M21 mish1520 06_ppw_c20

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Prentice Hall. All
rights reserved. 20-2
Chapter Preview
• The financial system is one of the
most heavily regulated industries in
our economy. In this chapter, we
develop an economic analysis of why
regulation of banking takes the form
that it does. We see further that
regulation doesn’t always work.

Chapter Preview
• Finally, we offer an explanation for the world
banking crisis and reforms to prevent future
disasters. Topics include:
– Asymmetric Information and Bank Regulation
– International Banking Regulation
– The 1980s U.S. Banking Crisis
– Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement
Act of 1991
– Banking Crisis Throughout the World

Asymmetric Information
and Bank Regulation
• Our previous analysis of asymmetric
information, moral hazard, and adverse
selection provide an excellent backdrop for
understanding the current regulatory
environment in banking.
• There are eight basic categories of bank
regulation, which we will examine from an
asymmetric information perspective.

and Bank Regulation
1. Government Safety Net: Deposit Insurance and the FDIC
• Prior to FDIC insurance, bank failures meant depositors lost
money, and had to wait until the bank was liquidated to receive
anything. This meant that “good” banks needed to separate
themselves from “bad” banks, which was difficult for banks
to accomplish.
• The inability of depositors to assess the quality of a bank’s
assets can lead to panics. If depositors fear that some banks
may fail, their best policy is to withdraw all deposits, leading to a
bank run, even for “good” banks. Further, failure of one bank
can hasten failure of others (contagion effect).

and Bank Regulation
1. Government Safety Net: Deposit Insurance and
the FDIC
• Bank panics did occur prior to the FDIC, with major
panics in 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1884, 1893, 1907,
and 1930-1933.
• By providing a safety net, depositors will not flee the
banking system at the first sign of trouble. Indeed,
between 1934 and 1981, fewer than 15 banks failed
each year.

and Bank Regulation
the FDIC
• The FDIC handles failed banks in one of two ways:
the payoff method, where the banks is permitted to
fail, and the purchase and assumption method, where
the bank is folded into another banking organization.
• Implicit insurance is available in some countries
where no explicit insurance organization exists. But,
as the next slide shows, deposit insurance is
spreading throughout the world.

Global: The Spread of Deposit
Insurance Throughout the World
• Up to the 1960s, only six countries had
deposit insurance. By the 1990s, the
number topped 70.
• Has this spread of insurance been a good
thing? Did it improve the performance of
the financial system and prevent crises?
• Oddly enough, the answer appears to be
no.

Global: The Spread of Deposit
Insurance Throughout the World
• Explicit government insurance is
associated with less bank sector stability
and higher bank crises.
• Appears to retard financial development
• But this appears to be only for countries
with ineffective laws, regulation, and high
corruption. Indeed, for emerging markets,
deposit insurance may be the wrong
medicine!

and Bank Regulation
the FDIC:
• The FDIC insurance creates moral hazard
incentives for banks to take on greater risk than they
otherwise would because of the lack of “market
discipline” on the part of depositors.
• The FDIC insurance creates adverse selection.
Those who can take advantage of (abuse) the
insurance are mostly likely to find banks attractive.

and Bank Regulation
1. Government Safety Net: Deposit
Insurance and the FDIC:
• Regulators are reluctant to let the largest
banks fail because of the potential impact on
the entire system. This is known as the “Too
Big to Fail” doctrine. This increases the
moral hazard problem for big banks and
reduces the incentive for large depositors to
monitor the bank.

and Bank Regulation
1. Government Safety Net: Deposit
Insurance and the FDIC
• Consolidation has created many “large”
banks, exasperating the too-big-to-fail
problem. Further, banks now engage in more
than just banking, which may inadvertently
extend FDIC to such activities as
underwriting.

and Bank Regulation
2. Restrictions on Asset Holdings
• Regulations limit the type of assets banks
may hold as assets. For instance, banks
may not hold common equity.

and Bank Regulation
3. Bank Capital Requirements
• Banks are also subject to capital
requirements. Banks are required to hold a
certain level of capital (book equity) that
depends on the type of assets that the bank
holds.

and Bank Regulation
• Details of bank capital requirements:
• Leverage ratio must exceed 5% to
avoid restrictions
• Capital must exceed 8% of the banks risk-
weighted assets and off-balance sheet
activities (details follow)
• New capital requirements are forthcoming to
address problems with risk-weighted assets

and Bank Regulation
The next four slides show how to
calculate Bank Capital requirements for
a fictitious bank.

Calculating Capital Requirements
First National Bank
Assets Liabilities
Reserves $3 m Checkable deposits $20 m
Treasury securities $10 m Nontransactions
deposits
$60 m
Government agency
securities
$7 m Borrowings $11 m
Municipal bonds $10 m Loan loss reserves $2 m
Residential mortgages $10 m Bank capital $7 m
Real estate loans $20 m
C&I loans $35 m
Fixed assets $5 m

Calculating Capital Requirements
• Leverage Ratio = Capital/Assets
= $7m/$100m = 7%
• Bank is well capitalized

0 × $3 million (Reserves)
+0 × $10 million (Treasury securities)
+ .20 × $7 million (Agency securities)
+ .50 × $10 million (Municipal bonds)
+ .50 × $10 million (Residential mortgages)
+1.00 × $20 million (Real estate loans)
+1.00 × $35 million (Commercial loans)
+1.00 × $5 million (Fixed assets)
+1.00 × $20 million (Letters of credit)
$91.4 million (Total risk-adjusted assets)
Calculating Risk-Adjusted Requirements

Calculating Risk-Adjusted Requirements
• Core Capital Requirement
= 4% x risk-adjusted assets
= 4% x $91.4m = $3.66m
< $7m of core capital
• Total Capital Requirement
= 8% x risk-adjusted assets
= 8% x $91.4m = $7.31m
< $9m of total capital
= $7m of core + $2m of loan loss reserves

and Bank Regulation
Of course, the system isn’t perfect.
Banks now engage in regulatory
arbitrage, where for a given category,
they seek assets that are the riskiest.
Basel continued to work on the system.

Basel 2: How well will it work?
• In June 1999, the Basel Committee
proposed several reforms to the original
Basel Accord, with the following
components:
– Linking capital requirements to actual risk for
large, international banks
– Steps to strengthen the supervisory process
– Increased market discipline mechanisms

Basel 2: How well will it work?
• The new system appears to be quite
complex, and implementation has been
delayed by years.
• U.S. regulators met to determine how best
to protect the FDIC insurance fund based
on the new capital requirements.
• Only the largest U.S. banks will be subject
to Basel 2. Other U.S. banks will follow a
simplified standard.

How Asymmetric Information Explains
Banking Regulation
4. Bank Supervision: Chartering and Examination
• Reduces the adverse selection problem of risk-
takers or crooks owning banks to engage in highly
speculative activities. As Lincoln S&L shows, this
isn’t a perfect system.
• Examinations assign a CAMEL rating to a bank,
which can be used to justify cease and desist orders
for risky activities.
• Period reporting (call reports) and frequent
(sometimes unannounced) examinations allow
regulators to address risky / questionable practices
in a prompt fashion.

Banking Regulation
5. Assessment of Risk Management
• Past examinations focused primarily on the quality
of assets. A new trend has been to focus on
whether the bank may take excessive risk in the
near future.
• Four elements of risk management and control:
1. Quality of board and senior management oversight
2. Adequacy of policies limiting risk activity
3. Quality of risk measurement and monitoring
4. Adequacy of internal controls to prevent fraud

Banking Regulation
5. Assessment of Risk Management
• U.S. regulators have also adopted similar-
minded guidelines for dealing with interest-
rate risk.
• Particularly important is the implementation
of stress testing, or VAR calculations, to
measure potential losses.

Banking Regulation
6. Disclosure Requirements
• Better information reduces both moral
hazard and adverse selection problems
6. Consumer Protection
• Standardized interest rates (APR)
• Prevent discrimination (e.g., CRA to help
avoid redlining particular areas)

Banking Regulation
8. Restrictions on Competition
• Branching restrictions, which reduced
competition between banks
• Separation of banking and securities
industries: Glass-Steagall. In other words,
preventing nonbanks from competing with
banks.

Banking Regulation
Many laws have been passed in the U.S.
to regulate banking. Table 1 provides a
summary of the major legislation and key
provisions.

FDIC index of
regulations on banking
http://www.fdic.gov/regulations/laws/index.html
Major Banking
Legislation in the
United States

FDIC index of regulations on banking
http://www.fdic.gov/regulations/laws/index.html
Major Banking Legislation
in U.S. (cont.)

International Bank Regulation
We now turn to international regulation.
Banks around the world face similar
problems as the U.S., and so are regulated
in a similar fashion. Charters, supervision,
and deposit insurance are common themes
throughout the world. And capital
requirements are being standardized.

Banks around the world face similar
problems as the U.S., and so are regulated
in a similar fashion. Charters, supervision,
and deposit insurance are common themes
throughout the world. And capital
requirements are being standardized.

Banks that engage in international banking
cause problems for regulators:
– They can shift assets between countries
– Not clear who should have primary regulatory
authority. A good example was the collapse of
the Bank of Credit and Commerce International
due to fraud. The Bank of England closed it,
but only after huge depositor and investor
losses.

Although the need for bank regulation and
supervision is clear, getting supervisors
and regulators to act properly is difficult:
– Institution actively seek to avoid regulations
– It’s often difficult to capture the detail needed
to assess risk
– Political pressure can always sidetrack
regulators from doing their job

E-Finance: Electronic Banking
and Regulation
• Electronic banking has created new issues
in regulation, particularly security and
privacy.
• An incident in Russia (1995) highlights this,
where a computer programmer moved
millions in assets from Citibank accounts to
person accounts.

E-Finance: Electronic Banking
and Regulation
• Electronic banking creates the need to
assess the technical skills of banks to
handle transaction securely and safely.
Electronic signatures also had to be
addressed by Congress.
• Privacy is also a problem. There are laws
protecting consumers from the sharing of
information, but this regulation is likely to
evolve over time.

International Banking Regulation
• Bank regulation abroad is similar to that in
the United States.
• There is a particular problem of regulating
international banking and can readily shift
business from one country to another
(e.g., BCCI scandal) and requires
coordination of regulators in different
countries (a difficult task).

The 1980s U.S. Banking Crisis
• Prior to the 1980s, the FDIC and bank
regulation seemed to be going well.
However, in the 80s, failures rose
dramatically, as you can see in the
following slide.

U.S. Bank Failures

The 1980s U.S. Banking Crisis
• Why?
1.Decreasing profitability: banks take risk to keep
profits up
2.Financial innovation creates more
opportunities for risk taking
3.Innovation of brokered deposits enables
circumvention of $100,000 insurance limit
• Result: Failures ↑ and risky loans ↑

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Improvement Act (FDICIA) of 1991
Following the widespread failure of thrift
institutions in the late 1980s, the Bush
administration proposed a set of legislation to
overhaul the supervision and insurance for the
thrift industry. As part of this, the FSLIC was
dissolved and the FDIC assumed responsibility
for insuring thrift institutions. To address the new
needs of the FDIC, the Improvement Act of 1991
was passed.

• FDIC recapitalized with loans, ability to borrow
from the Treasury, and higher premiums to
member banks
• Reduce scope of deposit insurance and too-big-
to-fail
– Eliminate deposit insurance entirely
– Lower limits on deposit insurance
– Eliminate too-big-to-fail
– Coinsurance

• Prompt corrective action provisions
1.Critics believe too many loopholes
2.However: accountability increased by mandatory
review of bank failure resolutions
• Risk-based premiums
• Annual examinations and stricter reporting
• Enhances Fed powers to regulate
international banking

• FDICIA also instructed the FDIC to develop
risk-based insurance premiums. However,
it wasn’t very effective. The Federal
Deposit Reform Act of 2005 attempts to
remedy this.
• FDICIA was a good start. But there are still
concerns with too-big-to-fail doctrines and
effective insurance premiums.

Banking Crisis Throughout the World
As the next two slides illustrates, banking
crisis have struck a large number of
countries throughout the world, and many
of them have been substantially worse
than ours.

20-47

Cost of Banking
Crises in Other
Countries

• Latin America
– Many banks were government owned with interest rate
restrictions similar to Regulation Q.
– Similar loan losses and bailout experience as the U.S.
in the late 1980s.
– Argentina ran into government confidence problem,
causing required rates on government debt to
exceed 25%, which caused severe problems for the
banking industry.
– Losses and bailouts as a percent of GDP are high
(20% - 50%) relative to that in the U.S. (around 3%).

• Russia and Eastern Europe
– Many banks were government owned prior to
the downfall of communism.
– Private banks had little experience screening
and monitoring loans.
– Substantial loan losses ensued.
– The bailout in Russia alone may exceed
$15 billion

• Japan
– Prior to the 1980s, Japan’s financial markets
were heavily regulated. Deregulation led to
excessive risk taking and high loan losses,
particularly in real estate loans.
– Several large bank failures were announced in
1995. Several failures followed in 1996
and 1997.

• Japan
– Japan is experiencing similar regulator
forbearance policies as the U.S. in the
early 1980s.
– Even with positive steps, bad loans throughout
the banking system required a bailout of $500
billion in 1998.
– System is still a long way from being healthy.

• Japan
– Immediately after 1998, the gov’t closed two
big banks. Cleanup stalled as banks tried to
avoid gov’t involvement. Bad loans were
estimated near $1 trillion.
– Only recently have the number of bad loans
started to decline, and larger banks have paid
back the bail-out money. Profitability is near.

• China
– Many banks were government owned.
– Investments in many state-owned enterprises,
which are notoriously inefficient.
– Current attempt at a bailout calls for partial
privatization of the biggest banks.

• East Asia
– Lending boom in the aftermath of
liberalization led to substantial loan losses.
– Nonperforming loans and bailout costs
exceeding 20% of GDP are commonplace.

Déjà Vu All Over Again!
• Banking crises are just history repeating
itself. Financial liberalization leads to
moral hazard (and bad loans!). Deposit
insurance is not big enough to cover
losses, but the gov’t does stand ready to
bailout the system. And that implicit
guarantee is enough to exacerbate the
moral hazard problem.

Chapter Summary
• Asymmetric Information and Bank Regulation: the
problems of adverse selection and moral hazard
were reviewed. These ideas are the basis for
exploring the regulatory environment of the
banking industry.
• International Banking Regulation: The challenges
of international regulation, particularly
international banks, was discussed.

Chapter Summary (cont.)
• The 1980s U.S. Banking Crisis: We
examined the causes of the U.S. crisis.
Further, we explored problems caused by
the political environment in fixing the
problem promptly.
• Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
Improvement Act of 1991: The provisions
of this act and its implications for the safety
of the banking system were explored.

Chapter Summary (cont.)
• Banking Crisis Throughout the World: As
reviewed, evidence suggests that the U.S.
is not alone in its banking problems, as
other countries face similar issues as the
U.S. in the late 1980s.

M21 mish1520 06_ppw_c20

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