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Memory
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- 3. DefinitionDefinition • “Memory isthe process of maintaining information over time.” (Matlin, 2005) • “Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999). Three processes are involved in memory • encoding, • storage, • retrieval
- 4. EncodingEncoding • Processing informationinto memory is called encoding • There are several different ways of encoding verbal information: Structural encoding focuses on what words look like. Phonemic encoding focuses on how words sound. Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning of words
- 5. Storage • After informationenters the brain, it has to be stored or maintained • three-stage model proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. • According to this model, information is stored sequentially in three memory systems • sensory memory, • short-term memory,
- 6. Retrieval • Retrieval isthe process of getting information out of memory. • Retrieval cues are stimuli that help the process of retrieval. Retrieval cues include –associations, –context, –and mood
- 7. Sensory MemorySensory Memory •Sensory memory stores incoming sensory information in detail but only for an instant. The capacity of sensory memory is very large, but the information in it is unprocessed.
- 8. • Visual sensorymemory is called iconic memory. Auditory sensory memory is called echoic memory.
- 9. Short-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory •Some of the information in sensory memory transfers to short-term memory, which can hold information for approximately twenty seconds.
- 10. Short-term memoryhas a limited capacity. it can store about seven pieces of information, plus or minus two pieces. A method called chunking can help to increase the capacity of short-term memory. Chunking combines small bits of information into bigger, familiar pieces. Cont…Cont…
- 11. Working MemoryWorking Memory •Psychologists today consider short-term memory to be a working memory. Rather than being just a temporary information storage system, working memory is an active system.
- 12. Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory •Information can be transferred from short- term memory to long-term memory and from long-term memory back to short-term memory.
- 14. ForgettingForgetting Forgetting refers tothe loss of information that was previously stored in our memory. Example: If you can’t recall your 6th grade teacher name…
- 15. Forgetting CurveForgetting Curve Aforgetting curve is a graph that shows how quickly learned information is forgotten over time. Ebbinghaus made use of forgetting curves to chart his research on memory.
- 16. Measures of forgettingMeasuresof forgetting Researchers measure forgetting and retention in three different ways: • Recall • Recognition • Relearning
- 17. RecallRecall Recall is rememberingwithout any external cues. For example, essay questions test recall of knowledge because nothing on a blank sheet of paper will jog the memory.
- 18. RecognitionRecognition Recognition is identifyinglearned information using external cues. For example, true or false questions. In general, recognition is easier than recall.
- 19. RelearningRelearning When using therelearning method to measure retention, a researcher might ask a subject to memorize a long grocery list.
- 20. Causes of forgettingCausesof forgetting Everyone forgets things. There are six main reasons for forgetting: • ineffective encoding, • decay, • interference, • retrieval failure, • motivated forgetting, • physical injury or trauma.
- 21. Methods to ImproveMemory • In addition, memory can be enhanced in a variety of ways, including rehearsal, overlearning, distributed practice, minimizing interference, deep processing, organizing information, mnemonic devices, and visual imagery.
- 22. Rehearsal • Practicing materialhelps people remember it. The more people rehearse information, the more likely they are to remember that information.
- 23. Overlearning • Overlearning, orcontinuing to practice material even after it is learned, also increases retention.
- 24. Distributed Practice • Learningmaterial in short sessions over a long period is called distributed practice or the “spacing effect.” This process is the opposite of cramming, which is also called massed practice. Distributed practice is more effective than cramming for retaining information.
- 25. Minimizing Interference • Oneway to minimize interference is to sleep after studying material, since people can’t learn new material while sleeping.
- 26. Deep Processing • Oneway to process information deeply is to use a method called elaboration. • . Elaboration involves associating the material being learned with other material. • . For example, people could associate the new material with previously learned material, or with a movie they recently saw.
- 27. Organizing Material • Organizingmaterial hierarchically or in categories and subcategories can be particularly helpful. • Chunking material into segments is also helpful.
- 29. Mnemonics • Mnemonics are strategies for improving memory. Different kinds of mnemonics include • acronyms, • acrostics, • the narrative method, • and rhymes.
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- 31. Narrative methods • Narrativemethods involve making up a story to remember a list of words. Rhymes Rhymes are also good mnemonics. For example, the familiar rhyme that begins, “Thirty days has September . . .” is a mnemonic for remembering the number of days in each month.
- 32. • Visual Imagery Some well-known memory improvement methods involve using visual imagery to memorize or recall lists TheLink Method: to use this method people associate items on a list with each other. For example, if a man wants to remember to buy bread, juice, and carrots at the store, he might try visualizing the peculiar image of himself eating a juice-and-bread mush using carrots as chopsticks.
- 33. Peg Word Method •When using the peg word method, people first remember a rhyme that associates numbers with words: one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is heaven, eight is a gate, nine is swine, and ten is a hen. They then visualize each item on their list being associated.
Editor's Notes
- #28 Ex. Perception