of nitrogenous fertilisers produces nitrates
which end up in streams and groundwater reservoirs
(Chattopadhyay, 2015). Continuous high intensity
fertiliser use leads to a progressive increase in the
nitrate content of confined water bodies particularly
groundwater (Chandrasekhar, 2008). Studies also
revealedthatnitrogenlosstotheatmospherethrough
de-nitrification may contribute to greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere (Kayarkanni, 2006). Therefore,
it was planned to study the difference between
the suggested and actual application of chemical
fertilisers in the agricultural sector of Kerala.
To know whether there is over use of chemical
fertilisers in Kerala, the northern most Kasaragod
district and six crops (paddy, coconut, arecanut,
cashewnut, rubber and banana) were selected
for this case study. Further, six panchayaths
namely Vorkady panchayath (paddy), Panathady
panchayath (coconut), Karadka panchayath
(arecanut), Enmakaje panchayath (cashewnut),
West-Eleri panchayath (rubber) and Mangalpady
panchayath(banana)wereselectedfordatacollection
Corresponding Author’s E mail: narankarun@gmail.com
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95
where these crops were largely cultivated. A total
number of 210 farmers were interviewed to get
information on the total quantity of NPK fertilisers,
lime and organic manure used in their respective
farms. On the basis of the data collected average
actual dose of chemical fertilisers (NPK), lime
and organic manures used by farmers for paddy,
coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, rubber and banana
plants were worked out. The secondary data were
collected from various publications like Economic
Review, Statistics for Planning, Agricultural
Statistics, Analytical Register, Soil Fertility Card
and Package of Practices.
Fertiliser consumption
India ranks third in the world in fertiliser
consumption but the average use is very low
compared to other countries. The consumption of
fertiliser in the country rose to 24,482 thousand
tonnes during 2013-14 from 292 thousand tonnes
in 1960-61. The use of fertilisers is increasing
along with the high yielding varieties in Kerala. In
1980-81, the consumption of total NPK chemical
fertilisers in the state was 97,530 t, increased to
2,44,380 t during 1990-91 and in 2013-14 it was
3,22,170 t (Anonymous, 2014). This shows the
growing importance of fertilisers in the agricultural
economy of Kerala.
Table 1 shows the consumption of total NPK
chemical fertilisers in Kerala during 1980-81 to
2013-14 and it revealed that the total cropped area in
the state decreased about 9.29 per cent during 1980-
81 to 2013-14 period while the total NPK chemical
fertiliser consumption increased by 230.33 percent.
Table1. NPK chemical fertiliser consumption in Kerala.
Sr. No. Year Total Cropped Area (in
’000 hectare)
Total NPK chemical fertiliser consumption
(in tonnes)
1 1980-81 2,885 97,530
2 1983-84 2,862 1,29,477
3 1986-87 2,870 1,51,363
4 1989-90 3,019 2,12,454
5 1992-93 3,046 2,05,333
6 1995-96 3,067 2,03,897
7 1997-98 2,969 2,19,483
8 1999-00 3,017 2,11,632
9 2004-05 2,996 2,11,701
10 2006-07 2,918 2,13,484
11 2009-10 2,669 2,64,891
12 2010-11 2,647 2,81,150
13 2011-12 2,662 3,01,330
14 2012-13 2,592 3,07,170
15 2013-14 2,617 3,22,170
16 Percentage increase
over 1980-81
-9.29 230.33
Source: - Computed from (i) Statistics for planning (various issues), Department of Economics and Statistics,
Govt. of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. (ii) Economic Review (various issues), State Planning Board, Govt. of
Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. (iii) Agricultural Statistics At a Glance (2014), Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
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Karunakaran N

96
Fertiliser application by the farmers
Thedata(Table2)showtherateofapplicationof
fertilisers in the Kasaragod district during different
years, where variation occurred substantially. It
has been found that in some areas farmers were
over using chemical fertilisers and pesticides by
20 to 50 per cent which created chemical pollution
(Chandrasekhar, 2008).
Use of Fertilisers by the farmers
To know whether there is overuse of chemical
fertilisers, data on the difference between suggested
and actual applications of chemical fertilisers to six
crops (paddy, coconut, arecanut, rubber, cashewnut
and banana) were collected and analysed. The data
(Table 3) give information on the recommended
dose of NPK fertilisers, lime and organic manures
suggested by the Agricultural Department on the
basis of the soil fertility status tested. It also gives
information about the difference between the
suggested and actual application of fertilisers and
it was revealed that paddy, arecanut and coconut
farmers were using, to a certain extent, the same
quantity of NPK fertilisers as suggested by the
scientists whereas, the rubber cultivators using
thrice of the suggested dose of NPK and banana
cultivators using more than double of the suggested
Table 2. Estimated NPK chemical fertiliser consumption in Kerala and in Kasaragod district
Sr. No. Total Cropped Area Total NPK chemical
fertiliser consumption
(in kg/ha)
Total NPK chemical fertiliser consump-
tion in different cropped areas (in kg/ha
Year Area in Kasaragod
district (ha)
NPK fertiliser con-
sumption in kg/ha in
Kerala
Crops NPK fertiliser consump-
tion in kg/ha in Kasara-
god district
1 1985-86 1,37,952 52.7 Rubber 1,000
2 1990-91 1,41,755 65.5 Cashewnut 500
3 1995-96 1,53,210 66.5 Arecanut 400
4 2000-01 1,54,735 70.2 Coconut 400
5 2008-09 1,55,094 99.2 Paddy 175
6 2013-14 1,44,921 123.1 Banana 1,500
Source: - Computed from (i) Agricultural Statistics (various issues), Department of Economics and Statistics,
Govt. of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. (ii) Agricultural Statistics At a Glance (2014), Department of Agriculture
and Cooperation, Govt. of India, New Delhi. (iii) Primary data
dose of NPK fertilisers. The suggested dose of NPK
fertilisers for rubber is only 0. 774 kg per plant in
West-Eleri panchayath but the average actual use
is 2 kg/plant and the recommended dose of NPK
fertilisers is only 1.402 kg/plant for banana while the
actual consumption is 3 kg/plant in the Mangalpady
Grama panchayath.
Another important feature revealed was that
farmers in these panchayaths were using very low
quantity of lime (paddy farmers were using 50 kg/ha
short of suggested dose, coconut cultivators one kg/
plantshortofthesuggesteddose,arecanutcultivators
0.5 kg/plant short of the suggested dose and banana
cultivators 0.35 kg/plant short of the suggested
dose). The rubber and cashewnut cultivators were
not using lime in the study area. Paddy cultivators
and arecanut cultivators were using almost half of
the organic manure as suggested by the agriculture
department. Coconut cultivators were using 20 kg/
plant as against 25 kg/plant of organic manure as
suggested by the department (5 kg/plant short as
suggested). Rubber cultivators in the study area
were using only 2 kg/plant instead of 10 kg/plant of
organic manure as recommended. Like that banana
cultivators were also using a shortage of 8 kg/plant
of organic manure as suggested.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 94-98
Suggested and Actual Application of Chemical Fertilizers in the Agricultural Sector of Kerala

97
Table.3. Suggested dose and actual applications of Fertilisers to various crops
Crops
Item
Paddy Coconut Arecanut Rubber Banana Cashewnut
(1) Suggested dose of fertilisers
Lime (kg/ha) 300 1.500 0.700 0.700 0.600 0.700
N (kg/ha) 61 0.400 0.136 0.105 0.322 0.100
P(kg/ha) 74 0.900 0.120 0.477 0.610 0.500
K(kg/ha) 28 1.065 0.194 0.192 0.470 0.200
NPK (kg/ha) 163 2.365 0.450 0.774 1.402 0.800
Organic ma-
nure(kg/ha)
2500 25 24 10 10 10
( 2) Average actual application of fertilisers
Lime (kg/ha) 250 0.500 0.200 0 0.250 0
NPK (kg/ha) 175 2 0.400 2 3 1
Organic manure
(kg/ha)
1250 20 10 2 2 2
Unit of suggested dose and actual used doses of Fertilisers is Kg per hectare for paddy and Kg per plant for
Coconut, Arecanut, Rubber, Cashewnut and Banana.
Source: - Soil fertility card, District Panchayath, Kasaragod and primary data.
Soil fertility status
All the samples selected had low or very low
soil pH status (<5%) and the application of lime to
solve that problem was suggested by the scientists.
The rubber and cashewnut cultivators in the sample
area were not using lime for their plants. The reason
they provided was the lack of knowledge regarding
that. For coconut, arecanut and banana the usage
was below 50 per cent as suggested. Paddy farmers
use 83 per cent of the lime as suggested.
All the farmers in the sample area under study
were using NPK total fertilisers rather than NPK
separate dosage as suggested. Rubber farmers were
using 2.58 more of NPK fertilisers/plant of the
suggested dose and the banana planters were using
2.14 more of the NPK fertilisers/plant of the dose
recommended. Cashewnut farmers were using 20
per cent more of the NPK fertilisers/plant of the
dose recommended. The paddy cultivators in the
area were using a margin of 12 kg/ha more of total
NPK fertilisers as suggested. Coconut and arecanut
farmers were using approximately the same amount
of fertilisers of the suggested dose. The reason
provided by all the farmers for this type of usage is
the easy handling and availability of the fertilisers.
All the cultivators in the study area were
using organic manures in the form of farm yard
manures (like cow-dug, ashes, green leaf, etc.) and
readymade organic manures. Paddy cultivators
were using (50%), coconut cultivators (80 %) and
arecanut farmers (42%) of the suggested dose of
organic manures whereas the rubber, cashewnut
farmers and banana cultivators were using 20 per
cent of the suggested dose. The high price of organic
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 94-98
Karunakaran N

98
manures, the lack of availability and the difficulty
of handling were the reasons given by farmers for
this type of usage. Out of the six crops selected for
the study rubber and banana cultivators used over
dose of chemical fertilisers and under use of organic
manures and lime showing ineffective application
of fertilisers compared to other three crops.
Over or under use of fertilisers
Table 4 shows the overuse of NPK fertilisers in
the rubber plantations compared to suggested dose.
This established the findings of earlier studies that
the organic matter content on rubber plantations
had lower values than other cropping systems and
vegetations (Shaji and Abraham, 1994).
CONCLUSION
Among six crops selected, rubber and banana
cultivators used overdose of chemical fertilisers
and under use of organic manures and lime showing
ineffective application of fertilisers compared to
other four crops.The overuse of total NPK fertilisers
in the rubber plantations compared to the suggested
dose in contrast to very low NPK soil fertility status
in the rubber cropping system is a paradox in the
agrarian economy of Kerala.
REFERENCES
Chandrasekhar T C (2008). Agriculture-Fertiliser-
Environment: Interface some policy issues-India.
Agricultural Situation in India 65(4): 217-222.
Anonymous (2014). Economic Review, State Planning Board,
Thiruvananthapuram: 17-40.
Karunakaran N (2015). Crop Diversification for Sustainable
Agriculture, Pointer publishers, Jaipur, India: 85-105.
Kayarkanni S (2006). Economic analysis of fertiliser use for
major crops in Tamilnadu, Nidhi Book Centre, Delhi:
1-186.
Reddy K K (2003). Agriculture and Environment. Agriculture
in India- Policy and Performance (Ed), by Sambasiva
Rao, Serial Publications, New Delhi: 116-122.
Chattopadhyay Srikumar (2015). Environmental
Consequences of Rubber Plantations in Kerala,
Discussion paper No. 44, CDS, Thiruvananthapuram:
1-54.
Table 4. Difference between suggested and actual applications of Fertilisers to various crops in the
Kasaragod District.
Crops
Item
Paddy Coconut Arecanut Rubber Banana Cashewnut
Lime (-) 50.00 (-) 1.00 (-) 0.500 (-)
0.700
(-)
0.350
(-)
0.700
Deviation (in
%)
(-) 16.67 (-) 66.67 (-) 71.43 (-) 100.00 (-)
58.33
(-)
100.00
NPK total (+)
12.00
(-) 0.365 (-)
0.05
(+)
1.226
(+)
1.598
(+)
0.200
Deviation (in
%)
(+)
7.36
(-) 15.43 (-) 11.11 (+)
158.40
(+)
113.98
(+)
25.00
Organic ma-
nure
(-)
1250
(-) 5.00 (-)
14
(-)
8.00
(-)
8.00
(-)
8.00
Deviation (in
%)
(-) 50.00 (-) 20.00 (-) 58.33 (-)
80.00
(-)
80.00
(-)
80.00
Source: - Calculated from Table. 3.
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Suggested and Actual Application of Chemical Fertilizers in the Agricultural Sector of Kerala

99
INTRODUCTION
Hamirpur, the smallest district of Himachal
Pradesh is known for its high literacy rate and
highest road density in the country. In agriculture
sector, maize and wheat are the main cereal crops
while in dairy sector, buffalo is the preferred milch
animal. The situation in field of poultry rearing isn’t
encouragingasdepictedby2007censusdatawherein
the entire poultry population in the district was a
meager 4,488 birds. There is no poultry brooding
unit in the district neither under government nor in
private sector and the demand for day old chicks
is being met from the Govt. Hatcheries located in
other parts of the state under different government
schemes. Further, due to insufficient knowledge of
poultry husbandry, there is heavy mortality in chicks
at the farmer’s level, thus discouraging the farmer
to undertake poultry farming as an avenue for self
employment. Hence the present intervention was
planned to address these problems for augmenting
poultry production in the district.
In 2008, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur
started imparting vocational trainings to potential
poultry farmers at the KVK campus of six days
duration covering important aspects of poultry
husbandry. Similarly, few off campus trainings
of one or two day’s duration were also conducted
to meet the demand of existing poultry farmers.
Resource persons from College of Veterinary
and Animal Sciences, Palampur and Central
Short Communication
Capacity Building: An Effective Tool for Augmenting Poultry
Production in Himachal Pradesh
Rakesh Thakur#, Varun Sankhyan1
and P K Dogra1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hamirpur at Bara 177 044 (Himachal Pradesh)
Poultry Development Organization, North Zone,
Chandigarh were invited for providing wholesome
training to the stakeholders as well as farmers.
During training course, besides theoretical lectures,
the trainees were also taken to exposure visits to
local poultry farms and were provided hand on
experience on brooding of chicks, handling of birds,
symptoms of healthy/sick bird and guided about the
importance of balanced feeding and record keeping.
The trainees were linked to Department of Animal
Husbandry for various benefits being provided
through different schemes like 200 chick scheme,
backyard poultry scheme etc.
Table 1. Number of participants and vocational
training courses organized on poultry farming
at KVK, Hamirpur.
Year Number of trainings Participants
2008 01 20
2009 03 150
2010 02 104
2011 02 62
2012 02 58
2013 02 57
As per Census 2012, the poultry population in
district Hamirpur was 43,073 showing a tenfold
increase in population in comparison to 2007
census. The increase in population was observed
both in backyard and as well as commercial sectors.
*Corresponding Author’s Email: drthphau@gmail.com
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Mandi at Sundernagar 175 019, Himachal Pradesh
1 Dr G C Negi College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya Palampur
176 062 ( Himachal Pradesh)
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 99-100

100
The backyard poultry population stood at 10,492
while the poultry in farm/hatchery was 32,581. The
poultry population during this period has increased
both at national (12.4%) and state level (36.6%). In
majorityofthedistrictsinHimachalPradesh,poultry
population has revealed a growing trend but there is
no parallel to the sharp increase reported in district
Hamirpur. The Department of Animal Husbandry
and Mid-Himalayan Watershed Development Project
were involved in promoting backyard poultry rearing
and providing day old chicks to farmers in the district
and the population recorded during census 2012
reflected their genuine efforts. There is no organized
farm or hatchery under government or public sector
in the district so the poultry population of 32,581
under the head farm/hatchery reflected the birds
being reared commercially by progressive poultry
farmers. These chicks were being provided by
private companies/hatcheries like Venkys, Shivalik
and Rainbow etc. Katoch et al (2010) reported that
most important production system prevailing in the
state was traditional poultry production system since
commercial scale poultry enterprise has failed to
pick up.
Training is a vital component for starting
and successfully running an entrepreneurship in
agricultureandalliedsectors.Inpoultryfarmingalso
rearing a large commercial flock or a small backyard
flock need sound knowledge and technical support.
So the vocational trainings imparted by Krishi
Vigyan Kendra has created a skilled workforce for
rearing poultry and the poultry population figures
put forth by recent census 2012 amply supports
these claims. Poultry farming is now being looked
upon by youngsters as a lucrative avenue to earn
livelihood in district .
Table 2. Poultry population in district Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh.
Poultry Population 2007 2012
Backyard Commercial Total
Hamirpur 4,488 10,492 32,581 43,073
Himachal Pradesh 8,08,431 2,54,498 8,49,978 11,04,476
Source- Livestock Census 2007 and 2012
A momentum in favour of poultry rearing was
evident in the period from 2007 to 2012. Similar
trainings could not be organized at other Krishi
Vigyan Kendra for want of resource person/
extension specialist of concerned discipline so it is
believed that if such capacity building programmes
would have been organized at other places this
growth might have replicated in other districts of
the state as well.
CONCLUSION
Capacity building of farmers is an effective tool
to augment poultry production and such trainings
should be organized at regular interval to sustain
the enterprise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Theauthorsgratefullyacknowledgethefinancial
support received from Agricultural Technology
Management Agency, Hamirpur for organizing
these trainings at Krishi Vigyan Kendra Hamirpur
at Bara.
REFERENCES
Katoch S, Kaila O P, Sankhyan V, Mahajan K, Verma N,
Sharma LM and Reen J K (2010). Rural poultry production
for sustainable livelihood in Himachal Pradesh. Proc.
National Seminar on conventional and modern breeding
technologies for genetic improvement of livestock and
poultry. Pantnagar, India. 22-23 Oct, Pp 47-49.
Livestock census (2007). http://dahd.nic.in/dahd/updates/
whats-new/18th-livestock-census-2007.aspx 09 Feb 2016.
Livestock census (2012). http://hpagrisnet.gov.in/Agrisnet/
AnimalHusbandry/pdf%20files/ 19th% 20 Livestock%20
Census-2012.pdf 09 Feb 2016.
J Krishi Vigyan 2016, 4(2) : 99-100
Thakur et al

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Mufeed S (1998). Evaluating employee performance: A successful instrument for human resource
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AOAC (1980). Official Methods of Analysis. 13th
edn. Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
Washington, DC.
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development”. In: Monitoring and Evaluation of Rural Development: Some Asian Experiences.
(eds Kuldeep Mathu and Inayatulloah) Kuala Lumpur U.N. Asian and Pacific Development Centre.
Pp: 121-22.
Bray R A (1994). The leucaena psylid. In: Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture (eds. R C
Gutteridge and H M Shelton). CAB International, Oxford. Pp. 283-91.
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Vivero J L P (2002). Forest is not only wood: the importance of non-wood forest products for the food
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Elangovan A V ,Tyagi P K, Mandal A B and Tyagi P K (2007). Effect of dietary supplementation of
stain on egg production performance and egg quality of Japanese quail layers. Proceedings of
XXIV Annual Conference of Indian Poultry Science Association and National Symposium , 25-27
April, Ludhiana, India, pp. 158 (Abstr.).
For theses
Fayas A M (2003). Viability of self help groups in vegetables and fruit promotion council Keralam- a
multidimensional analysis, MSc (Ag.) thesis, Kerala Agricultural University.
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review of the published literature. www.fda.gov/cvm/antimicrobial/PathRpt.PDF Accessed January
11, 2012.
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