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Metal Art of Chola Period
The document discusses the metal art of the Chola period (c. 850-1250 CE), highlighting its historical significance as a golden age of Tamil history marked by military, economic, and cultural expansion. It details the exquisite bronze sculptures and temples commissioned by Chola rulers, emphasizing their religious and political importance, and the techniques used for bronze casting. Notable artistic influences and symbolism in the Chola bronzes, such as depictions of deities like Shiva and Parvati, are also explored, illustrating the evolution and uniqueness of Chola art.
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Metal Art of Chola Period
- 1. Metal Art ofChola Period ( c.850-1250 CE) The Golden Age of Tamil History Sachin Kr. Tiwary
- 3. Map showing theextent of the Chola empire during Rajendra Chola I (c. 1030 CE) Map Showing Extension of Chola Empire out of todays India boundary,
- 4. Historical Background • Oneof the longest-ruling dynasties in the world's history, • Earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from the c.300 BCE left by Ashoka (Major Edict No.13), • Heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri river, • Under Rajednra Chola-I & his successors Rajendra Chola-I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajednra Chola & Kulothunga Chola-I, the dynasty became a military, economic & cultural power in South- Asia & South-East Asia, • At the beginning Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas & Pallavas, • Huen-tsang, who spent several months in Kanchi during 639– 640 CE writes about the "kingdom of Culi-ya", in an apparent reference to these Cholas, • Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty who was the feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty & Pallava dynasty in c. 850, captured Tanjavur from Muttarayar & established the dynasty, • Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty. Statue of Rajaraja Chola at the Brihadiswara Temple, Thanjavur
- 5. Introduction- • At least300 stone temples were built during Chola Period. • Its monarchs extended their dominion into Sri Lanka and the nearby Maldive Islands, maintained regular contact with Java, and sent diplomatic missions to Myanmar (Burma), Malaysia, and China. • Enlightened patrons of the arts, Chola rulers commissioned elegant sculptures and dedicated majestic temples to Hindu deities in order to proclaim the power, wealth, and piety of the Chola dynasty. • After the decline of the Pallavas in Tamil Nadu, the Cholas emerged as a triumphant power. Everyone knows that they were responsible for the erection of number of temples in Tamil Nadu. • Rajaraja I has constructed a Siva temple at Polanuruva in Srilanka in the same pattern of Chola architecture. • His son Rajendran I conducted eastern expeditions in order to stabilize the trade between Tamil Nadu and far flung countries of South East Asia. • The temple of Angorwat in Combodia was born out of commerce and conquest. • Chola bronzes are few intricate ornament in comparison with the subsequent bronzes of the Vijayanagar & Nayaka period. • There is gentle grace, a restrained and quiet elegance, an ethereal, out-worldly beauty, and above all else - a life that throbs and pulsates and thereby enlivens the bronze sculpture.
- 6. • Large bronzeimages were created to be carried outside the temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals. • The round lugs and holes found on the bases of many of these sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy images. • The deities in bronze who participated in such festivities were sumptuously clothed and decorated with precious jewelry. • Although bronze casting has a long history in south India, a much larger and a much greater number of bronze sculptures in all sizes ranging from massive to miniature were cast during the Chola period than before, further attesting to the importance of bronze sculpture during this period. • Decorating temple bronzes in this way is a tradition at least a thousand years old and such decorations are referred to in 10th-century Chola inscriptions. • Though Cholas art evolved out of Pallava & early Pandyian forms it has certain characteristic of its own which as yet has not been sufficiently studied by scholars. Introduction:
- 7. Books Temple art underthe Chola queens by Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman Early Chōl̤a art: origin and emergence of style by Rama Sivaram Chōl̲a Murals: Documentation and Study of the Chōl̲a Murals of Bṛihadīśvara Temple, Thanjavur by P. S. Srirama C Sivaramamurty
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- 9. • Metal- Bronze(Image), Copper, Gold (Coin), Bronze is an alloy, (Copper + Tin). Modern Bronzes (Lead + Aluminum + Manganese or Zinc). oReligious- Shaktisim, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, oPolitical- King, Queen, Saint Molding- Lost Wax Technique,. Religious Place- Temples, Public Place- Public Building, Political Buildings- Royal Palaces. Medium Theme Technique Context
- 10. Types Freestanding Sculptures small in size Freestanding Sculptures Lifesizefor outside yatra God-Goddess King-Queen Saint Others In group on the single platform Copper Plate Stamp Coins Sambandar
- 11. Comparative of Material 1.Artist can highlight as per the demand and requirement due to the material, 2. Most Attractive due to Carving, 3. Minute Carving of Each ornaments and posture can be done, 4. Easy Carriable- For Village Processions, 5. Less Risk of Damage, 6. Recycling is Possible, 7. Long Durability, 8. Easy to Maintain, 9. Due to High Cost, 10. Light in weight….
- 12. Purpose Religious Political Reach the idol doorto door Showing Power/ To get fame Ceremonies Social Activities- cultural activities Metal mold was more Easy Chola bronze sculptures were intended for temple ritual
- 13. Under whom Order ? King Queen FeudalCommon Public Donation ofIdol Brihadeshwara Gangaikonda Cholapuram Airavateshwara Temples and many more Sembiyan Mahadevi- Gandaraditya wife, Parantaka I's second son Lokmaha Devi- Rajaraja I's queen Kundavai= the sister of Rajaraja I Vanavan Mahadevi https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/56998/12/12_chapter%205.pdf
- 14. Inscriptions- • The inscriptionsgive, apart from a comprehensive history of the times, a full enumeration of all the metallic images set up in the temple. Literatures- • Vishnu Samhita, Vishnudharmottara Purana (III Khanda), Sukranitisara, Manasara Silpa, Mahabharata, Ramayana. Art (Metal, Stone & Mural)- Need Comparative Study. Temples Sources
- 15. • The KanchiKailashnatha Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava was the inspiration for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeshwara at Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were among the first emperors in India to build both large temple complexes & very large deities & idols which influence later Chola. • The artistic nature of the rulers and the craftsmen resulted in the combination of different styles and the creation of new ideas in making sculpture. One would not deny that the same style was also adopted simultaneously in different regions. • Cholas and Pallavas used Bronze sculptures models specifically for detailing ornaments of statues. • It is been said that in India in the period of Pallavas, the bronze sculptures and art came in their form of their own. The artistic works of this time is an example of simplicity and elegance. • Cholas period is considered as the remarkable period for its Bronze sculptures and art. It is the great age of Bronze sculpture. Huge Bronze images in large numbers were created. Influence Pallava Chola
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- 17. Somaskanda image isa particular form of representation of Shiva with his consort Parvati, & Skanda as a child. This family group depiction of Shiva originated during the 6th-8th centuries during the period of the Pallava in South India. The representation shows Shiva with four arms and Uma, and between them the infant Kanda (Murugan) is shown as dancing with ecstasy. Over a period of time, a number of such depictions have been discovered from different regions which were once under the control of Pallavas. Pallava Chola Influence Pallava Stone
- 18. Chola Period Development Early StageMature Stage
- 19. Shiva as Nataraja,Los Angeles County Museum of Art Shiva Nataraja: • One of the most important and famous of all Hindu icons is intimately associated with Cholas bronzes- the Great image of Shiva Natraja, Lord of Dance/Dancers. • Large number of this icon were created during the Chola period in South India. • Their manufacturing continued into the 12th century. • Shiva is depicted in cosmic dance of creating & destroying the universe. • The height of the bronzes statue is 82 cm. & period between 11-12 century A.D.
- 20. Iconographical details (ofShiva) and its symbolism: • Shiva’s hair flies out widely as he dances, transfixed by the rhythm of the small hour- glass- shaped drum held in his upper right hand. The rhythm is the heart beat sound of the cosmos & it comes into being through the beneficent action of the creative dance.. • The cosmos itself is represented as the ring encircling the deity, which springs from the fertile mouths of makaras on the sculpture’s base. • The single flame reduces all to naught: it significantly balances the creative drum in the deity’s right-hand. • The lower right hand offers solace to his devotee by performing the reassuring Abhaya Mudra of benediction. The blessing is further affirmed by the lower left hand’s pose of gaja hasta. The flag position of the hand is formed by dropping the figures into an imitation of an elephant trunk, which here points to the left foot as it springs from the back of the dwarf. • This symbolic pose promises the devotee release form the suffering of Maya, while the right foot crushes, with the full force of the dance, the back of the dwarf. • A poisonous cobra is held by the dwarf, but the same deadly serpent is worn as an ornament over Shiva’s blessing right hand • Contemplating this moment of creation is the simultaneous destruction of the cosmos, symbolized by the flames edging the encircle and the single flame held in the God’s left hand.
- 21. Queen Sembiyan Mahadevias the Goddess Parvati, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC Parvati: • A tenth-century Chola Bronze image of Parvati shows the concert of Shiva in the likeness of a Chola queen or princess. • The figure with its greatly elongated body and limbs combines a certain dignity and liveliness. • Lugs at the base for inserting poles show that it was meant to be borne in processions. • The svelte form appears at first to be completely nude because the folds of the one lower garment are minimized as they cling to the upper legs. • Even the pointed crown and the jewels appear to merge with the body and to provide only the slightest variation to the modulation contours of the whole. • The absolute grace of the slight tribhanga pose the flowing arm and hand position all contributes to a unified stylization of the figure and elevate it beyond its human aspect to that of a celestial manifestation. • The double lotus base on which the figures stands is fitted at its corners with four lugs. • The figures still retain some of the fluid grace of the Pallava stone figures on the Arjuna Rath at Mamallapuram.
- 22. Shiva & Parvathic. 1200 CE.Trident with Shiva Idol The Rishabaandhika or the Vrishabavahana murthy pose, we see Shiva standing with one leg youthfully crossed across the other and his arm elegantly flexed and raised as if resting or leaning on something. Shiva is leaning on his bull-vahana, Nandhi, on whose shoulders He is resting His arm.
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- 24. Kalyanasundara Murti • The9th century Kalyanasundara Murti is highly remarkable for the manner in which panigrahana (ceremony of marriage) is represented by two separate statuettes. • Parcati standing in a graceful tribhanga (triple-bend) posture.
- 25. Shiva Vinadhara Dakshinamurti ShivaVinadhara Dakshinamurti • Standing with one foot slightly forward on a lotus base over a square plinth, • his principle hands poised to play the vina and the upper ones holding the battle-axe and antelope, • dressed in a short veshti secured with a belt and adorned with various necklaces and the sacred quadruple thread, • the face wearing a benevolent expression with gentle smile and elongated eyes, • the tall jatamukuta supporting the skull, serpent, and crescent moon.
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- 28. Sambandar Saint Karaikkal Ammaiyar,Mother of Karaikkal Saints
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- 30. • The Cholaimages were made of Bronze with an unusually high percentage of copper. • The statues were cast by the `cire perdue’ (lost wax) process, of which two methods are practiced in India from earliest times. • Beeswax and kungilium/ Sal dhuna/Dammer are mixed with a little oil and kneaded well. The figure is sculpted from this mixture fashioning all the minute details. This is the wax model original. • The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills until the mould is of a necessary thickness. • This particular bronze alloy is known as Pancha Loham. • The similarity between so many Hindu Bronze is explained by the fact that the craftsmen were religiously required to follow strict canons of measurement and iconography, set out in the Shilpa Shastras, the manual of sculpture, architecture, and other crafts. • Basic to the rules were measurement defined by the width of the craftsman’s finger and length of his palm. Technique ‘Cire perdue’ (Lost Wax)/ Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana in Sanskrit
- 31. 1. (Solid) Firstmethod of making bronze art: I. They prepare a wax model II. Over this they made a clay mould. III. When this mould became hard, they melted the wax out and poured liquid metal into the clay mould. IV. When the metal had cooled, they broke the mould and gave the image the final chasing and burnishing. V. It gives a solid figure. Technique 2. (Holo) Second method of making bronze art: I. They first made a clay model and coated it with a layer of wax to reproduce exactly all the details of the form. II. Then they covered the wax with a thin layer of fine clay. III. When this dried, they added more layers until a thick out shell had formed. IV. This is called the negative. V. They heated the statue until the wax melted and ran through openings, leaving a space between the clay mould and the negative. VI. They poured liquid metal to replace the wax and reproduce all the details of the figure. VII. When the metal had cooled and hardened, they broke away the outer shell. VIII. Then the figure was chased with a chisel and polished IX. It gives a shell. https://www.quora.com/What-is-Chola-bronze-art The first method gave a solid figure, the second a shell
- 32. 1 Sculptors moldimages from hard beeswax mixed with a small amount of dammar (resin) from the shal tree. The wax is carefully molded into the separate parts that comprise the sculpture and then lowered into a basin of cold water where it hardens instantly Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists: . 2 In order to join the individual pieces into a whole, they are returned to a malleable state through brief reheating. Simple tubular struts connect the hands of the images to the body providing both stability to the wax model and acting as channels through which molten bronze can be poured. While the wax is still soft, details, down to the individual beads of a sculpted necklace, are added with a sharp wooden chisel.
- 33. 3 The fullyassembled wax model is then encased within several layers of clay. The entire piece is held together with metal wire to ensure a strong container that will withstand the heat of fire and molten metal. 4 The heavily clay-encased mold is then baked in a fire pit, melting the wax, which runs out through the channels leaving a perfectly detailed hollow clay mold. Specialized metal-workers now take over, heating copper with a small proportion of lead and tin (and in earlier times small amounts of gold and silver). This alloy is carefully poured into the clay mold, which has been heated to the temperature of the molten metal. Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:
- 34. Technique 5 After coolingfor several days, the clay mold is broken open to reveal a rough version of the sculpture. The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:
- 35. 6 The sculptorscarefully chip away the clay and then smooth and polish the bronze, a process that can take anywhere from a few days to several weeks. During the Chola dynasty, only the barest minimum of finishing work, such as removing the channels of bronze connecting hand to torso, remained to be executed. Today, however, artists resort to an extensive amount of cold chiseling that gives a distinct, sharp finish to the details. Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:
- 37. The purpose ofmaking these big and small sizes are for village processions as opposed to the stone deity installed in the temple Installing at different religious places,
- 39. Life-size Idol ofChola Bronze- Living Idol Dressing bronze images in silks and adorning them lavishly with jewels and flowers prior to their participation in festival processions is a vital part of worship in south India today— just as it was over a thousand years ago. Since at least the sixth century, priests have ritually bathed bronze deities in milk, curds, butter, honey, and sugar, followed by water from the Kaveri river; anointed them with fragrant sandalwood paste; draped them in colorful cloth; and shaded them from the sun with canopies during festival processions.
- 40. • The humanfigures appear less abstract. • The Cholas differentiate between representation of Gods & human portraits. • The human portraits reveal distinctive individuality & character rather than idealized type as in the case of Gods. • Decorative details however become more elaborate. • While the Pallava carved in low relief the Chola Statues stand out in bold high relief or in the round. • The Chola Bronze at a later stage have become more ethereal appearance. • They greatly exaggerate the length of the body and limbs in proportion to head. Unique Feature
- 41. • The bronzecasting technique and making of bronze images of traditional icons reached a high stage of development in south India during the medieval period. • The union of Shiva and Parvati is very ingeniously represented in the Ardhanarisvra in a single image. Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati have also been modelled, standing in the graceful tribhanga posture. • The technique of art fashioning bronze images is still skilfully practiced in South India, particularly in Kumbakonam. • Flower garlands -- though the flowers are not marked as clearly as in Chola sculpture -- are shown on guardian deities (dwarapalakas) and others, going over the left shoulder and then over the right hand in the typical Pallava fashion. • The word maalai was used to denote the necklaces, garlands and similar ornaments. • Similarly the word yagnopavita also denotes a variety of ornaments which are worn over the left shoulder. Unique Feature
- 42. • The sculpturehas combined the likeness of the facial features with certain elements of idealization. • The idealization is further observed in the manner the physical body is modeled to appear imposing as well as graceful. • Pearl-strings which go over both shoulders and are tied in the middle, forming an ' X ' in the front and back, are shown on a few figures. These are often called sanna vira, veera sangili or swarnakshaka. • Some of the female figures show another ornament which goes just above and below the breasts and is tied at the centre. This is not found on the Chola bronzes. • Vishnu holds his attributes—the discus and conch shell—in two rear hands; one front hand is raised in the gesture of protection, the other rests on his hip in a gesture of ease. • At the waist a narrow belt (arai naan or kati sutra) knotted in front with a bow can be seen on both men and women. • In some cases a gem-set buckle is visible at the knot and in one place two short chains with pendants suspended from the belt. Unique Feature
- 43. • Neckless overthe bust of the female, • The hair, a mass of curls,, resembles a large wig in context of Nataraj image. • The very early figures look a bit stocky, • In Pallava, garlands are shown on the crowns in two styles: as a short crescent on one side of the karanda makuta and worn just above the forehead. The flowers are not clearly depicted, but from the later Chola sculpture, where flowers are clearly shown, one can confirm that flowers were worn over the crown. • Different kinds of necklaces: Necklaces were often worn without pendants by both men & women. Pendants (thooku) are shown on a few female figures. Unlike the Chola period we seldom see short necklaces fitted high up on the neck. • On the female figures (exception Parvati in the Somaskanda panels in the Shore Temple and in the Mahishasuramardini cave) we do not see the ornament poon, worn from the left shoulder to the right side of the waist like the sacred thread, and quite common in the Chola and the Vijayanagar sculptures. Unique Feature
- 44. • Yagnopavita ofdifferent kinds with clasps, long ones going down to the leg, double and triple strands meeting at the clasp are found in Pallava art & developed in Chola art. • Although bronze images were modeled and cast during the Pallava period in the 8th and 9th centuries, some of the most beautiful and exquisite statues were produced during the Chola period in Tamil Nadu from 10th to 12th century AD. • The distinguished patron during the 10th century was the widowed Chola Queen, Sembiyan Maha Devi. • The well known dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja was evolved and fully developed during the Chola period and since then many variations of this complex bronze image have been modeled. • A wide range of Shiva iconography was evolved in the Tanjore region of Tamil Nadu. • The standing King and Queens are depicted in a praying posture, that is, both hands in the Namaskara mudra. Unique Feature
- 45. • Hight noseat the height of the Chola art, whereas during first and second phase it was not high, • Chola art shows greater movement and rhythmic freedom of action within well-formed outlines. • The Cholas differentiate between the representation of gods and huma portraits. • The latter reveal distinctive individuality and character rather than an idealized type as in the case of gods. • Decorative details, however, have become more elaborate, • Elongated Mukut, • Cylindrical long Body, • The human figures appear less abstract, • I In the Chola bronzes kazhal is often shown as a band on one leg just above the ankle. Unique Feature • In Pallava only women are shown wearing anklets, whereas in the Chola period both men and women wore a variety of anklets.
- 46. • An ornamentalbelt worn by men called the udhara bhanda is shown just above the stomach. It appears plain in most cases but in a few cases patterns are worked on it. • The corresponding belt worn by women across the breasts is called kachu, vambu, or vaar in Tamil, and is shown without the shoulder straps. • This buckle evolved into an elaborate lion-faced clasp during the Chola period. • Women are shown with a simple girdle (pattikai) or mekala worn over the panty-like garment in contrast to the elaborate mekala of the Chola period. • Many varieties of arm-bands are depicted on the upper arm. The simplest is a circular band which may be called thol valai. The Tamil word thol denoted the upper arm. In the Chola period this simple ornament evolved into ananda or paampusurul with a cobra head at the upper end. • The third is an elaborate ornament called the keyura which is set with gems, and some of these keyuras have extraordinary cross-like pattern around a circle. Unique Feature
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- 49. Notable collections: • ThanjavurMaratha Palace, • Government Museum, Chennai, • Pondicherry Museum, • Indian Museum, Kolkata. Outside India- • British Museum, • New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art, • Norton Simon Museum, in Pasadena, • Asian Art Museum in San Francisco.
- 50. PM Abbott ofAustralia returns Shiva Nataraja idol & Ardhanariswara idol to the PM Narendra Modi https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/return-of-the-nataraja/article6384683.ece Illicit Trafficking- Since European conquest, the Chola bronzes were a showcase of creativity and engineering skills and the idols find a place of pride in major museums around the world even now.
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