Managing clarity in corporate communication

Complex to Clear
Managing Clarity
in Corporate
Communication
Martin J. Eppler
Nicole Bischof
A study by the =mcm institute of the University of St. Gallen
in cooperation with AXA Insurance, Swisscom, Grayling and the Global Alliance
for Public Relations and Communications Management

cImpressum
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© =mcm institute,
University of St. Gallen,
Martin J. Eppler, Nicole Bischof
November 2011
Graphic Design: Malte Belau,
www.belau.biz
Editing: James Morrison,
jamesedits@gmail.com
www.clear-communication.org
This study may be freely dis-tributed,
copied or otherwise
reproduced, but only in its
integrity and with the above
copyright notice.

Complex to Clear
Managing Clarity
in Corporate
Communication

Executive Summary
4
cWhat is this
report about?
This report presents the business case for clarity
in corporate communication. It shows the high
costs associated with unclear, complex messa-ges
and provides tools that can be used to ensure
clear communication in a range of communica-tion
channels, from e-mail and slide presenta-tions
to reports and social media. The report also
discusses clarity problems and solutions through
the results of surveys and case studies.
cWhy is the topic
of clarity important?
Unclear communication can cause reputation da-mage,
lead to the loss of customers or employees,
and create legal, financial, and security risks
through misunderstandings. Our survey of cor-porate
communication professionals shows that
the importance of the topic has been recognized:
almost 60 percent of these professionals are cur-rently
preparing or conducting a clear communi-cation
initiative in their organization.
cWhat will you learn
from this report?
You will learn about why communicators con-vey
messages that are incomprehensible and
overly complex. You will learn how to recognize
clarity problems in your organization and how
to solve them, both individually and as an orga-nization.
You will learn about current research
into how to communicate complex issues clear-ly,
and you will learn about best practices in ma-naging
clarity.
cWhat solutions does
this report offer?
Communicators should seek to identify the typi-cal
clarity problem patterns in their work context
and then solve them using the CLEAR checklist
and the STARTER package. The CLEAR check-list
involves contextualizing complex messages,
ensuring they have a logical structure, focusing
on the essential items, eliminating ambiguous
terms or statements, and making the messages
resonate with their target audience. To this end,
communicators must know their target audience,
pre-check their communication whenever pos-sible,
and regularly measure whether their com-munication
is perceived as clear. The STARTER
package consists of clarity standards, training
elements, accountability and roles, review pro-cesses,
(IT) tools and templates, positive and ne-gative
(or before/after) examples, and resources
such as assistants and time.
cWhat should you read next
if you only have 10 more minutes?
Readers who are pressed for time should review
the clarity problem patterns on pages 14 and 15,
have a look at the CLEAR table on page 17, and
scan the check tables in the appendix on page 66.
Clarity in Corporate Communication

5
Table of Contents
Executive Summary 4
Preface 7
Introduction: The High Cost of Unclear Communication 9
Why should you care about clarity? 9
How does this study address clarity? 10
What is clarity? 10
What is complexity and how does it affect communication? 11
Which factors increase message complexity? 13
How can you identify and reduce organizational clarity problems? 14
What does all this mean for corporate communicators? 15
CLEAR Communication: A Systematic Approach to Managing Clarity in Corporate Communication 16
What are the elements of the CLEAR communication method? 16
What is the rationale behind the CLEAR formula? 17
How can the CLEAR formula be applied to different communication formats? 22
How can the CLEAR formula be applied to Web 2.0 contexts? 24
How does the CLEAR formula work in inter-cultural communication contexts? 26
How can the formula be used to measure the clarity of communication? 27
What are the sources of the CLEAR Formula? 28
How can clear communication be institutionalized in an organization? 30
What can we learn from the existing literature on clarity? 32
What does cognitive psychology tell us about making the complex clear? 34
What does all this mean for corporate communicators? 35
Case Studies: Addressing Clarity in Complex Communication 36
Clarifying a complex crisis: How Bilfinger Berger reacted to a major construction failure 36
Clarifying customer communication: How AXA conducted a clear communication initiative
to meet customer needs 40
The corporate wording project of mobilkom austria: Clarity with a strategic twist 43
The Complex to Clear Challenge: Empirical Evidence from three Surveys 49
What did we learn about clarity in slide presentations? 49
What did we learn about clarity in e-mail messages? 50
What can we learn from professional corporate communicators about clarity in corporate communication? 52
Do these surveys correspond with previous studies? 56
What are the main findings of the three surveys? 56
Conclusion: An Agenda for Clear Corporate Communication 57
What is necessary to achieve clear communication? 57
Where can you start? 57
References 59
Appendix 61

List of Figures
and Tables
Figures Figure 1: The message map template to focus communication on its essential parts. 19
6
Figure 2: Syngenta’s supply chain map for creating resonance. 21
Figure 3: From Complex to Clear through STARTER actions. 30
Figure 4: Key Values of mobilkom austria and their implications word clear wording 45
Figure 5: Items to be considered when presenting clearly with PowerPoint-based slide presentations
(listed by overall ranked importance). 48
Figure 6: Items that negatively affect clarity in PowerPoint-based slide presentations
Figure 7: Mechanisms that positively affect clarity in PowerPoint-based slide presentations
Figure 8: Items to be considered when writing a clear e-mail message
Figure 9: Items that negatively affect clarity in e-mail messages (listed by overall ranked importance). 51
Figure 10: Mechanisms that positively affect clarity in e-mail messages
Figure 11: Professional backgrounds of the survey respondents. 53
Figure 12: Areas withcomplex messages to communicate (listed by overall ranked importance). 54
Figure 13: Benefits to be attributed to investing resources in clearer communication. 55
Figure 14: Guidelines for clear communication (Clarity Poster). 61
Figure 15: How to communicate clearly: a Checklist for Corporate Communicators 64
Figure 16: Complex to clear memory cards. 65
Figure 17: Clear communication check for writers and readers. 66
Tables Table 1: How to kill clarity in various areas of corporate communication. 12
Table 2: The CLEAR formula and corresponding check questions. 16
Table 3: The classic and modern basis of the CLEAR formula. 29
Table 4: The seven elements of the STARTER formula. 31
Table 5: Roche’s communication values 32
Table 6: The CLEAR formula applied to the Bilfinger Berger case 39
Table 7: The CLEAR formula applied to the AXA case 42
Table 8: The CLEAR formula applied to the mobilkom austria case 47
Table 9: Clarity check questions and improvement actions. 63

7
Only clear communication can reach, inform, and
convince an audience. Harry Truman once said, “If
you can’t convince them, confuse them.” This type
of approach no longer works with today’s savvy
and connected audiences. However, as dramatist
and Nobel laureate G.B. Shaw correctly pointed
out, the problem with communication is that we
often have the illusion that it has worked, when
what is clear to us still seems confusing to our au-dience.
This is especially true for complex topics,
such as corporate social responsibility, strategy,
risks, crises, business models, or corporate values.
So, how then can such complex issues be made
clear to an audience without oversimplifying the
message? How can we consistently communicate
in a clear and understandable manner?
This report answers these questions. The subtitle
contains the term “Managing Clarity,” as achiev-ing
clear communication requires more than just
brushing up on verbal and graphic skills. It re-quires
a systematic management effort. This study
has compiled proven practices and tools, informa-tive
case studies, as well as results from three
surveys. The report is also based on the authors’
previous research on information overload in cor-porate
communication and on managing informa-tion
quality in communication processes. For a
number of reasons, we felt it was necessary to go
beyond this previous research.
Firstly, corporate communicators have lamented
that the complexity of the messages they need to
convey is increasing, which makes their com-munication
efforts ever more challenging. For
Preface
example, they need to explain issues like geneti-cally
modified food or labor disputes to the general
public, inform activists about their CSR activities,
or convey the essence of their R&D strategy to in-vestors
and analysts. These are all complex issues
that are not easy to clarify, especially when many
internal sources and contact points would like to
contribute to these messages.
The second reason relates to the target groups of
such messages, whose attention spans have gen-erally
become shorter, while their expectations
regarding crisp and clear communication have
risen. We live in an attention economy where the
YouTube generation expects the essence of a mes-sage
in 30 seconds (as, for example, in a Twitter
message). This means that complex issues must
be communicated quickly and in concise and con-sistent
messages across different channels and for-mats.
The third reason for caring about clarity is that
communication professionals are sometimes ac-cused
of deliberately obfuscating issues and not
striving for clear communication. We believe that
such accusations are unfounded and that the PR
community does indeed embrace clarity. Nonethe-less,
highlighting this fact through corresponding
case studies and surveys will ultimately help im-prove
the reputation of the entire communication
industry.
A fourth reason for conducting a study on how to
be clear is that there is a great body of literature on
the topic, of which corporate communicators may
not yet be aware. Extensive research is available on
what makes complex issues more understandable.
Ironically, however, it is not documented in a clear
and actionable manner that busy communicators
can understand and apply. The present study aims
to translate these findings into actionable advice.
The problem with communication is the illusion
that it has been accomplished.
George Bernard Shaw

8
This last reason – the generation of directly ap-plicable
insights – is particularly important here.
We have paid special attention to converting our
research findings into useful checklists, tem-plates,
training material, and diagnostic tools.
Although all applied research is preliminary and
subject to future revisions, we hope that our ap-proach
to clear communication will prove valu-able
for communication professionals for some
time to come. We have already used many of its
elements in training sessions and projects and
have seen its benefits in many areas. Should you
have similar experiences, comments, or feed-back,
we would love to hear from you at info@
mcm.unisg.ch.
Martin J. Eppler and Nicole Bischof,
St. Gallen, November 2011
Acknowledgements
A study like this is never just the result of the authors’ work. Not only did we
stand on the shoulders of giants, we also held the hands of friendly guides and
experienced navigators through the complexities of communication. First and
foremost, we would like to thank the corporate partners who have made this
study possible: AXA, Grayling Switzerland, and Swisscom. We are particularly
grateful to our project collaborators: Richard Lüthert, Eleni Strati, Bettina Geb-hardt,
Hanning Kempe, Andreas Erbe and Sabine Hug. Our thanks are also due
to the Global Alliance for PR and Communications Management, particularly
Nina Volles, who supported the study through its extensive professional net-work.
We would also like to thank our student collaborators at the University of
St. Gallen, namely Chloé Augsburger (for her work on the A1 case), Wanja Eichl
(for his research on Roche’s communication approach), and Cedric Riner (for
his work on visual clarity). Our thanks also go to the IABC Research Foundation
who supported this study through its website, publications, and extensive net-work.
Finally, we would like to thank the many communication professionals
who graciously gave their time to complete our clarity survey or participate in
the expert interviews.

9
Introduction:
The High Cost of Unclear
Communication
cWhy should you
care about clarity?
Consider the costs or losses associated with the
following real-life business situations:
>> Losing the support of an important stakeholder
of your business strategy because he does not
understand the rationale behind your strategy.
>>Missing the opportunity to win the business of
a major investor because he cannot fully com-prehend
your novel business model.
>>Alienating a group of government officials be-cause
they do not properly appreciate the scope
and inherent risks of your new technology.
>>Having entire customer groups defect because
your new service package creates confusion, in-formation
overload, and paralysis by analysis,
instead of a clear picture.
>>A group of journalists report on a recent mishap
in your organization in a distorted and negative
manner because they were not able to “get”
your version of what happened.
>> Losing important employees because of unclear
instructions that create stress and ultimately in-crease
fluctuation.
In each of these cases, the cost or losses involved
will always be too high – no organization can
afford such communication failures. However,
situations like these are all too common. They
occur when organizations fail to systematically
manage clarity in their managerial and corpo-rate
communication. The root cause of such a
lack of management may be the false belief that
clear communication is something that can be
left to the talent and inspiration of individual
communicators. One of the objectives of this
study is to show the negative implications of
such a dangerous assumption.
As Frank Lloyd Wright noted, “Lack of clarity
is the number-one time-waster.” When our com-munication
is unclear, our target audience is
unlikely to understand us; and if they don’t un-derstand
us, they will not agree with us. If they
don’t agree, they are unlikely to make a decision
or take action in our favor. In such a case, the
communicator will have spent time and money
without achieving the desired results. What is
particularly problematic, however, is that this
waste often goes undetected. Communication
managers may not even be aware of their com-munication
failures, as they often do not receive
immediate or direct feedback and the results of
their messages only become visible after consid-erable
time delays.
Therefore, communications managers must be-come
aware of the risks and high costs of un-clear
communication. This is not only important
for traditional communication contexts, where
feedback is indirect, but also for social media,
where the feedback to unclear communication
is immediate and often brutally direct. Because
this negative feedback is visible to anyone who
is online, the cost of unclear communication can
include temporary or even permanent damage to
the sender’s reputation.
There is some good news. If corporate commu-nicators
pay attention to some key elements and
avoid a few bad habits and routines, they can
dramatically increase the clarity of their com-munication
every time they communicate. Sev-eral
organizations have started this journey to-wards
clarity and have found that the benefits
of clear communication far outweigh the costs.
Clarity is the most serious communication
problem in business.
James Suchan and Ron Dulek

10
cHow does this study
address clarity?
This study views clarity as a strategic asset that
organizations have to manage, both actively and
systematically, in order to avoid negative out-comes
such as those described above. In order for
communicators in organizations to treat clarity
as a strategic asset, they must first understand the
problem. Then they need to identify the elements
that solve the problem in overview. Next, they
need to see practical examples of the challenges
and how they can be met. They must also see evi-dence
that the approach is correct, and receive
the tools that make the approach operational.
The approach of this study mirrors the steps that
a corporate communicator would take. This first
chapter describes why complexity gets in the way
of clear communication. It provides communica-tors
with an overview of the root causes of unclear
communication and a conceptual vocabulary
with which to handle clarity problems. Chapter
2 provides a management method (including its
background) and toolkit for simplifying complex
concepts, and Chapter 3 provides three illustra-tive
case studies. Chapter 4 provides quantitative
evidence on clear communication based on the
survey research for this study, and Chapter 5 pro-vides
a conclusion and outlook. The appendix
contains useful checklists and tools that can be
used to improve clarity in a variety of corporate
communication contexts.
We start by briefly examining the concepts of
clarity and complexity, and how complexity can
get in the way of clear communication.
cWhat is clarity?
The word “clarity” (from the Latin claritas) can
be defined as the state or measure of being clear,
either in thought, appearance, or style. Although
clarity is related to simplicity, simplification im-plies
a reduction in scope or complexity, whereas
clarification transforms complexity into a more
accessible format.
Clarity, according to another dictionary defini-tion,
designates a freedom from indistinctness or
ambiguity. Making something clear, according to
the Oxford Dictionary, is equivalent to making it
understood and reducing what is unwanted. In
its original sense, clarity is the state or quality of
being clear or transparent to the eye. In order for
something to be transparent, the obstacles and
elements that are not in the right place must be
removed. In a communication context, this typi-cally
means obstacles to understanding. What
are these obstacles?
In many corporate communication contexts, ob-stacles
to understanding are created by complex-ity.
This complexity can be inherent in a topic or
brought about by the (inter)actions of the com-municators
dealing with a topic. Therefore, it is
important to examine the issue of complexity
more closely and to distinguish between different
types of complexity, as they can lead to unclear
communication but require different remedies.

Introduction
11
cWhat is complexity and how
does it affect communication?
The classic definition of complexity that can be
found in many text books on the topic consists
of four attributes that make a topic or domain
complex.
A complex problem, domain, or issue has:
1. A high number of relevant elements, facets, or
items
2. Many (different) relationships among these
elements
3. Many changes in these relationships over time
4. A lack of overview regarding these relation-ships
and their cha
Therefore, something is complex because it con-tains
many elements that interact in a dynamic,
multi-lateral, and murky manner.
To clarify something complex, you must struc-ture
(or group) items to reduce their number, fo-cus
on their essential relationships, and provide
an overview before going into detail, while also
considering the changes that might take place af-ter
your communication has occurred. Because
of this last element, it is imperative to contextu-alize
messages in terms of their purpose, scope,
and time.
In the context of corporate communication, it is
important to distinguish among three types of
complexity: topic complexity, process complex-ity,
and message complexity.
Topic complexity is the level of intrinsic difficul-ty
associated with a topic to be communicated.
For example, it is not always easy to convey the
risks associated with new technologies. Think
about how to explain the risks inherent in geneti-cally
modified food, or the perils of nanotechnol-ogy
and how they can adequately be explained to
a non-expert audience.
Process complexity refers to the level of sophis-tication
used to produce and convey a message.
Involving more people in the creation and com-munication
of a message (such as a strategy brief
or a press release) will increase the process com-plexity.
As explained below, process complexity
can spill over into message complexity.
Message complexity refers to how difficult it is
for the target audience to comprehend the con-veyed
message. Message complexity includes the
topic’s inherent complexity (at times amplified
through process complexity), plus the complex-ity
of the presentation format, style, and vocabu-lary.
As a communicator, there is not much you can
do about the first type of complexity. Depending
on your industry or market position, the topics to
communicate can range from simple to extremely
complex. However, corporate communicators can
directly influence process and message complex-ity.
They can reduce the number of people or de-partments
involved in preparing a message and
they can streamline their message to fit the ex-pectations
and foreknowledge of their audience.
Table 1 outlines some typical communication
practices that increase process and message
complexity. Communicators should avoid these
“clarity killers.”

12
Corporate communication area Bad communication practices that reduce clarity (“clarity killers”)
External communication
Crisis communication Relying on self-organization and improvisation and allowing each communicator
to deal with a crisis as she/he sees fit.
Social media
(Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, etc.)
Writing or talking in marketing jargon and conceiving communication as a
one-
way street (ignoring and not inviting feedback).
Branding Letting the brand reflect different personalities in different contexts.
Investor relations Providing different pieces of information and different story lines to different
investors.
Media relations Waiting for the media to develop its own version of the truth and then reacting
to it.
Internal communication
Strategy communication
Communicating the strategy in the same format through which it was devel-oped
(for example, as a balanced scorecard diagram or strategy map rather than
as an accessible visual metaphor).
Change communication Changing the main topic of your change messages frequently.
Corporate vision and values Keeping your corporate values and aspirations as abstract and generic as possible.
Risk communication Using technical risk management language and formats and using expert criteria
rather than layman’s criteria to grouping the communicated risks.
Table 1: How to kill clarity
in various areas of
corporate communication.

13
While many of these sub-optimal practices
(such as the PR, MR, IR, and the strategy and
change communication examples) regard pro-cess
complexity, others (such as the risk com-munication
example) are directly related to
message complexity. The following section
focuses specifically on the elements that drive
message complexity, as communicators can
tackle these issues directly to improve the clar-ity
of their messages.
cWhich factors increase
message complexity?
An excessively complex message can be caused
by any of the six bad practices summarized in
the COMPLEX acronym, which stands for:
C omplicated technical jargon
O verloaded sentences and documents (too many
details)
M essy document structures (no clear, consistent
sequence or format)
P olysemic (ambiguous) terms that are vague and
can be interpreted in many ways
L inks that divert the readers’ attention (too
many connections to other messages)
E ver-changing communication formats that
force readers to learn new structures
X tra (or excessive) elements that deviate from
the main point.
Having shown how complexity can negatively
affect the clarity of corporate communication,
the question remains as to why many organiza-tions
continue to communicate in a complex, in-accessible
manner using many of the COMPLEX
characteristics listed above. The next two sec-tions
of this chapter address this question by an-alyzing
the individual and then organizational
reasons for unclear communication.
Why do some communicators
embrace complex communication?
Some communicators appear to take pride in the
complexity of their communication. They base
their complexity-driven approach to communica-tion
on five fatal assumptions, which we refer to
here as the five fallacies of complex communica-tion.
1. The more complex we make our messages,
the more we are perceived as authoritative and
convincing communicators.
2. The more complex we make our messages,
the more we immunize them against potential
criticism or objections.
3. If we allow our messages to be complex, at
least we are sure that we have covered all im-portant
material and have pleased everybody
(on the sender’s side).
4. If we make our messages simple and clear, our
audiences will perceive the topic as banal and
unsophisticated.
5. If we make our messages simple and clear, our
audience will become suspicious and look for a
hidden catch.
These assumptions are incorrect because they
are based on the premise that the receivers of a
complex message will blame themselves for not
understanding it. However, this premise no long-er
holds in an information-abundant, all-access
attention economy in which any piece of infor-mation
can be substituted with a simpler one
through a different source. We also know from
persuasion research that a message is perceived
as credible and convincing if it resonates with
the audience because people can connect the new
message with what they already know. If commu-nication
is overly complex, there is no room for
resonance.
Introduction

14
Beyond these individual beliefs, there are also bu-reaucratic
reasons for unclear communication. A
few of these organizational causes for excessive
complexity are highlighted below. This provides
organizations with a simple diagnostic tool for
detecting and reducing clarity problems. This is
known as the clarity problem pattern approach.
cHow can you identify and reduce
organizational clarity problems?
In order to enable corporate communicators to de-tect
clarity problems in their own organizations,
we have documented a number of typical prob-lems
in so-called clarity problem patterns. These
problems, along with their root causes and coun-termeasures,
have been identified through our
case study research in various organizations.
A clarity problem pattern is a recurring manage-rial
problem that leads to unclear communication
and can be resolved through systematic action. A
description of such a recurring problem consists
of a simple (and memorable) pattern name, a con-cise
description of its main symptoms, a descrip-tion
of the problem driver or root cause, and an
explanation of how the problem can be overcome.
Checking if your organization suffers from any of
these patterns can provide a starting point with
which to improve the clarity in your own working
context.
Too many cooks
Description: A document has been created
by involving different departments with
equal power over the document. The indi-vidual
sections are inconsistent, overlap-ping,
and have used different styles. This
creates confusion when the document is
used in communication.
Example: Unclear cut-and-paste strategy
document.
Problem driver: Lack of ownership and con-solidation.
Solution: Assign clear ownership rights to
one coordinator (with clearly defined input
parameters for others and deadlines) who
can ensure there is one consistent style, for-mat,
and level of granularity. Work in small
teams that will share their solutions with
key stakeholders and solicit feedback selec-tively.
Too big to fail
Description: A document has grown to a
point where everybody agrees with it (be-cause
their part is in it), but no one wants
to modify it even though it contains several
unclear or redundant passages.
Example: A legal contract or agreement with
different partners.
Problem driver: Iterations without consoli-dation.
Solution: Analyze, segment, consolidate,
and redraft. Show the conversion from old
to new to the involved parties.
Re-use abuse
Description: Communicators re-use or re-combine
old text segments that are outdated
and do not fit together well. This leads to
inconsistent, outdated, or redundant mes-sages,
which creates confusion.
Example: A crisis report confuses employ-ees
as it uses outdated scenarios and termi-nology.
Problem driver: Time pressure and saving
sunk costs.
Solution: Establish quality checks on mes-sage
modules that are to be re-used, and add
expiration dates to them.

Introduction
15
Context chasm
Description: A document in progress has
been handed from one expertise domain
(department) to another. The subsequent
departments do not fully understand the
first domain, but they make changes to those
document segments anyway; this leads to a
confusing and inconsistent description.
Example: A press release regarding a new
product that originated in the marketing de-partment
is elaborated and disseminated by
the PR department. The PR department does
not know the background of the product.
Problem driver: Gaps between experts and
communicators.
Solution: Appoint a “middle man” or liai-son
officer who understands all sides and
can span the organizational boundaries.
Swiss Army knife message
Description: A message creates confusion
or unneeded complexity because, instead
of being tailored to the information needs
of different target groups, it serves multiple
purposes and audiences at the same time.
Example: A press release about an ongo-ing
corporate crisis is simultaneously ad-dressed
to investors, journalists, and em-ployees.
Problem driver: Time pressure
Solution: Split up the message into sepa-rate
smaller messages, each of which is tai-lored
for a specific target group or purpose.
Chinese whispers
Description: Journalists and employees rely
on trivialized or incorrect information that
they have copied from other media articles.
In this way, fabricated facts make their way
from the local level to national or even in-ternational
media.
Example: A media article about a corporate
crisis is reported in daily newspapers with
inaccurate facts.
Problem driver: Time pressure, resource
constraints in news rooms and in corporate
communication (for example, no communi-cation
staff available to answer journalists’
questions in a timely manner).
Solution: Provide the company’s own story
(with strong news value) and tell it to jour-nalists
in a timely manner with full details
and precise and correct facts. Ensure ad-hoc
availability of media relations staff.
These and other typical problem patterns will
be revisited in Chapter 3, where they are used to
describe typical clarity challenges of communica-tion
departments.
cWhat does all this mean
for corporate communicators?
This chapter has looked at the reasons why clear
communication should be a priority for corporate
communicators. We have examined how com-plexity
can negatively affect corporate commu-nication
and why individuals and organizations
sometimes communicate in an overly complex
manner. Corporate communicators should con-sider
the areas in which complexity affects their
communication work and whether any of the de-scribed
problem patterns or clarity killers in this
chapter are also present in their working context.
The next chapter proposes a lean and pragmatic
toolkit for dealing with these challenges effec-tively,
as well as a simple management frame-work
for making the complex clear.

CLEAR Communication:
A Systematic Approach to Managing Clarity
in Corporate Communication
16
cWhat are the elements of the
CLEAR communication method?
Having highlighted the challenges and opportu-nities
that corporate communicators face with
regard to making the complex clear, we now pre-sent
a simple methodology for managing clarity
systematically in various fields of managerial and
corporate communication (including social me-dia).
This is done through two key concepts: the
CLEAR formula and the STARTER package. The
CLEAR formula captures the main criteria that a
clear message with complex content must satisfy.
The STARTER package summarizes the organi-zational
measures that are necessary in order to
meet these criteria consistently and continuously.
These concepts, together with the clarity problem
patterns and the COMPLEX acronym presented
earlier, represent the kernel of the method.
cWhat are the essential factors that
make complex communication clear?
The CLEAR formula in Table 2 summarizes the
different approaches and definitions that we have
reviewed in an extensive literature review and
empirically validated through three surveys and
several case studies. This formula can be used to
improve clarity in corporate communication.
This main finding of our research consists of five
elements that distinguish a clear message from
a confusing one (see Table 2): A clear message
contains just enough background information to
understand its context or why (and by whom) it
should be read. A clear message is logically struc-tured
and reduced to its essential elements. A
clear message is free of ambiguous terms and con-tains
stimulating elements that create resonance
with its audience.
Communicators can consider these crucial clar-ity
criteria in their work by asking themselves the
corresponding diagnostic check questions in the
third row of Table 2.
cWhat is the rationale behind
the CLEAR formula?
The rationale behind this formula can be summa-rized
as follows.
Contextualization (adding background informa-tion
to a message) is imperative in order to be able
to understand why a certain message has been
sent and how it should be used. It is often not
the message itself that creates confusion, but an
unclear or missing context.
A logical structure is needed in order to have a
scaffold or support with which to process and
interpret new information. Our surveys and the
literature review both consistently ranked a good
message structure as one of the top factors that
enables or destroys clarity.
It is important to focus on the essential parts
because audiences can only process a certain
amount of information. Too much information
(information overload syndrome) can lead to
mental shortcuts and confusion.
Ambiguity is the direct opposite of clarity; terms
or sentences that can be interpreted in more than
one way cause confusion and provide unclear
messages. Therefore, ambiguous terms (such as
“soon”) should be avoided.
Have something to say, and say it as clearly as you can.
T hat is the only secret of style.
Matthew Arnold

CLEAR Communication
17
The final element of the CLEAR formula relates
to the emotional appeal of a message or its ability
to resonate with the audience. In other words, a
message must stimulate the interest and curiosity
of its audience. After all, without attention there
is no room for communication. Having said that,
resonance goes beyond attention. In order to reso-nate
with its audience, a message must provide a
pathway from what the receivers already know to
new information.
The process of achieving these five elements is
referred to here as the clarification process. Clari-fication
is an iterative process that provides the
context for a message; develops a logical, accessi-ble,
and consistent structure for its parts; reduces
non-essential elements; and systematically elimi-nates
ambiguity. Clarification also requires that
communicators think about how to engage their
audiences through illustrative examples, images,
or questions. The clarification steps do not nec-essarily
have to be performed in this sequence,
and the steps may include cycles or iterations.
Meeting the CLEAR criteria not only requires
end-of-the-pipe document reviews and revisions,
but also a systematic management process along
the entire communication value chain (includ-ing
clearly defined document goals, roles, quality
gates, standards, and tools). The organizational
issues are discussed below, following some more
details on the five CLEAR elements in the next
section.
Criteria Explanation Check questions for communicators
Contextualized Provide the context or background of a
message upfront.
Is it clear who should read this and why?
Is it clear how and when this should be used?
Logically Structured Structure the message in a logical and
accessible manner.
What is the overall logic of the message?
How do the elements build on each other?
Essential Focus on essential elements and show
them in overview before going into details.
What is the most important part? What can be
left out?
How can it be said more simply?
Ambiguity-free Remove vague terms or sentences and use
terms with clear, specific meanings.
Could any part of the message be misunder-stood?
Can the message be made more specific?
Resonating
Use a style and format that resonates with
the audience and stimulates it to engage
with the content.
Does the communication address the receivers
directly?
Are there stimulating examples, questions, illus-trations,
etc.?
Table 2: The CLEAR formula
and corresponding check questions.

18
C is for Context, or: How can I add context
to my message?
Key point: Provide a setting for your messages; don’t
jump into details right away.
The first element of communicating clearly is to
briefly explain the context of your message. Why
has it been written (purpose); when (date); for
whom (target group); and, if necessary, what has
come before it (background). In this step, it is im-portant
to analyze the target audience and their
(reception) context because their foreknowledge
and expectations determines how much contex-tual
information needs to be added to a message.
An example of contextualization is typical press
releases that begin with a release date and place
and end with background information on a com-pany
or person, as well as contact details. In on-line
communication, context information may
take the form of a “last updated” date, a naviga-tion
trail, or an indication or how many times a
document has been viewed. In the case of e-mail
communication, context can be added by past-ing
relevant segments of a previous e-mail into
the body of the e-mail text. One company uses a
so-called catalyst section for its internal and ex-ternal
reports. This is a one-sentence paragraph
at the beginning of each report that describes
why the report has been written; for example,
the event that led the writer to cover the topic.
Perhaps a more natural way to provide context
to a message is through story-telling, where ac-tions
and key people are described in a rich and
concrete setting.
L is for Logical Structure, or: How can I structure
my message logically?
Key point: Give your messages a logical, easily visible
structure; don’t just ramble on.
Any kind of complex communication has to be
made “digestible” by giving it an easily accessi-ble
(familiar), systematic, and explicit structure.
If this structure is already known to the audience,
it can be especially useful to provide a logical
sequence of items that build on one another to
convey a complex message. In this way, readers
or viewers can focus their attention entirely on
the content. Accordingly, companies are advised
to devise standard structures or templates for re-curring
communication formats, such as press
releases, memos, reports, and investor briefings.
Working with an existing, familiar document
structure is especially important in times of cri-sis
or stress, when people have already been dis-tracted
by a multitude of messages. The use of
templates in such situations helps an audience
focus on the content of a message, as they already
know the structure. At Pioneer Hi-Bred (a Dow
Chemical company), communications managers
use a simple internal memo template when com-municating
with one another about critical media
issues. The following simple template (developed
by Mike Hall, corporate communication manager,
Europe) illustrates:
Internal memo structure for corporate communi-cation
staff:
1. Situation: What has happened?
2. Response Strategy: How we are dealing with it?
3. Media Coverage: What are the media doing/
writing about it?
4. Media Strategy: How we will move forward
and with whom?

CLEAR Communication
19
5. Standby statement to press: What do we cur-rently
publish as the corporate view on the
issue?
This process means that communicators at Pio-neer
know how they are going to inform their col-leagues
about new events. They follow a simple
checklist of all vital elements and can structure
their memos accordingly. The recipients are al-ready
familiar with the structure and can quickly
fi nd the information they need. Organizations
that make ample use of such modular document
structures include Procter & Gamble, the Gartner
Group, Microsoft, and many so-called high-reli-ability
organizations (such as hospitals, armed
forces, and infrastructure groups). Many of these
companies use analytical structures for their doc-uments,
presentations, or speeches (such as the
SPIN structure: situation, problem, implications,
next steps). In some contexts, however, it may be
more effective to use a narrative (story) structure
to convey a complex message. The advantages
of a narrative structure are that it is more natu-ral,
entertaining, and familiar to audiences than
a purely analytical sequence. Typical elements
in the sequence of a narrative structure are the
(hero’s) context, a challenge or crisis to overcome,
a failed attempt, a successful attempt (climax),
and resolution, as well as an ending with lessons
learned (a moral).
E is for Essential, or: How can I focus my message
on its essential parts?
Key point: Cut out unnecessary elements, don’t deviate
from the main message.
We often know better what we really want to say
or write when we have said or written it. Thus,
rewriting, editing, and cutting out unessential
elements is an important step to making your
communication clearer. To focus on the essential,
a communicator must radically align his or her
message to the desired communication outcome
and delete anything that could distract from that
main objective. Focusing on the essential also
means eliminating terms or sentences that have
no real meaning, as they are only empty buz-zwords
or outdated communication rituals (see
the section on intercultural communication for
this issue). It also means that communicators
should substitute complicated sentence struc-tures
with simpler ones. Readability checkers
such as www.read-able.com can be used to as-sess
the readability of a text. A simple tool that
can help a group align and focus its communi-cation
efforts is the message map. Message maps
are often used in crisis communication contexts
and are based on the premise that the essential
part of any message cannot consist of more than
three main points. One organization that uses this
Key Message/Fact 1.
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 1.1
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 1.2
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 1.3
Key Message/Fact 2.
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 2.1
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 2.2
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 2.3
Key Message/Fact 3.
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 3.1
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 3.2
Keywords:
Supporting
Fact 3.3
Figure 1: The message
map template to
focus communication on
its essential parts.

20
tool is the World Health Organization in its com-munications
regarding pandemics, such as the
Avian flu. A communication team completes one
message map for each key issue and target group
and lists the three key messages to communicate,
as well as a maximum of three supporting facts
per message. The resulting chart, shown in Fig-ure
1, can then be used as a reference guide when
preparing messages.
A is for Ambiguity-free, or: How can I reduce ambi-guity
in my messages?
Key point: Choose specific, clearly defined, and famili-ar
words; avoid vague terms.
Ambiguity is the natural enemy of clarity. While
the use of ambiguous terms, statements, or pic-tures
can be appropriate in contexts where crea-tivity
and inspiration are important, it is usually
not conducive to understanding. Therefore, try
to use simple and specific terms that you know
all receivers will understand in the same way. If
that is not possible, provide a concise definition
of the term or illustrate its meaning through spe-cific
examples. Terms that are highly ambiguous
include soon, urgent, critical, interesting, inad-equate,
as well as pronouns such as this, they,
or it.
Ambiguity not only arises because of the choice
of a particular term. A message can also be am-biguous
if the communicator does not state its
implications or relevance. Therefore, adding
context and consequences to a message can re-duce
ambiguity. Nonetheless, ambiguity can
arise even specific terms are used and the mes-sage
is properly contextualize. This is because
some communication channels are conducive
to ambiguous messages. Take e-mail or mobile
text messages as an example. As these messages
tend to be short and are often written and read
while the writer is distracted, their meaning is
not always interpreted in the way the sender
intended. This is aggravated by the fact that e-mails
and text messages are not accompanied
by gestures or facial expressions that make the
intended meaning clearer or signal confusion
on the receiver’s side (emoticons are only partly
helpful in this regard). Ambiguity can also be the
result of a mismatch between an e-mail’s subject
line and its actual content; for example, when a
communicator changes focus while writing the
e-mail message.
Consequently, unclear e-mails are a major cause
of communication stress and information over-load
within organizations. In order to reduce
the ambiguity of an e-mail, it is important to
choose an informative subject line, limit the e-mail
to one topic (the one expressed in the sub-ject
line), and state upfront whether the receiver
is required to take action. It is also important
to relate the message to any relevant previous
messages, so that the receiver understands the
greater context of the message. A good, explicit
e-mail structure, such as the above-mentioned
SPIN structure, can further help reduce the am-biguity
in a message. Finally, aggressive or criti-cal
e-mails are best left unsent and replaced by
phone calls, where the tone of voice can be an
important indicator to reduce ambiguity.
R is for Resonance, or: How can I craft my messages
so that they resonate with my audience?
Key point: Provide stimulating elements that resona-te
with the audience; don’t make your message dull.
Your messages will be better understood if peo-ple
are motivated to read, hear, or watch them.
In order to get your audiences to pay close atten-tion
to your communications, address them di-rectly
and personally; offer illustrative examples

CLEAR Communication
21
and visualizations, as well as stories; and use ap-propriate
analogies or metaphors. You can also
use questions, quotes, and tables to focus your
audience on your key message. Another way to
create resonance is to use terms that you know
your target groups care about and generally use
in their own language.
As the Heath brothers pointed out in their best-seller
entitled “Made to Stick,” messages are
more likely to have an impact and be remem-bered
if they are simple (short), unexpected
(surprising), credible (authentic), and concrete
(with real people), emotional stories. However,
the Heath brothers did not mention the power of
pictures. Images are particularly suited to create
resonance as they trigger emotional responses
and encourage viewers to remember a message
and act upon it. Innovative software such as
en.lets-focus.com allows any communicator to
easily and quickly produce visual metaphors to
communicate in a resonating manner.
The following example illustrates a picture-based
communication strategy. Syngenta, the global
agro-chemical company, has developed (in close
cooperation with its staff members and the Brit-ish
consultancy Couravel; www.couravel.com) a
colorful map that makes its supply chain accessi-ble
and meaningful to employees. The picture fa-cilitates
dialogues related to the supply chain and
how to best manage it. By discussing the picture
in a team, the map enables people to understand
their role in Syngenta’s complex supply chain.
Other companies that have used similar meta-phor-
based maps for their internal communica-tion
include UBS, Carlsberg, Pepsi, Accenture,
OWL, GIZ, Deutsche Bank, Daimler, and Ameri-can
Express.
Having explained and illustrated the elements in
the CLEAR formula, we can now apply them to
specific communication formats, such as reports,
presentations, letters, e-mail or reports.
Figure 2: Syngenta’s
supply chain
map for creating
resonance.

22
cHow can the CLEAR formula be ap-plied
to different communication
formats?
Having explained and illustrated the elements of
the CLEAR formula, we now apply the criteria
of clear communication to different communica-tion
formats. Below is a summary of success fac-tors
for clarity regarding internal or external re-ports,
e-mail messages, slide presentations, and
business diagrams.
Clear reports
Contextualized State the authors, date, document version, purpose, and contact details (plus
the expiration date, if applicable)
Logical structure Summary, overview and introduction, main part, conclusion, background
information. Guide the reader through the structure by including transition-al
sentences between sections.
Essential Provide a concise executive summary with the main insights and action im-plications
of the report. Put “nice-to-know” material in an appendix, not in
the main part of the report.
Ambiguity-free Avoid non-specific business buzz words. Provide a short glossary of key
terms in the appendix.
Resonance Make the action or decision implications of the report easily visible.
Clear e-mail
Contextualized Relate message to previous e-mail (through an excerpt), provide the reason
and necessary actions upfront.
Logical structure Relevance/urgency, fact, interpretation, necessary action.
Essential If possible, limit each e-mail to one single topic, so that it can be properly
categorized or forwarded. Try to limit e-mails to screen size.
Ambiguity-free Avoid criticism in e-mail messages. Words like “soon,” “urgent,” or “our
client” should be replaced by “next week,” “tomorrow,” and “Mr. Stevens”
(for example).
Resonance End an e-mail with a request for agreement, comment, or other kind of reac-tion
to ensure it has been viewed and understood.

23
Clear slide presentation
Contextualized Provide your personal connection to the presentation topic. Tell the audi-ence
why the topic is important (for them) before you start providing details.
Logical structure Use an agenda slide early on in the presentation to provide the audience an
overview of the structure.
Essential Don’t write out entire sentences on slides. Reduce slides to a maximum of
seven bullet points per slide.
Ambiguity-free Watch out for cues from the audience (such as facial expressions) that your
statements have been ambiguous and provide ad-hoc additional clarification
if needed.
Resonance Use full-screen images, quotes, anecdotes, questions, and visual metaphors
to create resonance with your audience.
Clear diagrams
Contextualized Informative caption and image title; reference to the image in the accompa-nying
text (as interpretation aid).
Logical structure Left-to-right/top-to-bottom reading orientation with an emphasized starting
point; distinct foreground (main message) and background (in less promi-nent
colors, peripheral position, and smaller size).
Essential Few elements per image level. Use very few colors and eliminate distracting
elements such as 3D effects, shading, or grids.
Ambiguity-free Ambiguous symbols such as arrows should be labeled. Use appropriate sym-bols
and logos for corporate communication purposes.
Resonance Choose appropriate visual metaphors and familiar diagram types. Bring in
emotions and adapt to any cultural constraints.
CLEAR Communication

24
cHow can the CLEAR formula
be applied to Web 2.0 contexts?
Today’s communicators increasingly rely on so-cial
media or web 2.0 channels such as Facebook
or Twitter. But how can a Facebook page or a
Twitter message be made clearer? To answer this
question, we have screened and analyzed dozens
of successful social media contributions (and
guides) and interviewed social media specialists
across organizations and countries about what
they feel constitutes clear communication in the
respective channels. In this way, we have isolat-ed
clarity drivers for the main Web 2.0 applica-tions.
The subsequent analyses have shown that
the five elements of the CLEAR formula are also
highly relevant for social media. However, the
analysis also showed that these elements must be
adapted to the specific constraints and audience
expectations of each social media channel. The
following tables contain clarity checklists along
the CLEAR dimensions for short messages sent
via Twitter, for blog posts, YouTube videos, Face-book
pages, and instant messaging/chat.
Clear YouTube videos
Contextualized Align videos to the YouTube channel context and target group. Select rele-vant
keywords/tags and a corresponding screen background to contextualize
your video(s).
Logical structure (1) Provide an entry sequence or jingle; (2) welcome viewers; (3) provide an
overview; (4) tell the story; (5) ritualistic (i.e., always similar) wrap-up and
call to action.
Essential Eliminate pauses, deviations, and distractions. Keep sentences short.
Ambiguity-free Be aware of potentially aggressive terms or statements that could be misinterpreted
and may cause negative reactions.
Resonance Establish a rapport with the audience by addressing them directly. Use body
language and creative editing. In ending the video, ask for comments, rat-ings,
and questions.
Clear Facebook pages
Contextualized Provide corporate context in the top section.
Logical structure (1) Info; (2) News or Events; (3) Wall; (4) Specials; (4) Videos.
Essential Screen your Facebook page regularly to make sure that it is aligned to your
main communication goals (and values).
Ambiguity-free Make sure your profile is not too close in appearance or style to someone
else’s. Make sure it is clear how your Facebook page differs from others of
the same organization.
Resonance Create buttons, discussions, and events, such as competitions or questions,
to activate friends or fans. Post new photos and status updates for responses.
Grow your fan- and friends-base continuously. Use other media and chan-nels
to recruit Facebook fans.

25
Clear Twitter Messages
Contextualized Only tweet messages that are consistent with the context of your profile or
twitter channel and the corresponding needs of your followers.
Logical structure Most tweets follow this logical (implicit) structure: (1) Address the audience
with an announcement style comment (e.g., “just found this,” “check this
out,” RT for retweet, or @topic to refer to an ongoing discussion topic); (2)
provide an interesting link; (3) provide some sort of summary or commen-tary
regarding its content; (4) list relevant hash tags (#further topics) or ask
for comments.
Essential There is no need to introduce a tweet; get right to the point and focus on
your main message in one single tweet. Use common emoticons and abbre-viations,
but do not necessarily use tiny URLs, as some users are reluctant to
click on them.
Ambiguity-free Because there are only 140 characters in a tweet, try to avoid ambiguous or
vague terms or expressions, especially when such terms could offend some
readers.
Resonance Maximize your retweet probability by having your tweet tackle a timely,
funny, surprising, useful, or deviant topic, or identify a fantastic but little-known
web address. If appropriate, ask your audience for feedback or opin-ions.
Clear blogging
Contextualized Provide a tag cloud, blog roll, and most-read entry; give a clear blog headline
and description to clarify its context.
Logical structure (1) Provide a title for each blog entry; (2) provide a starting question, lead, or
image; (3) state the reason for the entry; (4) describe it; (5) ask for comments/
suggestions.
Essential Focus your blog entry on one single topic at a time. In other words, stick to
describing one single topic, website, or event per entry.
Ambiguity-free Avoid ambiguous endorsements or recommendations (for example, when it
is unclear whether the entry is commercial or private). Blogs thrive on clear,
courageous opinions, not ambivalence.
Resonance Involve your blog readers through a comments section. Be sure to respond
to posted comments or questions in a timely and constructive (non-conde-scending)
manner.
CLEAR Communication

26
Clear online chats/instant messaging
Contextualized Understand the chat channel/participants.
Logical structure (1) Write the name of person you are addressing; (2) convey your idea; (3) Ask
whether the message is clear.
Essential Use short phrases and don’t use unnecessarily formal expressions.
Ambiguity-free State which comment you are responding to and, if applicable, the person
you are addressing.
Resonance Relate to what others have said. Acknowledge their contributions with state-ments
such as <3, LOL (laugh out loud).
careful regarding how they communicate impor-tant
contextual cues to their audience. Cultures
may also differ in terms of their conception of
time, which has an impact on communication.
A culture can be long-term-oriented (for exam-ple,
valuing delayed gratification) and empha-size
perseverance. Messages communicated in
such a region may be enriched with additional
background information (outlining its origins)
in order to emphasize continuity and consist-ency.
Logical structure: Not all cultures are equally
fond of structure as a communication aid. Some
cultures (such as Germany, Switzerland, Japan,
or Korea) tend to have a high level of uncertain-ty-
avoidance. In such cultures, a visible, logi-cal
structure should be provided upfront (for
example in a slide presentation or in a long re-port).
However, in cultures where uncertainty
avoidance is low (such as Latin countries like
Spain, Brazil, or Chile), one must ensure that
structure does not get in the way of liveliness
and spontaneity. In countries like China, a rigid
structure may be viewed suspiciously as an arti-ficial
separation of things that naturally belong
together. A rigid document structure may also
not work well in so-called polychromic cultures
cHow does the CLEAR formula
work in inter-cultural
communication contexts?
Because communication practices and prefer-ences
vary across regions and cultures, the no-tion
of clarity is not immune to cultural differ-ences.
Cultural values, sensitivities, and taboos
impact people’s perceptions and interpretations
and what they consider to be clear communi-cation.
These variations should be taken into
account when communicating complex topics
internationally. Keep the following cultural as-pects
in mind when using the CLEAR formula.
Context: Based on the work of Hofstede, Hall,
and others, we are able to distinguish among
high-context cultures (e.g., Asian and Arab
countries) and low-context cultures (such as the
USA, Switzerland, or Germany). A target group
in a high-context culture may require more con-textual
information regarding a message than
that of a low-context culture, as the audience
may want to consider the full situation when in-terpreting
new information. However, high-con-text
cultures are also those in which many con-textual
clues remain implicit and are not easily
verbalized. Therefore, communicators must be

CLEAR Communication
27
(Arabic and South American countries, for ex-ample),
where things are not typically done in
rigid sequences, but rather in parallel streams.
Nevertheless, a complete lack of structure (or an
idiosyncratic, inaccessible structure) is never a
conduit to understanding in any culture.
Essential Elements: Low-context cultures (which
are often also individualistic) tend to reward
focused communication and efforts to cut out
unnecessary elements. High-context (and collec-tivist)
cultures, on the other hand, may require
more seemingly unnecessary, almost ritualistic
(or etiquette-based) communication elements.
High-context cultures value relationships, so it
is important not to focus overly on the essential
content only, but to also pay tribute to people
and signal respect for them in one’s communi-cation.
Another cultural variable that impacts
focus and reduction is related to uncertainty
avoidance. A report in Germany, for example,
must be more comprehensive and provide more
evidence and facts than a similar report in the
USA or Spain, which can be more concise.
Ambiguity-free: What is perceived as clear and
specific in one culture may be seen as ambigu-ous
and vague in another one. This is especially
true with regard to time indications. In an e-mail
message, the phrase “Please respond as soon as
possible” may be interpreted differently in Ger-many
than in, say, Argentina. Whereas a German
might interpret this sentence as “respond by to-night”,
an Argentinean may see it as a request for
information within a week or so. Different cul-tures
also have different levels of tolerance for
ambiguity. Cultures with high certainty-avoid-ance
have little tolerance for ambiguity and au-diences
expect clearly defined terms with spe-cific
meaning. This is not necessarily the case
in cultures where uncertainty avoidance (that is,
control) is not so important.
Resonance: The prototypical mechanisms used
to generate resonance in communication are
humor, stories, images, and metaphors. All of
these devices should be used with great caution
in global communication as they can be eas-ily
misinterpreted and create confusion instead
of resonance. Some uses of humor, storytelling
visualization, or metaphors may even be offen-sive
in some cultures. Therefore, it is important
to pre-check whether a foreign target group can
understand and appreciate a humorous expres-sion,
an illustrative anecdote, a diagram, or a
seemingly fitting metaphor. With regard to the
use of images, one should especially check the
local meaning of colors, icons, or symbols.
Although values differ widely among cultures,
there are two things one should not forget when
striving for clarity. Firstly, respectful, courteous
communication is always appropriate. Secondly,
there is an emerging global communication eti-quette
that can be used as the default commu-nication
mode when you are uncertain about a
specific target group or area. This global commu-nication
etiquette relies heavily on the CLEAR
formula. Having made these qualifications, we
believe that CLEAR is a universally useful frame-work
for communicating in business contexts.
cHow can the formula be used to
measure the clarity of communication?
In order to measure the extent to which a message
satisfies the CLEAR criteria, corporate communi-cators
can use five check questions with their pi-lot
audience and have certain recipients rate the
message. For example, corporate communicators
can use the five questions in a pop-up window as
an ad-hoc clarity feedback mechanism from their
audience to them, when viewing corporate infor-mation
on the company’s website.

28
1. Was it clear why this message was sent to you?
No indication at all;
some context indications given;
communication context clearly given
upfront
2. Did you understand the structure of this mes-sage?
No explicit structure whatsoever;
explicit but somewhat unclear structure;
very clear and visible structure
3. Are any parts of this message non-essential?
Many superfluous items;
some superfluous items;
no superfluous items
4. Are any of the terms used in the communica-tion
ambiguous, unclear, or otherwise difficult
to interpret?
Many ambiguous terms;
some ambiguous terms;
no ambiguous terms
5. Does the communication provide useful illus-trations
that resonate with you?
No useful illustrations/examples;
somewhat useful illustrations/examples;
very useful illustration provided
These questions can pop-up as an instant sur-vey
when someone has read an online message
or they can accompany a printed document with
a faxback form. Each question amounts to zero,
one, or two points. Thus, a full clarity score
would be equal to 10 points.
cWhat are the sources
of the CLEAR Formula?
The CLEAR formula for clarity in communica-tion,
as presented in this chapter, has been de-rived
from various types of evidence. The back-ground
of the CLEAR formula can be found in
our own research, as well as in the writings of
others. It is based on the insights derived from
our case studies on clear communication in
complex corporate communication, as well as
from surveys we have conducted on clarity in
e-mail communication, in presentations, and
in corporate communication in general. It is
also based on a review of previously developed
theoretical models of clarity, comprehensibility,
and communication quality (such as the Ham-burg
comprehensibility framework). Finally, the
CLEAR formula is based on seminal or classical
works on clarity ranging from Aristotle to Leib-niz.
Table 3 summarizes these two “external”
sources.
A few words on the quotes used from seminal
sources of classical philosophy are needed to
understand their meaning and context properly:
Baruch de Spinoza derived his notion of being
clear from the metaphor of a lens (which he
crafted) and viewed clarity as a matter of clearly
delineating one’s scope when stating ideas. Got-tfried
Wilhelm Leibniz emphasized that some-thing
clear has clearly distinct parts that are
separate and well organized. For Leibniz, the
systematic organization of thought determined
clarity. William of Occam, in his famous “Oc-cam’s
razor” principle, stressed that clarity en-sues
when everything that can be left out has
been removed. René Descartes viewed a state-ment
as clear when it is clearly distinguishable
from other things and is evident to mean only one
thing. Aristotle’s concept of pathos argued that
communication was more likely to be successful

CLEAR Communication
29
CLEAR Elements Classic Sources/Quotes Modern Sources/Research
if a communicator uses examples and metaphors
that resonate with his or her audience, as they
put the audience into the right frame of mind to
understand (and accept) a message.
Context
“An idea is clear if and only if its
extension has precise boundaries.”
Baruch de Spinoza (1632–1677)
Langer, 1989; Langer, Thun, & Tausch, 1974;
Reeves, Ford, Duncan, & Ginter, 2005; Suchan &
Dulek, 1990
Logical Structure
“Clear means recognizable as clearly
distinct and made up of distinct parts.”
G.W. Leibniz (1646–1716)
De Bono, 1998; Langer, 1989; Langer et al., 1974;
Maeda, 2006; Zwijze-Koning & de Jong, 2007
Essential Elements
“Entities should not be multiplied
beyond necessity.”
William of Occam (1285–1347)
Bambacas & Patrickson, 2008; Bennett & Olney,
1986; De Bono, 1998; Langer et al., 1974; Mousavi,
Low, & Sweller, 1995; Nonaka & von Krogh,
2009; Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Swift, 1973;
Temple, 2002
Ambiguity-free “Clear means evident and distinct
from other things.”
René Descartes (1596–1650)
De Bono, 1998; Langer, 1989; Langer et al., 1974;
Maeda, 2006; Pereira, 2006
Resonance
“You must put your hearers into the
corresponding frame of mind.”
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
Groeben, 1982; Lloyd, 2008; Naumann, Richter,
Flender, Christmann, & Groeben, 2007; Schnotz
& Kürschner, 2007; Schnotz & Rasch, 2005
Table 3: The classic and modern
basis of the CLEAR formula.

30
cHow can clear communication be
institutionalized in an organization?
So far, we have looked at clear communication
from the point of view of an individual commu-nicator
and his or her ability to make complex
messages clear. This every day, individual effort
is the basis for clear communication. Neverthe-less,
an organization that wishes to address clar-ity
as a strategic asset should also think about
organizational support for clear communication.
Moving from complex to clear messages in a con-sistent
and sustainable manner requires several
organizational actions; these are summarized in
the acronym STARTER. The elements in this ac-ronym
ensure that different organizational levers
are used to institutionalize clear communication
in a company.
The elements of STARTER are as follows. Firstly,
an organization must defi ne standards regard-ing
clear communication. An organization must
explicitly defi ne quality criteria for its internal
and external communication (and how these cri-teria
can be met), which is what pharmaceutical
company Roche and the Austrian telecom group,
for example, have done. The organization must
then train its employees to communicate ac-cording
to these standards (through seminars, e-learnings,
events, etc). It must subsequently hold
employees accountable to meet these standards
and help them through simple review cycles and
(diagnostic) tools. In doing so, the organization
should provide examples as reference points that
employees can learn from (such as a “clarity hall
of fame” or “hall of shame”). In this way, the or-ganization
will provide resources (time, money,
management attention) that make clear commu-nication
a priority. The illustration below sum-marizes
this process from complex to clear mes-sages
through the STARTER elements.
Table 4 below provides some pointers and exam-ples
of how these seven elements can be brought
to life within a communication department or
within an entire organization.
Naturally, these elements are only effective if
they are closely aligned and appropriately coor-dinated.
More consistency and focus will ulti-mately
lead to any clarity-related measures hav-ing
greater impact.
Figure 3: From
Complex to Clear through
STARTER actions.
From Complex
C omplicated
O verloaded
M essy
P olysemic
L inked
E verchanging
X traneous
Through
S tandards
T raining
A ccountability
R eviews
T ools
E xamples
R esources
To Clear
C ontextualized
L ogical Structure
E ssential
A mbiguity-free
R esonating
Clarifi cation Process

CLEAR Communication
31
Standards Rules and standards for memos, documents, briefings.
Clear principles and criteria for clear communication.
Training Training authors in plain language factors and CLEAR elements.
Accountability Assigning responsibilities (roles) to documents and key communications
Standards can be articulated in the form of a com-munication
charter, as illustrated by the example
of Roche, a global pharmaceutical and diagnostics
groups with 80,000 employees. The six principles
outlined below set a company-wide standard for
internal and external communication at Roche.
The six simple adjectives describe what clear,
high-quality communication means within Roche.
Comparing these six elements to the CLEAR for-mula
shows that Roche emphasizes contextual-ization
in its informative dimension (“a sense of
the broader context”). The communication de-partment
at Roche also acknowledges that “style
and tone may vary from country to country based
on local language and culture.” This relates to
the resonance element in the CLEAR formula.
The attribute of ensuring that communication is
audience-appropriate is also captured in the res-onance
dimension of the CLEAR formula, while
the credible and consistent criteria regard the
Reviews
Review processes with at least one reviewer for influential communication.
Informal review cycles among colleagues.
Review tools such as checklists or quick surveys.
Tools Readability measurement tools such as http://www.readable.com/.
Authoring tools (visualization, layouting, etc.).
Examples
Real-life positive and negative examples with highlighted characteristics.
Before and after (improved) examples, such as terms or phrases to avoid and
how to replace them.
Resources
Clear communication guide (for e-mails, letters, presentation, memos, briefings,
press releases).
Corporate wording guide.
Clarity champions as access points.
Time and money for clarity improvement initiatives.
Table 4: The seven elements
of the STARTER formula.

32
Credible “We seek to inform and influence based on factual information, balanced per-spectives
and sound expertise, rather than on ‘spin’ or accentuating the positive
while overlooking the negative. We communicate good and bad news alike.”
logical structure and the reduction of ambiguity.
The E in the CLEAR formula is related to the pro-active
criteria that Roche interprets as providing
relevant news that has material significance.
cWhat can we learn from the existing
literature on clarity?
Suchan and Dulek’s (1990) statement that “clar-ity
is business communication’s most sacrosanct
topic” illustrates the general importance of this
topic. Their article on reassessing clarity in writ-ten
business documents (Suchan and Dulek,
1990) argued that clarity is the “most serious
communication problem in business.” Only a
few scholars have examined the concept of clar-ity
as explicitly as Suchan and Dulek, though
various aspects of clarity have been subject to re-search
studies. While some studies have focused
on clarity in business communication or written
texts and documents (Bennett and Olney, 1986;
Suchan and Dulek, 1990), others have examined
the issue of clarity in strategic communication
(Reeves et al., 2005), in instructions (Kennedy et
al., 1978), in business education (Feinberg and
Pritzker, 1985), or in business role allocation
(Hall, 2007). Most research has concentrated on
assessments of clarity in the above contexts, but
has failed to provide pragmatic advice on how
to achieve clarity, especially in such complex
domains as strategic management. The topic of
clarity is often addressed in research using such
closely related terms as understanding (Sweller
and Chandler, 1994), clearness (Carlile, 2004),
and sensitivity and specificity (Reeves et al.,
2005).
Consistent
“We speak in one voice, ensuring that messages are aligned and consistent with
company positions, even though the style and tone may vary from country to
country based on local language and culture.”
Informative
“We explain and provide perspective, as well as simply conveying facts, so that
our audiences gain an insightful orientation on the subject, an understanding
of the reasons behind decisions, and a sense of the broader context.”
Proactive “Rather than being reactive, we take the initiative in informing internal and
external audiences of relevant news, decisions, and developments that have
material significance to them and their decision-making.”
Audience-appropriate
“We use appropriate language for each audience, communicating in technical,
scientific language to the science, medical, and investment communities, and
in simple, layman’s terms when communicating to the broader public, patients,
and consumers.”
Self-confident
“We assert our right to deal only in facts, and not in rumors or speculation; to
discuss our own activities and not comment on those of other companies; to
refrain from disclosing financially sensitive or proprietary information; and to
defend our position vigorously when criticized or attacked.”
Table 5: Roche’s
communication values

CLEAR Communication
33
cWhat can philosophy, literature,
and journalism studies teach us about
clarity?
One of the first definitions of clarity was provided
by the philosopher René Descartes, when he wrote
that “clear means evident and distinct
from other things.” This definition was later
further developed by the logician and pragmatist
C.S. Peirce, who linked clarity to the notion of dis-tinctiveness,
but also added the element of evident
action implications to clarity (Peirce, 1878). An-other
pioneer of clarity research is George Orwell.
Despite being published as a critique of jargon and
bad use of English in political debates, his seminal
essay on the topic can be seen as a pragmatic ap-proach
to clarity. Orwell recognized clear thinking
as a necessary step toward political regeneration
(Orwell, 1946). His “clarity maxims” for reducing
texts to their essence seem as timely in today’s In-ternet
era as when they were first articulated (see
the box below).
George Orwell’s Clarity Maxims:
“Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech
which you are used to seeing in print.
Never use a long word where a short one will do.
If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
Never use the passive, where you can use the active.
Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word
or a jargon word if you can think of
an everyday English equivalent.
Break any of these rules sooner than say anything
outright barbarous.”
The domain with the most discussions of clarity
is that related to scientific and journalistic writing
(Strunk and White, 2008; Williams, 1990). Unfor-tunately,
these texts mostly consist of lengthy lists
of what one should do (or not) style-wise in order
to write clearly. Typical suggestions found in this
stream of literature are to avoid complex nouns in
lieu of verbs, passive voice, long relative clauses,
foreign terms, jargon, or unstructured texts. A no-table
exception to this list-based approach comes
from überjournalist Joseph Pulitzer and his elegant
clarity mantra:
“Put it before them briefly so they will read it,
clearly so they will appreciate it,
picturesquely so they will remember it and,
above all, accurately so they will be
guided by its light.”
This simple formula has later been the starting
point for many investigations made by cognitive
and educational psychologists and pedagogues to
understand and enhance the readability of texts,
thereby enabling better understanding and knowl-edge
generation, sharing, or learning.
cWhat do you need to know
about the psychology of reading?
Educational research scholars regard the process
of understanding text as an active and iterative
process of converting text into understanding
(Jahr, 2001); it is no longer seen as passive reci-tation,
but as an active construction of meaning.
This implies that modern education challenges
teachers as much as students in terms of clarity.
At the forefront of modern clarity research in this
tradition is Langer, Schulz von Thun and Tausch’s
so-called “Hamburger Comprehensibility Model”
(Langer, 1989; Langer et al., 1974). This empirical-ly-
based, inductive framework proposed that texts
are easy to understand if attention is paid to four
crucial elements of text design: simplicity, struc-ture
and order (inner and outer order), concise-ness
and brevity, and additional stimulation (such

34
as examples, quotes, anecdotes). In contrast to
Langer et al. (1974), Groeben (1982) incorporat-ed
different approaches of cognitive psychology
and develops a context-dependent model of text
understandability. Groeben distinguished four
factors that affect comprehensibility: cognitive
structure/content classification, semantic redun-dancy,
stylistic simplicity, and conceptual con-flict
(Groeben, 1982; Jahr, 2001). Unlike Langer et
al., the Groeben model not only takes the text and
its understandability (content and style, logical
structure) into account, but also the reader’s abil-ity
(that is, his or her necessary foreknowledge)
to understand a text (Groeben, 1982; Naumann et
al., 2007). Therefore, Groeben conceived of clar-ity
as a relative, context-dependent construct, a
perspective that can also be found in another,
psychological approach.
cWhat does cognitive psychology tell
us about making the complex clear?
The “other” approach mentioned above is
Sweller and Chandler’s (1994) cognitive load
theory, which has become increasingly influen-tial
in instructional psychology. This theory from
the field of knowledge acquisition provides in-sights
regarding the elements of clarity and is rel-evant
to master clarity in complex communica-tion
(Sweller and Chandler, 1994; Mousavi et al.
1995). The necessity of adapting instructions to
the constraints of the learner’s cognitive abilities
has been the main concern of this research. Cog-nitive
load theory argues that many traditional
instructional techniques do not adequately take
the limitations of human cognition into account,
as they unnecessarily overload the learner’s
working memory. The theory refers to the ben-eficial
effect of removing redundant information
as the “redundancy effect.” Furthermore, it tries
to integrate knowledge about the structure and
functioning of the human cognitive system with
principles of instructional design. Conversely,
Schnotz and Kürschner (2007) criticized cogni-tive
load theory, arguing that a reduction in cog-nitive
load can sometimes impair learning rather
than enhance it (Schnotz and Kürschner, 2007).
Schnotz also investigated the effects of animated
pictures on knowledge acquisition, finding that
different kinds of animations do indeed have dif-ferent
functions in the process of learning, while
a reduction of additional information to avoid
information overload is not always beneficial for
the learning process (Schnotz and Rasch, 2005).
Therefore, clarity in complex communication
cannot simply be described as “reducing infor-mation.”
cWhat are the findings from
business-related research?
With a few exceptions, the recent academic lit-erature
on clarity in management and business
communication contains few definitions of the
term “clarity.” Bresciani et al. defined visual
clarity in business diagrams as the “property of
the (visual element) to be self-explanatory and
easily understandable with reduced cognitive ef-fort”
(Bresciani et al., 2008). Within the domain
of organization studies and knowledge manage-ment,
clarity has been addressed in the literature
regarding knowledge transfer and knowledge
sharing (Carlile, 2004; Nonaka and von Krogh,
2009). In these contexts, a lack of clarity is fre-quently
reported as a knowledge transfer barrier
(Szulanski, 2000; Von Hippel, 1994; Jacobson et
al., 2005). Szulanski incorporated findings from
educational science for managerial communica-tion
processes when proposing that “knowledge
transfer should be regarded as a process of recon-

CLEAR Communication
35
struction rather than a mere act of transmission
and reception” (Szulanski, 2000). Suchan and
Dulek (1990) also linked clarity to knowledge
and viewed clarity, or the lack thereof, as the re-sult
of an organization’s idiosyncratic knowledge
and specialized internal language. In Suchan and
Dulek’s analysis, clarity-related problems often
begin with the existing mindset within an organi-zation.
With regard to the analysis of organizational
communication, Yates and Orlikowski (1992) de-fined
different business communication genres
in the style of rhetoric genres, such as comedy,
tragedy, novel, or epic. Their genres of organi-zational
communication encompass meetings,
memorandums, letters, or proposals (Yates & Or-likowski,
1992). All of these genres are situation-or
context-dependent and apply a specific form
and structure in relation to motives and topics
of communication. Identifying and acknowledg-ing
the target audience and using the appropri-ate
genre is key for clear communication in Yates
and Orlikowski’s organizational communication
framework. Structure is also important; for exam-ple,
in letters they emphasize the use of structure
and conventions for internal documents, using
headings with “to,” “from,” “subject,” and “date”
as relevant information for clear and easy identi-fication
by the receiver. In this way, the authors
point at important elements of clear communica-tion
in organizations, such as structure, context-dependency
and audience recognition, which are
incorporated here in the CLEAR formula under
the letters “L” (logical structure), “C” (context),
and “R” (resonance). Another specific genre of or-ganizational
communication is the narrative. Ga-briel
offers a taxonomy of storytelling in organi-zations
(Gabriel, 2000). Organizational stories are
important for managers as they provide shortcuts
to important insights into the organization’s cul-ture,
functioning, stepping stones, and ideolo-gies.
Organizational stories offer clarity regarding
the organization’s mindset and can be helpful in
dealing with complex processes such as change
management.. Stories link up personal and social
identities. This makes them a central medium for
the creation of meaning in organizations and the
development of a corporate identity.
cWhat does all this mean for corporate
communicators?
This chapter has outlined the five major ele-ments
that can help make complex messages
clear to their audiences. These are: making the
context clear, providing a clear structure, reduc-ing
the message to its essence, making the mes-sage
ambiguity-free, and wording the message in
a way that resonates with the audience. We have
also outlined the seven organizational measures
for systematically managing clarity in corporate
communication. These are: clearly defined clar-ity
standards, training, accountability (or roles),
review processes, tools, examples, and resources.
Corporate communicators can use the CLEAR
formula as a training and checking tool; they can
employ it to set clarity standards or measure the
clarity of their messages.
From the various literature streams described
above, it appears that the concept of clarity can
be positioned at the intersection between cogni-tion
and behavior. Achieving clear communica-tion
must incorporate concepts and application
from cognitive and behavioral science. It is evi-dent
from this literature review that there is still a
need for an applicable clarity approach that man-agers
and communicators can use.

Case Studies:
Addressing Clarity in Complex
Communication
36
The following three short case studies illustrate
the organizational context of clear communica-tion
and the many challenges that this context
creates for corporate communicators. The cases
cover a wide range of communication areas, in-cluding
crisis communication, media relations,
client communication, and branding. While the
first case describes a response to unclear commu-nication
in the media, the other two cases focus
on typical CLEAR communication initiatives.
The case studies also illustrate the use of clarity
problem patterns and the elements of the CLEAR
formula.
cClarifying a complex crisis:
How Bilfinger Berger reacted to
a major construction failure
Communication area: Crisis communication
Communication format: Press releases, press confer-ences,
interviews
Target group: From the general public to
authorities and shareholders
Involved teams: Executive and corporate
communications
Complexity: High
Key lessons: On-site communicators and
consistency of messages
In April of 2010, Martin Büllesbach, head of com-munication
at the construction group Bilfinger
Berger, was reviewing the persecution he had
suffered from journalists from local and national
newspapers and magazines. Much of their report-ing
had not clarified the key issues, but had instead
contributed to the general confusion.
So what had happened? At the end of January 2010,
the public prosecution department of the city of
Cologne, Germany, had detected structural faults in
one of the newly built stations of the Cologne sub-way
system. Bilfinger Berger was the lead company
among three large building companies involved in
this project. Therefore, Bilfinger Berger received
most of the media criticism. There was another rea-son
why the media had focused on Bilfinger Berger.
Prior to this incident, in March 2009, instabilities
of the subway system and structural failures had
caused the historical archive of the city of Cologne
and another building to collapse, killing two people.
Having reviewed these events, Martin Büllesbach
decided to change his communication strategy. In-stead
of repeatedly discussing the mistakes of the
past and the question of who was to blame, he de-
What can be said at all can be said clearly.
Ludwig Wittgenstein

Case Studies
37
cided to focus his attention on Bilfinger Berger’s
other building projects and success stories. Bülles-bach
also knew that organizational changes were
needed to clarify Bilfinger Berger’s communication.
What were the complexity drivers?
One of Bilfinger Berger’s main recent building pro-jects
involved constructing a new underground
rail line in Cologne. On February 3, 2009, in the
course of construction, the Cologne city archive
collapsed above one particular construction loca-tion,
killing two people and causing many price-less
historic documents to be lost. The media
reported extensively on this event; however, not
everything that had been reported was correct and
journalists copied this misinformation from each
other. According Martin Büllesbach, “The media
failed on a large scale due to the complexity of this
story.” The challenge of communicating clearly
during this first crisis situation resulted from a
number of complexity drivers:
1. Three large building companies, as well as the
city of Cologne, the Cologne traffic agency, and
a large number of experts, were involved in
this complicated building project of the new
Cologne subway system. Consequently, it was
difficult to keep an overview of activities, re-sponsibilities,
communication actions, and
decision-making.
2. All activities took place in diverse parallel pro-cesses,
from decision processes up to imple-menting
the building project.
3. A further component of complexity was the po-litical
dimension, since the project fell within
an election period for the city council. In addi-tion,
it was a prestige project that every mayor
used for his own political argumentation.
4. The conflict-loaded interaction between the
project’s two most important people –the may-or
of the city of Cologne and the CEO of Bilfin-ger
Berger – added an additional personal com-ponent
to the complexity of this case.
5. The conflict potential was centered not on fi-nancial
topics, but around the question of guilt,
which was a main focus for the city authorities.
However, the focus of Bilfinger Berger’s action
and communication was more on the future.
Three main clarity problem patterns can describe
the challenges that Bilfinger Berger faced during
the two peaks of the Cologne crisis in 2009 and
2010.
Just too late
In times of crisis, relevant and on-time infor-mation
is important. If the necessary infor-mation
is not available, rumors and incorrect
information can spread.
Solution: A pro-active communication strat-egy
can help avoid this threat. Present rel-evant
information and set reliable timelines
for when more information will be available.
Chinese Whispers
Media communication relied on trivial and
incorrect information copied from other me-dia
articles. In this way, fabricated facts made
their way from the local level to national and
international media.
Solution: Convince the media of your own
stories and tell them in full detail, with pre-cise
and correct facts.
Too far to connect
The project location was too distant from
the headquarters and communication de-partment,
which meant that communication
flows were slow at the beginning of the crisis.
Solution: There should be an on-site commu-nications
expert for each large-scale project.
To address these issues, the company took several
measures, as described below.

38
How was clarity improved?
In this crisis situation, clear communication had
to be directed towards the public and the me-dia
in a constant and persistent manner. After
initially focusing on limiting the damage and
clarifying the legal implications, Bilfinger Berger
shifted its focus to two clear messages: it was co-operating
to resolve the crisis and that this cri-sis
was an exception. Herbert Bodner, chairman
of the executive board at Bilfinger Berger, was
reported as saying: “Through close cooperation
with the client and the authorities involved, as
well as through open communication, we want
to help to re-establish confidence in this con-struction
project.” This shift helped rebuild the
company’s trust in the public and with share-holders.
At the start of the crisis communication, repre-sentatives
of Bilfinger Berger were missing on-site.
This came to be seen as a major problem
and had to be solved. Clear definition of persons
and their responsibilities, such as an on-site me-dia
contact person, was necessary and helped to
deliver clear and correct information. For Martin
Büllesbach it was clear what had to be done: “I
knew a journalist from Cologne, a well-connect-ed
one, whom I could put at the front to deliver
information to the media and to serve as Bilfin-ger
Berger’s outpost.” For the initial crisis, this
strategy of being present on-site worked very
well.
At the same time, the media speculated that the
financial value of Bilfinger Berger would col-lapse
in the same way as the city archive had.
Here, instead of focusing on the crisis, Bülles-bach
chose to present the results from a very suc-cessful
2008. In a press release two weeks after
the catastrophic event, Büllesbach wrote: “Bil-finger
Berger concluded the 2008 financial year
with clear increases in both output volume and
earnings.” The presentation of Bilfinger Berger
success stories from other large building pro-jects
in public transportation was a good maneu-ver
with which to rebuild the image of Bilfinger
Berger.
What can be learned from this experience?
In this case of crisis communication, Bilfinger
Berger was facing great complexity and respon-sibility.
The lessons from this crisis communica-tion
event can be summarized as follows:
>>Realizing large infrastructure projects in the
public sphere requires thorough preparation
for a crisis situation. Clear definition of roles
and responsibilities during a crisis is crucial.
>>Consistency and constant repetition of the
main messages are important elements of ef-fective
and clear crisis communication.
>>Timing played an important role in ensuring
clear reporting in the media. It may be better to
communicate early than to wait for all relevant
facts to emerge.
>>Being close to the media, close to the public,
and close to the site of events enabled the
communicators to deliver appropriate, correct,
clear, and convincing messages.
In terms of message clarity, the following actions
lead to clear communication:

39
CLEAR elements Corresponding actions of Bilfinger Berger’s communication team
Contextual
Bilfinger Berger explained its role and position in the consortium; thus, the course of events
became more understandable to outsiders. Clear communication of the project’s context
meant that the media better understood the scope of Bilfinger Berger’s responsibility.
Logical structure A clear (chronological) structure of messages made it easier for the audience to understand
what had happened and to develop a fair assessment of the catastrophe.
Essential
In complex cases such as this one, a focus on the key elements was necessary in order
to enter into dialogue with the media, the shareholders, and the public. The company
focused on two essential messages: (1) We are cooperating to resolve the crisis; and (2) We
are professional and won’t let this happen again.
Ambiguity-free
Consistency and coherence in crisis communication led to distinct messages, and the
repetition of correct information reached the audience. Ambiguous or technical terms
were systematically avoided.
Resonating Convincing communication with success stories led to more public recognition and share-holder
support, rather than only focusing on the crisis.
applied to the
Bilfinger Berger case
Case Studies

40
cClarifying customer communication:
How AXA conducted a clear
communication initiative to meet
customer needs
Communication area: Client communication
Communication format: Written communication,
insurance documents,
letters, policies
Target group: Private and institutional
insurance clients
Involved teams: Product management,
underwriting, IT, Opera-tions,
Marketing
Complexity: Very high
Key lessons: Use of familiar language
in a consistent manner
AXA’s clear communication initiative was start-ed
at the international group level in 2009 as part
of an effort by the company to redefine insurance
standards and differentiate itself through custom-er
service. The overall project objective was to en-sure
clear messages in all customer-related com-munication.
Richard Lüthert, head of marketing
documents at AXA Switzerland, and Eleni Strati,
head of the clear communication project at AXA
Switzerland, were planning their next steps and
forthcoming activities in the third phase of the
clear communication initiative. Since the project
started in January 2009, Lüthert and Strati and
their team had changed underwriting processes,
reviewed and edited hundreds of insurance doc-uments,
produced a clear communication guide
with before-and-after-examples of clear letters to
customers, and reduced and aligned dozens of
text modules. Because the insurance business is
complex, the challenge of making the complex
clear has provided several useful insights.
The challenge of communicating through clear
documents with the customers resulted from a
number of complexity drivers:
1. Letters to clients often contain difficult and
unfamiliar terms. Even insurance experts
sometimes struggle with the terminology. In
addition, different terms are often use to de-scribe
the same things.
2. Clients often do not know what to do with the
information they receive from their insurer.
Most insurance letters have no direct call to
action.
3. Many letters to clients contain a kind of sum-mary
of an underlying insurance calculation
process. This process is complex and not
transparent for the customer. The target of
limiting such documents to one page does not
make this task easier.
4. As soon as mutations occur in an insurance
contract, the documentation changes, with-out
making the mutations clear to the client.
5. A typical client receives a large variety of
documents (modifications, contracts, bills,
institutional information, etc.) throughout
the year. It is not always clear to the custom-er
which documents are really relevant and
where action is required.
6. The initial documents often only include a
general Internet address and a common tel-ephone
number. The customer has no way of
reaching a service officer. Even the existing
online help information is difficult to find on
the company’s website.
The challenges that AXA was facing in the
course of its clear communication initiative can
be described using six main clarity problem pat-terns:

Case Studies
41
Too big to fail
Many insurance product documents have
grown to a point where everybody agrees
with them; therefore, no one wants to modi-fy
them, even though they contain many un-clear
passages and are difficult for customers
to understand.
Solution: Recreate the document from the
beginning via a collaborative team work-shop.
Implicit implications
Many letters to customers are perceived as
unclear because they do not specify the con-sequences
for the addressed target group.
Solution: New and clear formulations of a
call-to-action.
Insight without oversight
Many billing or insurance premium letters
create confusion because they do not pro-vide
the necessary big-picture context. It is
not possible to recognize the most important
things at first glance.
Solution: Highlight the most important in-formation
and omit unnecessary details;
give the document a subject title.
Same but different
Many of the labels that the insurance docu-ments
use are confusing because they de-scribe
the same thing using different terms.
Solution: Exactly the same terms should be
used on documents of the same type; use a
collaborative team workshop to elaborate.
Missing in action
Documents sent to customers often lack a
clear statement about how to obtain further
information. Often only a general internet
address (e.g., www.axa.ch) is provided.
Solution: personalize the information op-tions.
Indicate a contact person with their
name and direct telephone number.
The following measures were taken to improve the
clarity of client communication.
Consistent design: Documents were redesigned
in such a way that the customer could re-identify
them easily at first glance. The position of contact
information, the logo and company motto is now
always the same.
Clear wording and familiar language: The ter-minology
used in all documents was adjusted to
layman’s terms, using words that are friendly and
simple, but significant. This was done through col-laborative
teamwork involving experts from prod-uct
management, underwriting, and marketing
through a facilitated discussion led by the clear
communication team.
Consistency and readability: The consistent use of
terminology and the use of the same words/sen-tences
for the same idea was crucial and is now
the norm. AXA is speaking with one voice, and
the style and wording of letters is now consistent
throughout AXA. The most important issues are
highlighted for better readability.
Explaining the numbers: The numbers on insur-ance
bills or reports are now depicted in a clearer
way or explained in an online tutorial. This means
that customers are now able to understand the log-ic
of most calculations by themselves.
Options to obtain detailed information: Each doc-ument
provides a new heading, including contact
options for the customers, such as an individual

42
customer service person and various telephone
numbers for different purposes.
In this case of written customer communication,
AXA faced a great amount of complexity. Seeing
the problem from the customer’s perspective is one
major lesson. AXA wanted to make things easier,
clearer, more readable, and more understandable
for any type of customer. It achieved this goal by
applying a consistent and easy logic. A fresh de-sign
of the documents helped identify documents
that belong together. The permanent development
of online help tools, the continuing enhancement
of customer services through the training of call
center employees and in-house training on clear
communication helped establish a “clear commu-nication
mentality”. These action are summarized
below in relation to the CLEAR formula.
CLEAR elements Corresponding Actions
Contextual AXA redesigned thousands of documents in terms of context, wording, and style. The
context of a document is now clear at one glance.
Logical structure A clear structure of documents and the elimination of duplication in documents made it
easier for customers to understand the purpose of a document.
Essential By highlighting the most important facts in an insurance document, readers can now more
easily understand what documents are about.
Ambiguity-free
Consistency and coherence in wording and style led to clearer documents. The use of
everyday terminology rather than insurance jargon has made it possible for non-experts
to understand the meaning of the used terms.
Resonating Special emphasis was given to a humane, personal, and friendly tone in all customer letters.
applied to the AXA case

Case Studies
43
cThe corporate wording project
of mobilkom austria:
Clarity with a strategic twist
Communication area: Institutional and client
communication
Communication format: Written communication,
customer documents,
letters, polices, presenta-tions,
contracts
Target group: Clients, employees
Involved teams: Marketing, legal,
customer service, sales,
e-business, external
consultants, advertising
and PR agencies
Complexity: Medium
Key learnings: Aligning clarity to
the corporate brand;
managing frictions and
resistance points when
addressing clear com-munication
mobilkom austria is a leading mobile network
operator in Austria. Since 2001, the company
has been collaborating with an external wording
consultancy (called wortwelt), to develop mo-bilkom’s
corporate wording and align its commu-nication
with its strategic values. This case study
is about the wording project that mobilkom has
conducted over the last three years to improve
written communication with its customers. Clar-ity
in this context was improved by creating a
clear terminology that is aligned with the com-pany’s
brand values.
As is the case in many other countries, the mobile
phone market in Austria is highly competitive
and saturated. mobilkom austria (and its service
brand, “A1”) differentiates itself from competitors
through high-quality service. The A1 service strat-egy
has focused on developing customer service
as a value generator, with its highly skilled service
employees being a point of differentiation. While
this strategy initially focused on training people
who work in service lines and in shops, the focus
shifted to people who were not concerned with
talking, but rather with writing to customers.
Since 2001, mobilkom has conducted a number of
projects regarding its corporate wording. The main
objective of this initiative was to move mobilkom’s
writing culture towards a unique “A1 style.”
The wording project affected approximately 900
of the company’s total of 2000 employees. The
project was developed in cooperation with the
following departments: customer service and
sales, marketing, legal, e-business, business sales,
corporate communication, and residential sales.
The company decided to involve employees in
the entire process to strengthen the general in-volvement
and thereby support the project’s suc-cess.
Accordingly, between 15 and 20 of these de-partments’
employees were actively involved in
the project. The project targeted all kinds of texts,
including letters, faxes, emails, and fact sheets.
The project did not affect the communication of
back-office functions, such as communication
with suppliers or within the human resources
department.

44
The company defined four objectives for its
clear wording project. The first was to reinforce
customer orientation and the second was to re-duce
costs. To this end, management wanted to
be more proactive in its communication, giv-ing
customers the necessary information before
they even knew that they needed it. This was
able to significantly reduce costs given that the
number of customer inquiries coming in directly
contributes to the cost of a service call center.
Hence, costs can be reduced by being more cus-tomer-
oriented and by giving relevant and clear
information to the clients right from the start.
mobilkom’s third objective was to translate its
brand values into a “unique” language in order
to strengthen the A1 brand. The fourth and final
objective was for mobilkom to have a consistent
corporate language. This meant using the same
writing style in all of its communication, rang-ing
from product fact sheets all the way to the
general conditions and contract terms.
One of the greatest challenges of the wording
project was to make employees aware of the
need for and the benefits of such a project. It was
challenging to engage employees and motivate
them to change their own texts and writing hab-its
in order to align them to the new standards
The A1 brand values were at the center of the
clear wording project. External experts acted
as wording-coaches, meaning that they did not
rewrite the texts of mobilkom austria, but they
did support the employees during the revision
process.
The wording project went through four main
phases:
First phase: Text analysis
The consultants analyzed the company’s exist-ing
texts and compared them with the A1 values.
They looked for texts, words, or sentences which
did not fit with the brand values. The aim of this
first stage was to find specific examples for the
employees of what needed to change.
Second phase: Style finding workshops
The external consultants organized workshops at
which the representatives of the involved depart-ments
(such as legal, marketing, and customer
support) had to define the implications of the A1
values for their own wording. To do so, they first
described what these values meant for them, and
then what they meant for their texts. For exam-ple,
the brand value “quality” meant clear and
direct texts, active instead of passive, easy syn-tax,
etc. This phase laid the groundwork for an
A1 language.
Third phase: Training workshops in the different
departments
During this stage, each department met separate-ly
in order to define its own objectives. In addi-tion,
each department’s staff defined what each of
the A1 values meant for the achievement of their
department’s goals. It was necessary to conduct
workshop separately in different departments as
each departments had specific needs and targets.
For example, training workshops were signifi-cantly
different for marketing staff than for in-ternal
lawyers, due to the different types of texts
upon which each department focused.
Fourth phase: Text Coaching
At this stage, the employees had to rewrite their
texts. They rewrote standards briefs, factsheets,
and other texts, by applying the new wording
style and following the objectives that they had
established. This phase was often time-consum-

Case Studies
Figure 4: Key values of
mobilkom austria and
their implications for
clear wording
45
ing and energy-consuming. The involved em-ployees
had to rewrite the texts and send them for
review to the external wording consultants. After
the texts were checked, the consultancy sent them
back and offered advice about what needed to be
changed. The employees took the feedbacks into
account and rewrote the texts again. This process
was repeated until the texts matched the objec-tives
and the A1 wording style. A law firm sup-ported
the text coaching of the legal department
to ensure that the new texts were legally sound.
mobilkom austria also introduced a quality check
process. An internal “coach,” who was not neces-sarily
a manager, was responsible for the wording
quality of each department. These coaches con-trolled
the employees’ texts at random, checking
that the wording standards were being respected
or whether further wording training was required.
Alongside these coaches, wording trainers were
appointed so that mobilkom austria could train
its employees internally. Because it is not always
possible to change one’s language in only a few
months, follow-up workshops were also orga-nized
to support the employees in the long term.
The results of the project were printed and dis-tributed
to the employees in the form of an attrac-tive
“A1 Wording Handbook.” The handbook was
made available in three different versions, one for
each of the marketing, legal, and customer service
and sales departments. The handbooks are divid-ed
into two parts. The first part is the same for all
departments and contains the basic and formal
wording standards, such as abbreviations, sig-nature,
out-of-office email, and text layout. The
second part dealt with the wording specificities
of each business area.
The handbook describes the brand values and
their meaning for the wording of mobilkom aus-tria.
In addition, several examples were included
to concretize the new wording styles and rules.
Generally, each page contains one wording rule,
illustrated by one or more examples, showing
“before” (old texts) and “better” (texts how they
should be). The examples were selected from
existing texts from the first stage of the project
and from the text coaching stage. Consequently,
the mobilkom employees are able to understand
what the wording rules and the new standards
mean for their daily work and how they can ap-ply
them. All employees have access to the hand-book’s
content, both in paper format and on the
company’s intranet. Wording training based on
the book was added to the orientation program
for new employees. In addition to the handbook,
many new standards were adopted, such as in the

46
area of customer letters, in the internal informa-tion
system, on the website, and so on. All texts
were revamped to give them a clearer structure
and a shorter scope. The use of everyday lan-guage
made the texts easier to comprehend.
This initiative is informative in terms of the fric-tions
and challenges that a clear communica-tion
initiative may encounter. Undoubtedly, the
main challenge during the project was to change
employees’ mindsets about wording and clear
communication and to make them aware of the
need for and benefits from such a project. It was
essential to convince employees that the project
was vital to the company’s success. Furthermore,
employees had to understand that they each
had to make an effort to change their communi-cation
in order to achieve the company’s goals.
Most clear communication initiatives are likely
to face the same problem: convincing employees
that they are not already clear communicators. In
mobilkom’s case, shifting the mindset of the cor-porate
lawyers constituted a major challenge. At
first, the lawyers did not even understand why
they were being integrated into the wording pro-ject.
They felt that they were the company’s le-gal
army, protecting and defending it against the
“hostile outside.” They did not feel that they were
part of the customer service. Consequently, many
discussions were held during the style-finding
workshops before the legal staff understood
why they were involved in the project, and that
their contribution was crucial for the successful
development of the A1 wording. Also, during
later training workshops, the legal staff was not
always enthusiastic about clear communication.
They were sometimes motivated and ambitious,
while at other times they felt like they could not
change their language at all, as clarification was
not “serious enough,” and that no one would be-lieve
they had studied law to write in such plain
language. As a result, it was a continuous chal-lenge
for the external consultants and the project
managers to motivate these legal staff. However,
the lawyers did make the necessary changes and
succeeded in rewriting texts such as the General
Terms and Conditions in line with the A1 word-ing.
Unfortunately (but perhaps typical for cor-porate
contexts), their texts were not accepted
by Telekom Austria; when the two companies
merged, the old legal texts were brought back.
Another lesson learned regards collaboration
with external advertising and PR agencies. As
the wording of mobilkom austria changed, its
agencies had to adopt the new wording as well.
This created a number of conflicts, even though
the agencies were involved in the wording pro-ject
from the very beginning. The agencies found
it difficult to accept criticism and advice from
another agency (the wording consultants from
wortwelt). Effectively, these external agencies
considered clear communication skills to be
their core competence and did not see the need
to change their texts. The agencies interpreted
the new rules and wording style as meaning “we
know better than you how to do your job.” The
agencies reacted in two counterproductive ways:
They either argued for hours about why their
texts should not be changed, or they appeared to
agree with the wording style, but then did not ap-ply
it in their work for mobilkom. Subsequently,
the marketing department had to review each
agency’s material and re-work its texts with each
of them – an extremely labour-intensive process.
mobilkom austria’s eight-year-long wording ef-fort
had a major impact on the awareness of its
employees. Most employees who were actively
involved in the wording project became con-vinced
about the benefits of the A1 wording ap-proach.
Their own commitment motivated other

47
CLEAR elements Corresponding actions
Contextual Title sections in customer letters clearly indicate the context of the document.
Logical structure Letter templates, product sheets, and general conditions were re-formatted from essen-tially
flat texts to documents with a clearly visible structure and topic-focused paragraphs.
Essential The general terms and conditions were reduced to the bare minimum.
Ambiguity-free Vague and technocratic terms were systematically replaced by specific, common, everyday
words. Potentially ambiguous sentences were clarified through short examples.
Resonating Letters to customers always address the customer by name, state what has happened and
what it means, and list available options for action as well as contact possibilities.
applied to the mobilkom
austria case
employees to care about clarity. The use of the
new wording style also strengthened the A1 cul-ture
and the way in which employees wrote to
another. However, a constant and ongoing chal-lenge
has been keeping this style alive and re-newing
efforts regarding clear wording and com-munication.
Therefore, any clear communication
initiative should foresee measures to re-motivate
employees to manage clarity systematically.
Case Studies

The Complex to Clear
Challenge: Empirical Evidence
from three Surveys
48
cWhat evidence is there to support
the CLEAR formula?
The CLEAR elements presented in the previous
sections have been validated through three sur-veys:
a survey of 145 business students (most
with working experience) on clarity in complex
slide presentations; a survey on clarity in e-mail
messages answered by 97 students and manag-ers;
and a global on-line survey of 220 profes-sional
communicators regarding general clarity
in corporate communication. In total, 462 people
were surveyed regarding their views on clear
communication.
cWhat method did we use
and whom did we ask?
The survey on clarity in complex slide pres-entations
consisted of 41 closed questions and
six open questions, whereas the survey on clear
e-mail messages involved 44 closed questions
and six open questions. Both specifi c surveys
were developed using a fi ve-point Likert-scale
that measured either positive or negative re-sponses
to different statements related to clar-ity.
Respondents were asked about the effect that
a lack of clarity has on the audience/receiver,
as well as issues to be considered when using
presentation software and e-mail. Respondents
were also asked about effective mechanisms to
increase clarity. Both questionnaires were dis-tributed
manually with a short introduction
regarding the survey’s purpose. The study was
conducted at the University of St. Gallen and
at the University of Lugano. We asked students
and academics from different degree programs
and nationalities about their views on clarity in
knowledge-intensive, complex slide presenta-tion,
a subject that all respondents had extensive
experience with as students and course partici-pants.
The sample consists of third-year Italian
and Swiss bachelor’s degree students enrolled in
a program in corporate communication, master’s
students from the University St. Gallen and Lu-gano,
PhD students, as well as American and Ca-nadian
MBA students. The fi nal sample includes
145 completed questionnaires on presentation
clarity and 97 completed questionnaires on e-mail
clarity. The response rate for this sample
was 100 percent.
Figure 5: Items to be con-sidered
when presenting
clearly with PowerPoint-based
slide presentations
(listed by overall ranked
importance).
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Your main message / goal
Having a clear structure/slide sequence
Your speaking style
Including good visualizations / graphics
Involving the audience
Getting the timing right
The wording of text on the slides
The audience’s prior knowledge and needs
Having the right amount of slides

49
0.0
3.5
4.0
cWhat did we learn about clarity
in slide presentations?
The results indicate that our formula does indeed
tackle the relevant clarity drivers and provides
an easy-to-apply guideline to ensure clarity. We
believe that one of the most important points to
bear in mind is “concise content,” in the sense of
having a clear objective or goal when communi-cating
and focusing on the essential. The survey
results indicate that this is the most important
issue to consider in slide presentations (mean of
4.8 out of 5, see Figure 5). The survey partici-pants
evaluated “having a clear structure/slide
sequence” as the second most important issue,
with a mean of 4.4 out of 5 (see Figure 5). This
issue refers to the “L” of our clear formula, which
stands for “logical structure.”
A third element to consider for clear knowl-edge
communication is “your speaking style”
(mean=4.2; see Figure 5). This factor refers to “R”
for resonance in the CLEAR formula, in the sense
of being aligned with the needs, preferences, and
foreknowledge of the audience and therefore ad-dressing
the audience in the most appropriate
style.
The majority of respondents considered “too
much text on a slide” to be the most important
factor resulting in a lack of clarity in presenta-tions
(mean=4.3; see Figure 6), which refers to
the “E” element (“essential elements”). The sec-ond
highest ranking item was “unclear presen-tation
structure,” validating “L” (“logical struc-ture”).
The third highest ranked factor for clarity
(or lack thereof) concerned “the link between
speech and slides,” which corresponds to our
A=ambiguity-free dimension. This factor also re-lates
to our dimension of providing a clear con-text
for information, as contextualizing the slide
text is frequently the main function of orally pro-vided
slide comments. The fourth highest ranked
negative factor was “showing a slide too quick-ly,”
which means it was not ready or optimal for
its intended usage.
The qualitative part of the survey focused on
people’s general likes and dislikes regarding
clarity in presentations. The following quotes il-lustrate
what students like about presentations:
“I like it when they are filled with essential key-words
followed by verbal explanation.” “I like
slides that are clear, use keywords, and are thus
easy to understand.”
Figure 6: Items that negatively
affect clarity in PowerPoint-based
slide presentations (listed
by overall ranked importance).
0.5
1.0 1.5
2 .0
2.5
3.0
4.5
too much text on a single slide
unclear presentation structure
missing link between
presenter’s speech and slide text
slide shown too quickly
long phrases instead of keywords
inconsistent presentation style
too many slides in a presentation
lack of summary / conclusion slide
missing interaction with audience
lack of agenda/overview slide
distracting animations on slide
unfitting clipart or symbols
spelling errors
some slides not explained/skipped
bullet points instead of
explanations/relations among items
too little information per slide
no printed hand-outs
use of the same slide template
The Complex to Clear Challenge

50
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
training the presenter
rehearsing the presentation
watching great presentations
proof reading and style checking
feedback from friends
better presentation tools
On the other hand students dislike slide presen-tations
that are unclear: “I hate it if the slides are
not explained.” “I hate it when presentations are
too long and there is too much unexplained text
on one slide.”
A check question revealed that the participants
generally like slide presentations (mean=3.85).
A main argument for the CLEAR framework was
the premise that clear communication can be
learned or trained. This argument is supported
by the results of the survey (see Figure 7). The
most likely mechanism for achieving greater
clarity in oral presentations is considered to be
“training the presenter.” This is followed by “re-hearsing
the presentation,” which touches upon
the same idea; namely, professional training and
exercise of clear and concise communication.
Figure 7: Mechanisms
that positively affect clarity
in PowerPoint-based slide
presentations (listed by
overall ranked importance).
cWhat did we learn about clarity
in e-mail messages?
The results of the survey on clarity in e-mail
messages also indicate a fi t between our CLEAR
formula and the use of e-mails; accordingly, they
provide some issues to consider in written elec-tronic
conversations.
The highest ranked item to consider when writ-ing
a clear e-mail message was the statement
“consider your main message or goal,” with a
mean of 4.77 out of 5. When writing e-mails, one
of the most important factors to bear in mind is
to have a clear objective or goal when communi-cating
and a focus on the essential points. The
survey participants evaluated “having a clear
structure” as the second most important issue,
with a mean of 4.4 out of 5 (see Figure 8). This
Figure 8: Items to be
considered when writing
a clear e-mail message
importance).
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Your main message/go al
Having a clear structur e
The timing (e.g. immediat e)
The context (prior messa ge)
The right lenght of the message
Your writing style
Addressing the recipien t
Evaluate the urgency of the message
The choice of specific terms
One e-mail, one message
Attachments of the right size

51
issue refers to the “L” in the clear formula. This
result corresponds with the fi ndings of the sur-vey
on clear presentations, where logical struc-ture
again ranked second in importance.
A third issue to consider for a clear written e-mail
message is “timing” (with a mean of 3.9 out of 5,
see Figure 8). This refers to “R” for resonance in
the CLEAR formula, in the sense of being aligned
with the needs, preferences, and expectations of
the audience, and therefore addressing the audi-ence
in the most appropriate timing.
When asked for the most negative impact on clar-ity
in e-mail messages, our respondents ranked
four issues as the most relevant (see Figure 9):
>>Missing text structure (mean=3.84)
>>Unstated/unclear implications (mean=3.77)
>>Very long e-mail message text (mean=3.77)
>>Missing coherence with former messages
(mean=3.75)
While the most negative effect refers to the “L”
in the CLEAR formula (logical structure), the
second highest ranked item was “unclear im-plications,”
which applies to the “C” in CLEAR;
namely, the contextual meaning of a message.
Another factor that gained the same ranking,
with a mean of 3.77, was “very long e-mails,”
which corresponds to the “E” (essential) dimen-sion
in the sense of focusing closely on the most
important elements in your message. The fourth
factor for clarity (or lack thereof) was “missing
coherence with former message.” This factor
relates to acknowledging the audience’s fore-knowledge,
as the main function of an ongoing
e-mail conversation is often to contextualize the
e-mail text.
The qualitative part of the survey focused on
participants’ general likes and dislikes regard-ing
clarity in e-mails. The following quotes illus-trate
what today’s workforce likes about e-mail
messages: “I like clear, effi cient e-mails which
come straight to the point.” “What I like about
e-mails is the possibility of having information
on time.”
Figure 9: Items that
negatively affect clarity
in e-mail messages
importance).
Missing text structure
Unstated/unclear implications
Very long e-mail message text
Missing coherence with former messsages
Emotional/aggressive style
Missing context (prior message)
Missing subject header
Unspecified subject header
Inappropriate format (e.g. for
discussion, solution of conflicts)
Unstated/unclear target group/address
Too many topics in one email
Too large attachments
Use of ambiguous terms in
e-mail text, such as "soon", "important"
Incorrect wording
(slang, pidgin, language)
Misleading urgency flag
Unknown persons on copy
Very short/elliptic message
.00
1.50
2.00
.50
1.00
3.50
4.00
2.50
3.00
Impersonal style of message

52
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
proof reading and style checking (reviewing)
Reading good examples
Frequent use of e-mail
Define your own style
Using templates
By contrast, managers and students dislike e-mail
messages when they are unfocused and am-biguous:
“I hate long e-mails with no clear issue/
goal.” “I hate if there are too many recipients or
blind copies.”
The majority of survey participants (mean: 3.71
out of 5) gave a positive response to the ques-tion,
“Do you generally like to write and receive
e-mails?”
The survey on clarity of e-mail conversations was
also interested in applicable behavior for turning
knowledge about clarity into action. The survey
asked about the positive effects on writing style
to design clear e-mails that reach the receiver and
lead to intended action. The most likely mecha-nism
for achieving more clarity in written e-mail
conversation is considered to be “proofreading
and style-checking (reviewing),” with a mean of
4.05 out of 5 (see Figure 10). The second high-est
ranking mechanism for improving clarity is
“reading good examples” (mean=3.89), a mecha-nism
that hits upon the same idea; namely, pro-fessional
training and exercise of clear and con-cise
communication.
cWhat can we learn from professional
corporate communicators about
clarity in corporate communication?
This third survey asked corporate communica-tors
of large organizations around the world about
their views on how to communicate complex is-sues
clearly to different stakeholders. The issue of
Figure 10: Mechanisms
that positively affect
clarity in e-mail messages
importance).
making the complex clear has become increasing-ly
important in today’s business, especially with
the advent of social media channels. Therefore,
clear communication is defi ned in this context
as messages that are easy to understand because
they are contextualized, logically structured, fo-cused
on essential content, free of ambiguous
terms, and create resonance with their audience.
The results of this survey not only indicate the
importance of the topic per se (almost 60 percent
of the communicators who answered presently
prepare or conduct projects on clear communica-tion
in their organization), but also demonstrate
the importance of reviewing and collaborative
communication work. Therefore, a “quick clarity
check by a reviewer for every message” was high-ly
ranked as a factor that helps increase clarity.
What method did we apply and whom did we ask?
The “clarity in corporate communication” sur-vey
consisted of 64 quantitative questions and
10 qualitative questions. The questionnaire was
developed using a fi ve-point Likert-scale that
measured positive or negative responses to vari-ous
statements related to clarity in corporate
communication, the effect of unclearness on the
audience/receiver, issues to be considered when
using avenues such as social media, and strate-gies
to increase clarity. The questionnaire was ac-cessible
online, which made it possible to reach
a worldwide audience of corporate communica-tors.
In total, 220 completed questionnaires were
returned. Figure 11 shows the professional fi elds
of the participants.
Reading a book about e-mail messages

53
How do corporate communicators
make complex messages clear?
The qualitative part of the survey asked the pro-fessional
corporate communicators if they know
of any proven practices for increasing the clarity
of corporate communication messages. Some of
the responses include:
>> “Treat messaging like you would treat a cold:
Act early, repeat often and continue layering
right through to the end.”
>> “The clarity relies on the skills of the commu-nicator
– the ability to analyze what is impor-tant
for whom and what the essential points are.
Tools are not the answer; training for communi-cators
is.”
>> “Hire communicators with a journalistic back-ground.”
>> “Employ excellent writers who are not afraid
to challenge senior executives on the clarity of
their messages.”
>> “Establish a charter between senior executives
and editorial staff which gives the last word on
wording to those who write for a living.”
>> “Teach people about how to manage their emo-tions
and make them conscious that we essen-tially
communicate emotions.”
It is important to highlight the personal side of
communication, which would refer to “resonat-ing”
in the CLEAR formula. This means keeping
the audience in mind and formulating your mes-sages
in a “picturesque” way so that the reader
will enjoy the message.
General Corporate Communication
Employee communications / internal
communication
Public Relations
Not primarily communication related
Strategy/staff function
Marketing
Media (incl. press) Relations
Social Media
HR/Training
Sales
Figure 11: Professional
backgrounds of
the survey respondents.

54
0 1 2 3 4 5
Internal change communication
External crisis communication
External Risk communication
Internal strategy communication
Internal crisis communication
Internal risk communication
External product and services communication
Employee communications in general
What are the challenges of corporate
communication and possible solutions?
The most diffi cult topics for corporate commu-nicators
to convey are “internal change com-munication”
(with a mean of 3.44 out of 5) and
“external crisis communication” (with a mean of
3.34 out of 5) (see Figure 12). Both topics involve
not only complexity, but are closely related with
issues of uncertainty, and the uncertainty con-nected
with change and crisis communication
often refers to expected losses. Therefore, most
people react negatively towards change or crisis
messages, which makes the communication dif-fi
cult.
Apart from the topic and its complexity, other
problems cause confusion in corporate messag-es.
According to survey participants, the follow-ing
three reasons were the biggest clarity killers:
>>Making a message too complex by putting too
many information pieces in it (mean=3.61)
>> Involving too many people the creation of a doc-ument/
message/communication (mean=3.36)
Figure 12: Areas with
complex messages to com-municate
(listed by overall
ranked importance).
>>Making too many changes to a document over
time, leading to inconsistencies and making
the document too complex (mean=3.36)
We also asked the survey participants what
factor would be most helpful in terms of in-creasing
the clarity of their messages. The two
highest ranking factors were “good templates”
(mean=3.13) and “a quick clarity check by a re-viewer”
(mean=3.09). Chapter two of this study
proposed a short diagnostic test that communi-cators
can use to evaluate messages and their
clarity. This is not a substitute for having a pro-fessional
colleague read your message, but it
does offer some initial feedback regarding the
clarity of the message.
Some additional remarks on this topic from sur-vey
participants include:
>>Greater understanding of stakeholders would
be very helpful
>> Examples of poor communications rewritten
to improve clarity
>>Cross-department/cross-level conversations
Product-and service-related communication

55
The survey participants ranked the following fac-tors
as the most important benefi ts of clear, un-derstandable
communication:
>>Help people understand our message more
quickly (mean=3.68)
>>Help people remember our message better
(mean=3.59)
Figure 13 lists all of the benefi ts in terms of their
overall ranked importance.
Another question in the survey was, “Which fac-tor
has the greatest impact on making a message
clearer to your recipients?” The factor that had the
greatest impact seems to be “unambiguous termi-nology”
(mean=3.71); which is represented by the
A in the CLEAR formula. This involves using clear
and simple language, formulating the message ac-tively
and positively, and trying to avoid words
that can be interpreted in different ways. The sec-ond
factor with the greatest impact was “focusing
your message on the essential and leaving out un-necessary
details” (mean=3.65). This item, which
represents “E” (essential) in the CLEAR formula,
has already been accentuated by Langer, Thun
and Tausch in their “Hamburg Model of Compre-hensibility”
(1974) as one of the most important
and useful factors for making a text clear. Finally,
the survey asked participants in which domain
they would target their next clear communication
project within their organization. “Strategy com-munication”
(mean=3.42) and “employee com-munication”
(mean=3.35) were the two topics
that communicators identifi ed as target areas.
Does social media help to communicate clearly
in corporate contexts?
The answer to this question from survey partici-pants
and communication professionals was a
clear “no.” While they found Twitter and Face-book
to be the two most challenging communi-cation
formats in terms of conveying a complex
message, they also felt that the best channels for
achieving this are “personal conversation, face to
Figure 13: Benefi ts to
be attributed to investing
resources in clearer
communication.
.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
help people understand our message more quickly
help people remember our messages better
contribute to our positive reputation
get more response to my messages
get more attention for my messages
avoid costly misunderstandings
differentiate us from our competitors
increase sales
reduce costs

56
face” (mean=3.84) and “personal telephone con-versation”
(mean=3.15). Communicators judged
Twitter to be the least suitable channel for com-plex
messages, even if a Twitter message could at
least provide a link towards a clear explanation.
cDo these surveys correspond with
previous studies?
The results of the “clear slide presentation” sur-vey
correspond with the findings of a study by
Zenthöfer (2008) on the clarity and appropriate-ness
of slide presentations. He concluded that
PowerPoint presentations are best suited to giv-ing
your talk a structure. Showing correspond-ing
pictures and figures while you are talking al-lows
the audience to follow your thoughts with
the same structure as it was intended to have.
Zenthöfer also noted that slide presentations are
not intended for documentation, reporting, proto-col,
art, or for impressing clients.
Previous studies also support our findings on
clear e-mail messages. In DeKay’s (2010) case
study, structure was one of the most important
clarity factors in e-mail messages, as it serves
“to stylize information by lending credibility to
the document, creating emphasis, and register-ing
an appropriate tone of voice” (DeKay, 2010:
114). Structure in e-mails implies elements such
as titles, headings, paragraph breaks, and bulleted
lists. Leaving design issues aside, DeKay found
that colorful text failed to engage readers. There-fore,
our advice to managers for writing clear e-mail
messages is to keep them simple and well
structured. Dan Pallotta argued the same in his
Harvard Business Review article. He said, “Less
is more. Don’t get fancy, don’t overdo anything.
Simplicity and power are not mutually exclusive.
They are often one and the same” (Pallotta, hbr.
org, 2011).
A large-scale international study on corporate
communication regarding reputation manage-ment
was carried out in the aftermath of the
Enron collapse (Laurence, 2004). The study
stressed the importance of putting the corporate
communicators in the right place (or into the
right structure). Our survey also received hints
on the importance of connecting communicators
with senior executives for a better internal un-derstanding
of the role of clear communication.
cWhat are the main implications of
the three surveys?
The conclusions we have reached from our three
surveys on clarity in managerial and corporate
communication are as follows:
1. Clarity is an urgent and often unresolved
topic, especially when it comes to complex
issues
2. Many organizations have started to address
this challenge through dedicated projects
3. Communicators need and request effective
tools such as checklists, diagnostic tests, and
templates
4. Examples of clear communication help com-municators
improve their communication
5. Clear communication can be trained and
learned.
6. The CLEAR elements correspond to the key
requirements of clear communication; for ex-ample,
in presentations or e-mail messages.

57
Conclusion:
An Agenda for Clear Corporate
Communication
More important than the quest
for certainty is the quest for clarity.
Francois Gautier
cWhat is needed in order to achieve
clear communication?
As this study has shown, communicating com-plex
messages in a clear manner is not simply a
writing or speaking challenge. It is also a man-agement
problem. Consistently communicating
complex topics in a simple manner requires more
than just talent; it requires a method.
This report has attempted to present such a meth-od.
Our approach has been based on a literature
review, multiple case studies, and three surveys,
as well as numerous expert interviews and focus
group discussions.
The cornerstones of the CLEAR method are the
factors that make a message overly complex (as
captured in the COMPLEX acronym), a set of
easily identifiable clarity problem patterns (and
corresponding remedies), the CLEAR criteria for
checking the clarity of a message, and the START-ER
elements that can help institutionalize clear
communication within an organization. The ap-pendix
to this study provides several directly ap-plicable
tools based on this approach, including
a poster, card set, diagnostic test, pop quiz, and
decision table. The appendix also includes a list
of articles and books on the topic. Most of the ex-isting
publications and resources on the subject
of clear communication reduce the topic to good
writing and information design. By contrast, this
study has shown that unclear communication is
often the result of unclear objectives, ill-aligned
processes, and fuzzy roles or responsibilities. It
is difficult to convey clear strategy, change, or
crisis messages without having systematic, well
thought out communication processes in place.
Therefore, clarity in organizing must precede
clarity in communication. Nevertheless, commu-nicators
must also educate their colleagues about
the basics of writing, speaking, and visualizing
clearly. Communicating complex topics should
become part of the media literacy of today’s com-municators.
In doing so, habits such as using sim-ple
words or writing in short, positive, and active
sentences should become second nature to all
communicators. Communicators should also be-come
aware of the importance of communicating
with a human touch and embracing story-telling,
as well as visualization, whenever possible.
c
Where can you start?
Any study that strives to tackle such a broad topic
in a reasonably comprehensive manner may leave
readers wondering where to start. We suggest the
following practical next steps to improve clarity
in your working context:
>> Firstly, identify one area in which you are regu-larly
required to convey complex and influen-tial
messages. Examples of this could may be
letters to customers, information for investors,
press releases, or change management.
>> Secondly, review your communication in that
area using the COMPLEX and CLEAR ele-ments,
as well as the clarity problem patterns.
Where can you identify improvement opportu-nities?
Which clarity-related challenges can be
overcome quickly and easily and which ones
require more sustained efforts? Prioritize your
clarity challenges.
>>Thirdly, use one or more of the STARTER ele-ments,
such as an afternoon training session or
a set of good and bad examples, to systemati-

58
cally improve the clarity of the communicated
messages in that area. Hold a two-hour clarity
pilot training, write a two-page guide to clear
communication in that area, or conduct a mini-survey
on the current level of clarity. Test the
water for clarity activities in your organization.
>>Next, work systematically with your colleagues
to improve the clarity of influential messages
in this particular area. In doing so, pay atten-tion
to the co-ordination mechanisms, roles,
and processes. Are they conducive to clarity or
do they impede it? As you go along, try to fine
tune the steps used to create messages so that
they don’t become an obstacle to clear commu-nication.
>> Finally, solicit feedback on improved messages
and monitor improvements. Document posi-tive
feedback to improved messages and use
them as a business case for clearer communica-tion
vis-à-vis your senior management.
This quest for clarity is an ongoing journey, not
a one-off event. Based on the feedback you col-lect,
you may need to devise further actions or
refine your approach. Having improved one area
of communication, you may decide to tackle an-other.
Whatever route you take, we wish you the
best of luck in your journey to clearer communi-cation.

59
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Appendix
Figure 14: Guidelines
for clear communica-tion
(Clarity Poster).
Guidelines for Clear Communication
C ontext Indicate purpose, relevance, audience
L ogical Structure Explicit parts/sequence/organization
E ssential and Easy Focused topic, short phrases, familiar terms
A mbiguity-free Specifi c or defi ned terms; few pronouns
R esonating Illustrative examples, graphics, engaging style,
Positive and active sentence format
Think
Develop
Clear E-mail: informative subject header – personal opening – one topic per
e-mail – reference to previous message – list needed actions – less than one
screen long – no cc‘s.
Clear Presentation: reduced to the max – provide overview – combined with
fl ipchart – align talk & slide – provide stimulating visuals – <7 points/slide
Clear Social Media: catchy headline – timely topic – avoid marketing terms –
provide full hyperlink – end with call to comment, rate or answer
Clear Talk: question or anecdote – overview – main point – few, simple examples
or illustrations – implications – summary/call to action
Clear Diagram: informative caption/title – simple, explicit structure –
explanatory labels – respect Gestalt laws: proximity, similarity, closure, symmetry,
fi gure-ground – use few colors/cliparts/animations/3D effects
Check
Don’t
✘ Use passive, negative sentences that
are hard to decode by the audience.
✘ Use long relative clauses, which cause
confusion and dillute attention.
✘ Use foreign idioms, vague concepts,
idiosyncracies or acronyms.
✘ Overload diagrams with 3D, clipart,
colors or too many (undefi ned) items.
Do
✔ Be positive and active.
✔ Address the audience.
✔ Use informative titles.
✔ Use paragraphs & layout.
✔ Distinguish facts from actions
✔ State implications.
✔ Use simple visual metaphors.

62
c How to Communicate Clearly:
A Checklist for Managers
and Corporate Communicators
Busy corporate communication professionals
need to convey increasingly complex messages
to various target groups (which could be dis-tracted,
biased, or indifferent) under great time
pressure. Therefore, it is essential not to lose
sight of the critical elements that make a mes-sage
clear for its audience.
In order to communicate clearly, a communica-tor
must remember the five key elements sum-marized
in the CLEAR acronym. Clear com-munication
clarifies its Context, has a Logical
structure, focuses on Essential elements, con-sists
of Ambiguity-free terms, and Resonates
with its audience.
C is for Context
Provide an upfront positioning; don’t jump
in.
The first element of communicating clearly
is to briefly explain the context of your mes-sage:
Why has it been written (purpose),
when (date), for whom (target group) and
– if necessary – what has come before it
(background)?
Example: A clear report begins with a con-text
section that describes the report’s ra-tionale
and purpose and positions it among
related reports. A good e-mail relates to the
context of previous messages.
L is for Logical Structure
Give the message a logical structure; don’t
just ramble on.
Any kind of complex communication must
be made digestible by giving it an easily ac-cessible,
systematic, and explicit structure.
Clarity Check Questions Check Have you analyzed the needs, foreknowledge,
and preferences of your target audience?
Yes
Do you know your main message and what
you want the audience to know/do/think
based on your communication?
Is the context of your communication clear
at a glance (authors, purpose, date, target
group, etc.)?
Have you structured your communication
logically and in a way that is instantly visible
and understandable?
Have you focused your communication on
the most essential elements and avoided
unnecessary points?
Have you used terms and expressions that
can only be understood in one (correct) way?
Does your communication motivate the
target group to look at it?
Your communication should now be clear. Use templates to ensure a consistent, logi-cal,
and simple structure.
Example: A good structure for an e-mail
message, report, or business presentation is
the SPIN structure (Situation, Problem, Im-plications,
and Next steps).
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No

63
E is for Essential
Cut out unnecessary elements; don’t devi-ate
from the main message.
Especially in written communication, such
as e-mails or reports but also in slide pre-sentations,
we of know what we really
wanted to say once we have already written
it up. Therefore, rewriting and eliminating
non-essential parts is an important step to
making your communication clearer.
Example: Eliminate every second slide from
your next slide presentation. Rewrite and
shorten an e-mail message to focus it on the
needs of the recipient. Provide an executive
summary for long documents.
A is for Ambiguity-free
Choose specific, clearly defined and famil-iar
words; avoid vague terms.
Whenever possible, try to use simple terms
that you know all recipients will under-stand
in the same way. If that is not pos-sible,
provide concise definitions in paren-theses
or at the end of a document.
Example: Avoid terms such as “soon,”
“costly,” “someone,” “quality,” “better,” or
“in one of your last e-mails.”
R is for Resonance
Provide stimulating elements that resonate
with the audience; don’t make your mes-sage
dull.
Your messages are better understood if peo-ple
are motivated to read or watch them.
In order to encourage your audience to pay
close attention to your communication, ad-dress
them directly and personally, offer
illustrative examples and stories early on,
and work with fitting analogies or meta-phors.
Example: Begin presentations with a ques-tion
or anecdote that you think your audi-ence
would be interested in or is connected
to the topic. In a report, avoid empty con-cept
nouns and replace them with specific
examples or illustrative stories or instruc-tive
diagrams.
Improvement Actions
Interview members of your audience regarding their information
needs and expectations and their previous insights into the topic.
Check typical prior communications to the target group in terms of
their style, scope, level of complexity, etc.
Write a one-sentence paragraph for yourself that outlines the main
objective of your communication.
Align all of your communication to that single objective.
Frontload your communication with contextual cues, such as author,
affiliation, date, purpose.
If useful, provide an appendix with contextual background information.
Analyze your communication in terms of its main content chunks.
What groups are there?
Allocate these chunks into a logical sequence, moving from overview to
detail.
Review your communication again and eliminate elements that can be
left out without affecting comprehensibility.
Screen and delete distracting deviations or unnecessary detailed infor-mation.
Check your communication for ambiguous terms or expressions and
replace them with more specific, clear-cut expressions.
Provide brief definitions or a short glossary to clarify any ambiguous or
abstract terms that you have used.
Address the members of your target group directly and highlight the
benefits that the communication has for them.
Make your communication attractive by leaving adequate white
space and paying attention to contrast (bigger = more important) and
alignment. If possible, include an illustrative image (such as a photo,
diagram, or metaphor).
If possible, pre-test your communication with members of the target
group and incorporate their feedback.
Table 9: Clarity check questions
and improvement actions.
Appendix

64
Clear Communication Basics: A Self-Test
This simple self-test can be used to quickly as-sess
your own clarity readiness.
Do you know the basics of clear communication?
Find out by answering the 10 true or false ques-tions.
Did you get seven or more questions right?
If you got seven or more questions correct, this
means you probably have a good personal clarity
readiness and that you are aware of the drivers of
clear written communication.
Statement True False
You should generally write like you talk, as this leads to simpler, easier sentences.
Negatively stated sentences are easier to understand than positive ones (for example,
“this announcement is not confidential” as opposed to “this announcement is
for everyone”).
Addressing your audience (e.g., “you should know”) instead of using an impersonal
style (e.g., “one should know”) causes distraction and should be avoided.
Providing (varied) examples usually makes communication clearer.
Nouns (things such as a “statement”) are easier to grasp than verbs (activities
such as “informing”)
Using paragraphs to structure a text makes its content harder to understand.
Titles should give a summary or a “so what” statement about the section beneath it.
Subordinate (or nested) sentences and pronouns make text much harder to under-stand.
It’s better to avoid them.
Most diagrams or illustrations do not need a caption and can be understood by
themselves or by reading about them in the text.
Many problems of unclear corporate communication stem from organizational rea-sons
(such as too many authors, too many revisions by different people, too many
divergent interests, etc.)
Figure 15: How to communicate
clearly: a Checklist for
Corporate Communicators
Solution:
(1) T (2) F (3) F (4) T (5) F (6) F (7) T (8) T (9) F (10) T

65
Avoid COMPLEX messages
Complicated Use short and familiar words or phrases
in the active and positive form. Avoid
jargon.
Overloaded Stick to a maximum of seven messages
per communication.
Messy Give your message a visible structure.
Categorize lists of items into logical
chunks.
Polysemic: Use unambiguous terms or defi ne them.
Linked Keep readers focused on your text. Avoid
providing too many distracting links.
Ever-changing: Use a consistent format and structure.
X-tra Avoid unnecessary elements.
Figure 16: Complex
to clear memory cards.
Make your message CLEAR
Context Have I indicated the purpose and audi-ence?
Logical structure Have I organized my content in an
obvious way that is accessible to the
target group(s)?
Essential Have I focused my message on the essen-tial
parts? Is there an overview?
Ambiguity-free Have I used specifi c terms and explained
vague words or abbreviations?
Resonating Have I used examples and action items
that people can relate to and which
stimulate a desired action/response? Is
my message ready to use?
Appendix

66
Clear Communication Check: diagnose your message
with these five check questions
– Version for writers –
1. Context: At the beginning of this communication,
is there any indication why the communication is
important (purpose) and for whom?
communication context clearly given upfront
2. Logic structure: ls there a clearly visible, easy-to-grasp
structure to this communication?
3. Essential content: Are there parts to this com-munication
that are not essential and could be
left out?
4. Ambiguity-free: Are there any terms used in the
communication that are ambiguous, unclear, or
otherwise difficult to interpret?
no ambiguous terms
5. Resonance: Does the communication provide
useful illustrations to create resonance with the
audience?
Clear Communication Check: let your readers rate
your message with these five check questions
– Version for readers –
1. Was it clear to you why this message was
sent to you?
communication context clearly given upfront
2. Did you understand the structure of this message?
3. Are there parts to this message that are not es-sential
and could be left out?
4. Are there any terms used in the communication
that are ambiguous, undear, or otherwise difficult
to interpret for you?
no ambiguous terms
5. Does the communication provide useful illustra-tions
to create resonance with you?
Figure 17: Clear
communication check for
writers and readers.

67
c
About the Authors
Martin J. Eppler, PhD
Martin Eppler is a full profes-sor
of communications man-agement
at the University
of St. Gallen (HSG), where
he teaches global business
communication. He is also
the managing director of the
=mcm institute for media and communication
management. Professor Eppler conducts research
on managerial and organizational communica-tion,
communications management, and visuali-zation.
He has been a guest professor at a number
of universities in Asia, South America, and Eu-rope
and an advisor to organizations such as the
United Nations, Philips, UBS, the Swiss Military,
Ernst & Young, Swiss Re, Daimler or BMW. He
studied communications and business adminis-tration
at Boston University, the Paris Graduate
School of Management, and the Universities of
Geneva (PhD summa cum laude) and St. Gallen
(Masters, Steinacher prize). He has published 11
books and more than 100 academic papers, and
his research has been featured in magazines such
as Businessweek and Harvard Business Review.
He is the inventor of the visual communication
and presentation software lets-focus and the visu-alization
portal www.visual-literacy.org. He can
be contacted at martin.eppler@unisg.ch.
Nicole Bischof, lic.rer.nat.
Nicole Bischof is a communi-cations
researcher and senior
project head at the Univer-sity
of St. Gallen (HSG). Her
interdisciplinary research fo-cuses
on communication and
knowledge transfer between
science and practice. Educated as a natural sci-entist
in Cologne and Gothenburg, Nicole holds a
BA and a MSc in Geography from the University
of Cologne. After seven years as a researcher at
the ETH’s Institute for Snow and Avalanche Re-search,
and as manager of numerous national and
international research projects, Nicole shifted her
focus and career towards communications man-agement.
She holds a degree in communications
management from Constance, and is currently
finishing her PhD in management. Nicole current-ly
works as a personal communication consultant
for national and international academic institu-tions.
Nicole can be contacted at nicole.bischof@
unisg.ch.
About the =mcm institute
The Institute for Media and Communication Man-agement
(=mcm institute) is an internationally
recognized research, qualification, and consult-ing
center for media and communications man-agement,
as well as for culture and media. The in-stitute
helps students, researchers, and decision
makers in business and society meet the chal-lenges
of the digital age from a communications
perspective and with a strategic focus. The =mcm
institute is one of 30 institutes at the University of
St. Gallen (HSG), one of the highest-ranked busi-ness
schools in Europe.
Appendix

Managing clarity in corporate communication

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