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MODEL OF LANGUAGE CHANGE Module By: April Ann Montero Aying
INTRODUCTION This lesson is designed to introduce students to the different Models of Language and their significance in understanding how language functions, evolves, and is used in various contexts. The discussion will cover the fundamental principles and assumptions behind these models, providing insight into the different ways linguists analyze and interpret language. By exploring these models, students will recognize the key concerns of the field and develop a deeper understanding of language as a structured yet dynamic system. Model of Language helps explain how language is structured, learned, and used in communication. Different models provide various perspectives on how language functions and evolves. Some focus on its rules and patterns, while others explore how it adapts to different social and cultural settings or how the human mind processes it.
LEXICONS A lexicon is the collection of words—or the internalized dictionary—that every speaker of a language has. It is also called lexis. Lexicon may also refer to a stock of terms used in a particular profession, subject or style. The word itself is the Anglicized version of the Greek word "lexis" (which means "word" in Greek). It basically means "dictionary." Lexicology describes the study of lexis and lexicon. Lexicon as a Dictionary  In some cases, lexicon can mean a dictionary, though this is a less common usage.  A person who writes a lexicon is called a lexiconist.
Flexible Usage of Lexicon Sometimes, "lexicon" is used to refer to non-language concepts. Example: A person’s “book lexicon” might describe all the books they know. Lexicon in Linguistics Linguists divide language into two main parts: 1. Grammar – The set of rules governing word order and conjugation. 2. Lexicon – The collection of all words and expressions used in a language.
Lexemes: The Units of a Lexicon • A lexeme (also called a lexical item or word form) is a basic unit of meaning in a language. • A single lexeme includes all forms of a word. Example: eat, ate, eating. Lexemes can be single words, compound words, or idioms: • Single words: run, book, apple • Compound words: living room, ice cream • dioms: hit the hay, once in a blue moon Debates on Lexemes Linguist’s debate what qualifies as a lexeme, but in general, a lexicon contains all the basic words and phrases that make up a language.
SYNTAX Syntax refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to form well-structured sentences in a language. It involves understanding the grammatical structure of words and their relationships within a sentence.
Parts of Speech (Word Categories in Syntax) Words in a sentence are classified into different parts of speech, each serving a distinct grammatical function. Eight Parts of Speech: • Noun – Refers to a person, place, thing, or idea. (Example: "dog," "table," "happiness") • Pronoun – Replaces a noun. (Example: "he," "she," "it") • Verb – Expresses action or state. (Example: "run," "is," "jump") • Adjective – Describes or modifies a noun. (Example: "beautiful," "fast," "happy") • Adverb – Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. (Example: "quickly," "very," "well") • Preposition – Shows relationships between words in a sentence. (Example: "on," "in," "under") • Conjunction – Connects words, phrases, or clauses. (Example: "and," "but," "because") • Interjection – Expresses sudden emotion. (Example: "Wow!," "Oops!")
Content Words vs. Function Words Content Words – Carry lexical meaning. Includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (Example: "Ali kicked the ball.") Function Words – Provide grammatical structure. Includes auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, and pronouns. (Example: "The book of my father is on the table.") Syntactical Constructions (Word Groupings in Syntax) Endocentric Construction – At least one word in the phrase can replace the entire phrase. (Example: "green book" "book") → Exocentric Construction – No single word in the phrase can replace the entire phrase. (Example: "in the room")
Sub-types of Endocentric Construction Attributive Construction – Modifier + Head (Example: "green book") Appositive Construction – Two noun phrases where the second clarifies the first. (Example: "Dr. Smith, the surgeon, is famous.") Coordinative Construction – Two elements of equal rank joined by "and," "or," etc. (Example: "You and I will attend the meeting.") Sub-types of Exocentric Construction Directive Construction – A directing word (preposition, verb, or conjunction) + object. (Example: "On the chair") Complementation Construction – A "be" verb + complement (noun, adjective, or adverb). (Example: "She is a teacher.") Predicative Construction – Subject + Predicate. (Example: "He is happy.")
Sentence Structure & Syntactic Analysis A sentence consists of: Noun Phrase (NP) – Acts as the subject or object. Verb Phrase (VP) – Contains the main verb and sometimes an object. Example: Sentence: "The postwoman pestered the doctor.“ NP: "The postwoman" VP: "pestered the doctor“ Syntactic Devices (Tools for Sentence Formation) Word Order – Determines sentence structure. (Incorrect: "Books many" Correct: → "Many books") Inflectional Suffixes – Subject-verb agreement. (Incorrect: "He sing" Correct: "He → sings") Derivational Suffixes – Change word form. (Incorrect: "The president gave his agree." Correct: "The president gave his agreement.") → Function Words – Help structure sentences. (Incorrect: "I go school." Correct: "I → go to school.")
Essential Rules of Syntax in English  A complete sentence must have a subject and a verb and express a complete thought.  English follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) structure.  A dependent clause has a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. Four Sentence Types in English • Simple sentences – One independent clause. (Example: “The girl hit the ball.”) • Compound sentences – Two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. (Example: “The girl hit the ball, and the ball flew out of the park.”) • Complex sentences – One independent clause and at least one dependent clause. (Example: “When the girl hit the ball, the fans cheered.”) • Compound-complex sentences – Multiple independent clauses plus at least one dependent clause. (Example: “When the girl hit the ball, the fans cheered, and the ball flew out of the park.”)
SEMANTICS Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how words, phrases, sentences, and discourse convey meaning. One of the key questions in semantics is the relationship between linguistic forms and their meanings. Definition of Meaning The concept of "meaning" has been defined in various ways throughout history. A. Meaning as Connotation A word’s meaning is based on the associations people have with it.  Example: The word “winter” may evoke “snow” and “cold” for some people, but for those living in tropical regions, these associations do not exist. B. Meaning as Denotation A word’s meaning is defined by what it directly refers to in the world.  Example: “New York” refers to a specific city. However, abstract words like “love” and “justice” are difficult to define solely through denotation.
C. Intension and Extension Extension: The object or thing the word refers to. Intension: The concept or mental image the word evokes. Example: The word “dog” • Extension: A real, living dog. • Intension: The idea of a furry, four-legged animal that barks.
Sense Relations (Relationships Between Words) Words relate to each other in various ways, creating semantic relationships: A. Synonymy (Synonyms) Words with similar meanings. • Example: o Begin = Start o Big = Large o Youth = Adolescent B. Antonymy (Antonyms) Words with opposite meanings. • Example: o Big ≠ Small C. Polysemy A word that has multiple related meanings. Example: Bright (shining) vs. Bright (intelligent) D. Homophony A word that sounds the same as another but has completely different meanings. Examples: Bat (flying mammal) vs. Bat (sports equipment)
Sense Relations (Relationships Between Words) Words relate to each other in various ways, creating semantic relationships: A. Synonymy (Synonyms) Words with similar meanings. Example: o Begin = Start o Big = Large o Youth = Adolescent B. Antonymy (Antonyms) Words with opposite meanings. Example: o Big ≠ Small C. Polysemy A word that has multiple related meanings. Example: Bright (shining) vs. Bright (intelligent) D. Homophony A word that sounds the same as another but has completely different meanings. Examples: Bat (flying mammal) vs. Bat (sports equipment)
Sentence Relations (Relationships Between Sentences) Sentences can also be semantically related in different ways: A. Paraphrase Two sentences that express the same meaning. Examples: o “The boys like the girls” o “The girls are liked by the boys.” B. Mutual Entailment If one sentence is true, the other must also be true. Example: o “John is married to Rachel.” o “Rachel is John’s wife.” C. Asymmetrical Entailment If one sentence is true, the other might be true, but not necessarily. Example: o “Rachel has two brothers” “Rachel is not → an only child” (True) o “Rachel is not an only child” does not necessarily mean “Rachel has two brothers” (She could have sisters instead). D. Contradiction If one sentence is true, the other must be false. Example: o “Alex is alive.” o “Alex died last week.”
Ambiguity in Language Ambiguity occurs when a sentence can have more than one interpretation. A. Lexical Ambiguity A single word has multiple possible meanings. Example: “Prostitutes appeal to the Pope.” • “Appeal” could mean “ask for help” or “are attractive to”, creating confusion. B. Structural Ambiguity The way a sentence is structured can lead to multiple meanings. Example: “Enraged cow injures farmer with axe.” • Does the cow have the axe? • Or was the farmer injured while holding an axe?
Theories in Linguistic Semantics Semantics has been explained using different theoretical approaches, each focusing on how meaning is structured, understood, and processed. Formal semantics applies mathematical logic to analyze meaning, particularly how sentences derive their interpretations based on their syntactic structure. This theory, developed in the 1970s through the work of Richard Montague and Barbara Partee, is widely used in computer programming and AI, where “if…then” logical statements help determine conditions and outcomes. Conceptual semantics, on the other hand, investigates how word meanings influence syntax. It suggests that even small changes in meaning can alter sentence structure, as seen in the word "cougar," which traditionally refers to a large wild cat but has also come to mean an older woman dating a younger man. This shift demonstrates how context affects meaning. Cognitive semantics focuses on how human cognitive abilities shape meaning, arguing that language and meaning are linked to general cognitive processes rather than a specific language module in the brain. Scholars like Leonard Talmy and George Lakoff have contributed significantly to this field, emphasizing how meaning is shaped by experience and mental processes. For example, different cultures interpret the concept of "love" in various ways—some viewing it as passionate and emotional, while others see it as a duty or commitment.
Lexical semantics Examines the meanings of individual words and how they relate to each other through synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, and homophony. It plays a key role in understanding how words function within sentences. Another critical approach is cross-cultural semantics, which explores how meanings vary across languages and cultures. Some words, such as "truth," might have absolute interpretations in one society but flexible meanings in another. This field examines whether key concepts are universal or shaped by cultural perspectives. Meanwhile, computational semantics focuses on processing linguistic meaning through artificial intelligence and machine learning. It is applied in areas such as machine translation, chatbots, and search engines, using techniques like latent semantic indexing to analyze vast amounts of text data.
Semantic Technology and Applications Semantic technology has various applications in modern computing and linguistics. The Semantic Web uses metadata and ontologies to improve internet search accuracy, allowing machines to process and understand human language better. This is seen in Google’s search suggestions, which analyze user intent based on semantic meaning rather than just keywords. Semantic networks represent concepts and their relationships using structured graphs, which are essential for AI, chatbots, and machine learning models to understand context. Semantic memory refers to how meaning is stored and recalled in the human brain, explaining why certain words and concepts are easier to remember than others. Semantics in Everyday Life Semantics plays a crucial role in daily communication, shaping how words are understood depending on context. Situational semantics illustrates how the meaning of words changes based on circumstances. For instance, the phrase "I care for you" can express love in a romantic setting but imply medical responsibility in a hospital. Puns and wordplay also highlight semantic complexity, as seen in the phrase “Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana,” where "flies" can refer to both movement and insects, creating humor through ambiguity. Ambiguous words can lead to multiple interpretations, as with the word "crash," which could mean a car accident, stock market collapse, or loud noise, depending on the context.
Philosophical and Psychological Aspects of Semantics Several linguistic theories explore the relationship between semantics and thought. Prototype theory suggests that words and categories are understood through their most typical examples rather than strict definitions. When people think of the word "bird," they are more likely to picture a sparrow rather than a penguin because the former fits the common prototype of a bird. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis argues that language influences thought, meaning that speakers of different languages may perceive reality differently. For example, English treats time as linear, with clear past, present, and future tenses, while the Hopi language structures time in a way that does not fit this model.
PRAGMATIC Pragmatics is the study of how context influences meaning in language. It examines how people interpret language beyond its literal meaning, considering factors such as implicature, speech acts, relevance, and conversation structure. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, which studies meaning that is grammatically or lexically encoded. The ability to understand another speaker’s intended meaning is known as pragmatic competence. The field of pragmatics emerged in the 1950s, influenced by the work of J.L. Austin and Paul Grice. Over time, it developed into a key subfield of linguistics, expanding upon the ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure, who emphasized that language consists of interrelated structural elements.
Types of Pragmatics Pragmatics initially focused on synchronic studies (language at a given time), rather than diachronic studies (historical development of language). However, as the field expanded, two different schools of thought emerged: 1. Anglo-American Pragmatic Thought – Focuses on logic and philosophy of language. 2. European Continental Pragmatic Thought – Known as the perspective view, which examines language use in social contexts.
Areas of Interest in Pragmatics Pragmatics covers several key areas that explore how meaning is shaped by context and speaker intention. Speaker’s meaning focuses on the speaker’s intentions and beliefs rather than just the phonetic or grammatical form of an utterance. Contextual meaning examines how factors such as speaker identity, location, and time influence interpretation. Implicature studies what is implied but not explicitly stated. For example, if someone says, “It’s cold in here,” they might be suggesting that they want the window closed. Social and physical distance analyzes how relationships and spatial separation between speakers affect language choices. Unintentional meaning explores meanings that are not deliberately conveyed. For instance, saying “That’s nice” in a sarcastic tone may imply the opposite of the literal interpretation. Information structure examines how utterances are organized and marked to help speakers and listeners maintain a shared understanding. Finally, formal pragmatics applies formal semantic methods to study how context influences meaning in structured ways.
Ambiguity in Pragmatics Pragmatics explores how ambiguity arises when words or sentences have multiple meanings. For example, the sentence “You have a green light” could mean a traffic signal is green, permission to proceed, the presence of green lighting, or even that a person’s body is glowing green. Similarly, “I went to the bank” could refer to either a financial institution or the side of a river, while “Sherlock saw the man with binoculars” could mean that Sherlock used binoculars to see the man or that the man Sherlock saw was holding binoculars. These cases highlight lexical ambiguity, where a word has multiple meanings, and syntactic ambiguity, where sentence structure allows for multiple interpretations. Pragmatic context is necessary to resolve these ambiguities. Referential Uses of Language Referential expressions identify specific people, places, or things and rely on the relationship between the signifier and the signified, as explained by Ferdinand de Saussure. For example, the signified is the concept of a cat, while the signifier is the word “cat” that represents this concept. Referential meaning can be semantic-referential, where statements remain true regardless of context, such as “Santa Claus eats cookies.” It can also be indexical, where meaning depends on the speaker and situation, as in “I am hungry,” where the meaning of “I” changes depending on who says it. Certain words like "this" and "that" function as indexical signs, meaning their interpretation shifts depending on the context.
Referential Expressions in Conversation In conversation, referential expressions connect past and present discourse to ensure understanding. Several factors influence referential expressions: competing referents, when multiple things could be referred to; salience, which determines how noticeable or important a referent is; social unity, which helps maintain a shared understanding among speakers; and conversational distance, which considers how recently a referent was mentioned. These elements guide how speakers use referential expressions to maintain clarity in communication. Non-Referential Uses of Language Not all words are used to refer to objects or concepts; some function as pure indices, conveying social or contextual information. Examples include gendered language, where verb forms change based on gender; honorifics, such as “Sir” or “Madam,” which indicate social status; and avoidance speech, seen in cultures where special speech forms are used in certain relationships, such as the mother-in-law language in Aboriginal Dyirbal. These linguistic features do not change referential meaning but add social meaning to communication.
The Performative Function of Language J.L. Austin introduced performative utterances, which do not merely describe actions but perform them. Examples include “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” “I accept your apology,” and “This meeting is adjourned.” These utterances must meet felicity conditions, meaning they must be spoken in the right context by the appropriate person to be valid and effective. Jakobson’s Six Functions of Language Roman Jakobson identified six functions of language. The referential function describes the world, as in “The leaves have fallen.” The expressive function conveys emotions, such as “Wow, that’s amazing!” The conative function directs the listener, as in “Come here!” The poetic function focuses on the aesthetic quality of language, such as in poetry and slogans. The phatic function maintains social relationships, exemplified by phrases like “How are you?” Finally, the metalingual function explains language itself, as in “What does ‘syntax’ mean?” These functions illustrate the different ways language operates in communication.
Pragmatics and Related Fields Pragmatics is closely related to several fields of study. Sociolinguistics examines how language varies within speech communities, while linguistic anthropology explores its relationship with culture and society. Speech act theory investigates how language can perform actions, and computational pragmatics focuses on developing AI systems that process human language effectively. Formal Pragmatics and Literary Theory Formal pragmatics aims to create logical systems that incorporate contextual meaning in language. Philosophers like Carlo Dalla Pozza worked on bridging formal logic and pragmatics. In literary theory, Judith Butler’s concept of gender performativity is rooted in pragmatics, showing how repeated language use constructs social realities.
Transformational Grammar Transformational grammar (also known as transformational-generative grammar or T-G/TGG) is a linguistic theory that explains the structure of a language through transformations and phrase structures. The theory was introduced by Noam Chomsky in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, which led to a significant shift in linguistic studies. Unlike structuralist approaches that focused on phonology and morphology, transformational grammar emphasizes syntax, aiming to define a set of basic and transformational rules that allow native speakers to generate and comprehend all grammatical sentences of a language (Encyclopedia of Linguistics, 2005). Observations on Transformational Grammar  The publication of Syntactic Structures in 1957 marked a revolution in linguistics, redefining grammar as an innate, subconscious ability to generate language rather than merely a system describing spoken sentences.  Structuralists examined actual spoken sentences and their systemic nature, while transformationalists sought to uncover the internal rules of language that generate all grammatical sentences while excluding ungrammatical ones (Kolln & Funk, 1998).  Some linguists acknowledged transformational grammar as the best theory available, but its unique claims about human language were often unclear (Geoffrey Sampson, 2001).
Surface Structures and Deep Structures Chomsky proposed that every sentence has a deep structure in the speaker’s mind, which is transformed into a surface structure through transformational rules. The deep structure connects to the mental lexicon and is converted into a surface structure that aligns with pronunciation and comprehension. This transformation prevents redundancy by allowing multiple sentence variations to originate from a single deep structure rather than storing numerous surface structures (Pinker, 1999). Transformational Grammar and Writing Instruction Sentence-combining exercises existed before transformational grammar, but the concept of embedding (inserting clauses into sentences) provided a theoretical foundation for them. Even after Chomsky and his followers moved away from embedding, sentence combining remained influential (Lunsford, 1990).
Functional grammar Systemic Functional Linguistics and Functional Grammar The approach to grammar in this book is based on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), developed by Michael Halliday. Functional Grammar focuses on how language operates in context, emphasizing meaning- making rather than strict grammatical rules. It views language as a dynamic system shaped by culture, expressing specific values, beliefs, and worldviews. Language use changes depending on the situation, including the purpose of communication, the subject matter, the audience, and whether it is spoken or written. The study of grammar in this approach is centered on how people use authentic language in various real-life contexts, particularly in school settings. Additionally, understanding grammar helps individuals critically evaluate texts, recognize biases, and analyze how language can be used to construct different perspectives. Achieving Different Social Purposes One of the primary functions of language is to accomplish different social purposes. People use language to describe, explain, argue, and recount, and these purposes are expressed through different text types, also known as genres. Young learners start with simple text structures, such as short recounts with minimal details, basic arguments without supporting evidence, and brief explanations. With teacher guidance, students gradually learn to interpret and produce more complex texts with unpredictable structures. This progression equips them with the necessary skills for secondary education and broader community participation. The Australian Curriculum requires students to develop proficiency in a variety of text types for different purposes. While this book does not focus on specific genres, it highlights how grammatical structures contribute to achieving different social functions, such as using the past tense in recounts or the present tense in information reports.
Functional grammar Expressing Ideas and Representing Experience Language plays a crucial role in representing experiences and helping individuals express and understand what happens in their lives. This function, sometimes called the "observer" function of language, includes understanding and using the language of different academic disciplines. Each subject area has its own specialized way of using language to develop knowledge, such as the technical vocabulary of science or the narrative structures in literature. As students progress through school, they transition from using everyday, concrete language to discussing more abstract and specialized topics. This shift requires explicit teaching, as it does not occur automatically. For example, students must learn how to move from talking about "my family" to discussing the concept of "families" in general or from discussing a specific volcanic eruption to understanding the broader concept of "volcanic activity.“ Connecting Ideas Another essential function of language is the ability to connect ideas. While basic connections can be made using simple words such as and, but, and so, academic writing and comprehension require more sophisticated methods of linking thoughts. To construct and interpret complex relationships between ideas, students must learn how to use advanced grammatical structures and logical connectors. This skill helps students produce well-structured texts and is critical for academic success. The ability to form complex sentences that express multiple ideas continues to develop throughout secondary school, enhancing both writing and critical thinking abilities.
Functional grammar Interacting with Others Language is fundamental to social interaction, as it allows individuals to construct particular roles and relationships. In early childhood, students communicate informally, freely expressing emotions and attitudes in familiar settings. However, as they advance, they must learn how to communicate in more formal and structured ways. In school, students need to develop interaction skills for participating in group discussions, engaging in classroom debates, and communicating with both peers and adults. They must also understand different social roles, such as being a group leader, a mediator, or an observer. Additionally, students need to develop critical awareness of how language is used to persuade or influence them. For instance, they should be able to analyze whether they are being manipulated to accept a particular point of view and recognize the linguistic strategies used in persuasion. Creating Coherent and Cohesive Texts A major transition in students’ language development is the shift from spoken to written communication. Spoken language is spontaneous and relies on immediate feedback from conversation partners. In contrast, written language requires planning, revision, and structuring to ensure clarity. Unlike spoken interactions, written texts must be self-contained, meaning that readers should understand them without additional context or explanations. To achieve coherence, students must learn how to use grammatical tools such as sentence openers, text connectives, and paragraph structuring to guide readers through their ideas. The ability to construct well-organized and cohesive texts is a key educational milestone and continues to develop throughout secondary school.
Cognitive Grammar Cognitive Grammar is a usage-based approach introduced by Ronald Langacker in Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (1987/1991). It emphasizes symbolic and semantic meanings rather than strict syntactic rules, aligning with cognitive linguistics and functionalism. Unlike traditional views, it considers grammar inherently meaningful. Grammar as Meaningful Langacker argues that grammar carries meaning, enabling speakers to construct complex expressions. It plays a crucial role in shaping human perception and interaction with the world. Symbolic Associations in Cognitive Grammar Rejecting rule-driven language models, Cognitive Grammar focuses on linguistic units as symbolic structures, including morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and texts. It connects phonological and semantic structures directly rather than through a separate syntactic system.
Cognitive Grammar Assumptions of Cognitive Grammar 1.Grammar is part of human cognition – Grammar interacts with cognitive faculties like perception, attention, and memory, shaping sentence construction. 2.Grammar reflects real-world experiences – Language structures align with human perceptions of reality, influencing how speakers conceptualize events, time, and space. 3.Grammar is meaningful – All grammatical elements, including function words and inflections, carry meaning. 4.Grammar encompasses a speaker’s entire linguistic knowledge – Lexicon and grammar form a unified system where words and structures work together. 5.Grammar is usage-based – Speakers dynamically adapt grammar based on communication context, selecting structures to emphasize meaning.
Cognitive Grammar Langacker’s Four Principles of Cognitive Grammar 1.Functional Considerations – Language functions as a symbolic communication tool rather than a system of rigid rules. 2.Detailed and Precise Conceptual Descriptions – Grammar reflects conceptual structures in the mind, shaping cognitive representations of events. 3.Natural and Appropriate Language Descriptions – Language should be analyzed on its own terms without imposing rigid external frameworks. 4.Interdisciplinary Compatibility – Cognitive Grammar aligns with cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and evolutionary biology while remaining linguistically grounded.
References: Betti, M. J. (2021, September 9). Pragmatics in Linguistics. Https://Www.researchgate.net/. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.29145.85606 Derewianka., B. (n.d.). Functional Grammar: A Brief Introduction. Petaa.edu.au. https://petaa.edu.au/litportal/litportal/Getting-Started/Teaching-strategies/Pedagogy-101/functional_grammar.aspx Devlin, T. M. (2023). https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/what-is-lexicon. Www.babbel.com. https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/what-is-lexicon https://www.facebook.com/thoughtcodotcom. (2018). What Is Cognitive Grammar? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-cognitive-grammar-1689860
References: Masterclass. (2020). Syntax in the English Language: Definition, Examples, and 3 Ways to Use Syntax Effectively - 2024 - MasterClass. MasterClass. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-syntax-in-the-english-language Mohammed Jasim Betti, & Zainab Kadim Igaab. (2021, September 10). Semantics in Linguistics. ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354496532_Semantics_in_Linguistics Muin, F. (2019). (PDF) Chapter 7 SYNTAX. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337398275_Chapter_7_SYNTAX Nordquist, R. (2017). Lexicons As Vocabularies of a Specific Language, Subject or Profession. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-lexicon-1691231 Ph. D., R. and E., M. A., M. E. and A. L., & B. A., E. (2019). What Is Transformational Grammar? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/transformational-grammar-1692557

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MODEL OF LANGUAGE MODULE AND ITS TYPES.pptx

  • 1.
  • 2.
    INTRODUCTION This lesson isdesigned to introduce students to the different Models of Language and their significance in understanding how language functions, evolves, and is used in various contexts. The discussion will cover the fundamental principles and assumptions behind these models, providing insight into the different ways linguists analyze and interpret language. By exploring these models, students will recognize the key concerns of the field and develop a deeper understanding of language as a structured yet dynamic system. Model of Language helps explain how language is structured, learned, and used in communication. Different models provide various perspectives on how language functions and evolves. Some focus on its rules and patterns, while others explore how it adapts to different social and cultural settings or how the human mind processes it.
  • 3.
    LEXICONS A lexicon isthe collection of words—or the internalized dictionary—that every speaker of a language has. It is also called lexis. Lexicon may also refer to a stock of terms used in a particular profession, subject or style. The word itself is the Anglicized version of the Greek word "lexis" (which means "word" in Greek). It basically means "dictionary." Lexicology describes the study of lexis and lexicon. Lexicon as a Dictionary  In some cases, lexicon can mean a dictionary, though this is a less common usage.  A person who writes a lexicon is called a lexiconist.
  • 4.
    Flexible Usage ofLexicon Sometimes, "lexicon" is used to refer to non-language concepts. Example: A person’s “book lexicon” might describe all the books they know. Lexicon in Linguistics Linguists divide language into two main parts: 1. Grammar – The set of rules governing word order and conjugation. 2. Lexicon – The collection of all words and expressions used in a language.
  • 5.
    Lexemes: The Unitsof a Lexicon • A lexeme (also called a lexical item or word form) is a basic unit of meaning in a language. • A single lexeme includes all forms of a word. Example: eat, ate, eating. Lexemes can be single words, compound words, or idioms: • Single words: run, book, apple • Compound words: living room, ice cream • dioms: hit the hay, once in a blue moon Debates on Lexemes Linguist’s debate what qualifies as a lexeme, but in general, a lexicon contains all the basic words and phrases that make up a language.
  • 6.
    SYNTAX Syntax refers tothe arrangement of words and phrases to form well-structured sentences in a language. It involves understanding the grammatical structure of words and their relationships within a sentence.
  • 7.
    Parts of Speech(Word Categories in Syntax) Words in a sentence are classified into different parts of speech, each serving a distinct grammatical function. Eight Parts of Speech: • Noun – Refers to a person, place, thing, or idea. (Example: "dog," "table," "happiness") • Pronoun – Replaces a noun. (Example: "he," "she," "it") • Verb – Expresses action or state. (Example: "run," "is," "jump") • Adjective – Describes or modifies a noun. (Example: "beautiful," "fast," "happy") • Adverb – Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. (Example: "quickly," "very," "well") • Preposition – Shows relationships between words in a sentence. (Example: "on," "in," "under") • Conjunction – Connects words, phrases, or clauses. (Example: "and," "but," "because") • Interjection – Expresses sudden emotion. (Example: "Wow!," "Oops!")
  • 8.
    Content Words vs.Function Words Content Words – Carry lexical meaning. Includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (Example: "Ali kicked the ball.") Function Words – Provide grammatical structure. Includes auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, and pronouns. (Example: "The book of my father is on the table.") Syntactical Constructions (Word Groupings in Syntax) Endocentric Construction – At least one word in the phrase can replace the entire phrase. (Example: "green book" "book") → Exocentric Construction – No single word in the phrase can replace the entire phrase. (Example: "in the room")
  • 9.
    Sub-types of EndocentricConstruction Attributive Construction – Modifier + Head (Example: "green book") Appositive Construction – Two noun phrases where the second clarifies the first. (Example: "Dr. Smith, the surgeon, is famous.") Coordinative Construction – Two elements of equal rank joined by "and," "or," etc. (Example: "You and I will attend the meeting.") Sub-types of Exocentric Construction Directive Construction – A directing word (preposition, verb, or conjunction) + object. (Example: "On the chair") Complementation Construction – A "be" verb + complement (noun, adjective, or adverb). (Example: "She is a teacher.") Predicative Construction – Subject + Predicate. (Example: "He is happy.")
  • 10.
    Sentence Structure &Syntactic Analysis A sentence consists of: Noun Phrase (NP) – Acts as the subject or object. Verb Phrase (VP) – Contains the main verb and sometimes an object. Example: Sentence: "The postwoman pestered the doctor.“ NP: "The postwoman" VP: "pestered the doctor“ Syntactic Devices (Tools for Sentence Formation) Word Order – Determines sentence structure. (Incorrect: "Books many" Correct: → "Many books") Inflectional Suffixes – Subject-verb agreement. (Incorrect: "He sing" Correct: "He → sings") Derivational Suffixes – Change word form. (Incorrect: "The president gave his agree." Correct: "The president gave his agreement.") → Function Words – Help structure sentences. (Incorrect: "I go school." Correct: "I → go to school.")
  • 11.
    Essential Rules ofSyntax in English  A complete sentence must have a subject and a verb and express a complete thought.  English follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) structure.  A dependent clause has a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. Four Sentence Types in English • Simple sentences – One independent clause. (Example: “The girl hit the ball.”) • Compound sentences – Two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. (Example: “The girl hit the ball, and the ball flew out of the park.”) • Complex sentences – One independent clause and at least one dependent clause. (Example: “When the girl hit the ball, the fans cheered.”) • Compound-complex sentences – Multiple independent clauses plus at least one dependent clause. (Example: “When the girl hit the ball, the fans cheered, and the ball flew out of the park.”)
  • 12.
    SEMANTICS Semantics is thestudy of meaning in language. It examines how words, phrases, sentences, and discourse convey meaning. One of the key questions in semantics is the relationship between linguistic forms and their meanings. Definition of Meaning The concept of "meaning" has been defined in various ways throughout history. A. Meaning as Connotation A word’s meaning is based on the associations people have with it.  Example: The word “winter” may evoke “snow” and “cold” for some people, but for those living in tropical regions, these associations do not exist. B. Meaning as Denotation A word’s meaning is defined by what it directly refers to in the world.  Example: “New York” refers to a specific city. However, abstract words like “love” and “justice” are difficult to define solely through denotation.
  • 13.
    C. Intension andExtension Extension: The object or thing the word refers to. Intension: The concept or mental image the word evokes. Example: The word “dog” • Extension: A real, living dog. • Intension: The idea of a furry, four-legged animal that barks.
  • 14.
    Sense Relations (RelationshipsBetween Words) Words relate to each other in various ways, creating semantic relationships: A. Synonymy (Synonyms) Words with similar meanings. • Example: o Begin = Start o Big = Large o Youth = Adolescent B. Antonymy (Antonyms) Words with opposite meanings. • Example: o Big ≠ Small C. Polysemy A word that has multiple related meanings. Example: Bright (shining) vs. Bright (intelligent) D. Homophony A word that sounds the same as another but has completely different meanings. Examples: Bat (flying mammal) vs. Bat (sports equipment)
  • 15.
    Sense Relations (RelationshipsBetween Words) Words relate to each other in various ways, creating semantic relationships: A. Synonymy (Synonyms) Words with similar meanings. Example: o Begin = Start o Big = Large o Youth = Adolescent B. Antonymy (Antonyms) Words with opposite meanings. Example: o Big ≠ Small C. Polysemy A word that has multiple related meanings. Example: Bright (shining) vs. Bright (intelligent) D. Homophony A word that sounds the same as another but has completely different meanings. Examples: Bat (flying mammal) vs. Bat (sports equipment)
  • 16.
    Sentence Relations (Relationships BetweenSentences) Sentences can also be semantically related in different ways: A. Paraphrase Two sentences that express the same meaning. Examples: o “The boys like the girls” o “The girls are liked by the boys.” B. Mutual Entailment If one sentence is true, the other must also be true. Example: o “John is married to Rachel.” o “Rachel is John’s wife.” C. Asymmetrical Entailment If one sentence is true, the other might be true, but not necessarily. Example: o “Rachel has two brothers” “Rachel is not → an only child” (True) o “Rachel is not an only child” does not necessarily mean “Rachel has two brothers” (She could have sisters instead). D. Contradiction If one sentence is true, the other must be false. Example: o “Alex is alive.” o “Alex died last week.”
  • 17.
    Ambiguity in Language Ambiguityoccurs when a sentence can have more than one interpretation. A. Lexical Ambiguity A single word has multiple possible meanings. Example: “Prostitutes appeal to the Pope.” • “Appeal” could mean “ask for help” or “are attractive to”, creating confusion. B. Structural Ambiguity The way a sentence is structured can lead to multiple meanings. Example: “Enraged cow injures farmer with axe.” • Does the cow have the axe? • Or was the farmer injured while holding an axe?
  • 18.
    Theories in LinguisticSemantics Semantics has been explained using different theoretical approaches, each focusing on how meaning is structured, understood, and processed. Formal semantics applies mathematical logic to analyze meaning, particularly how sentences derive their interpretations based on their syntactic structure. This theory, developed in the 1970s through the work of Richard Montague and Barbara Partee, is widely used in computer programming and AI, where “if…then” logical statements help determine conditions and outcomes. Conceptual semantics, on the other hand, investigates how word meanings influence syntax. It suggests that even small changes in meaning can alter sentence structure, as seen in the word "cougar," which traditionally refers to a large wild cat but has also come to mean an older woman dating a younger man. This shift demonstrates how context affects meaning. Cognitive semantics focuses on how human cognitive abilities shape meaning, arguing that language and meaning are linked to general cognitive processes rather than a specific language module in the brain. Scholars like Leonard Talmy and George Lakoff have contributed significantly to this field, emphasizing how meaning is shaped by experience and mental processes. For example, different cultures interpret the concept of "love" in various ways—some viewing it as passionate and emotional, while others see it as a duty or commitment.
  • 19.
    Lexical semantics Examines themeanings of individual words and how they relate to each other through synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, and homophony. It plays a key role in understanding how words function within sentences. Another critical approach is cross-cultural semantics, which explores how meanings vary across languages and cultures. Some words, such as "truth," might have absolute interpretations in one society but flexible meanings in another. This field examines whether key concepts are universal or shaped by cultural perspectives. Meanwhile, computational semantics focuses on processing linguistic meaning through artificial intelligence and machine learning. It is applied in areas such as machine translation, chatbots, and search engines, using techniques like latent semantic indexing to analyze vast amounts of text data.
  • 20.
    Semantic Technology andApplications Semantic technology has various applications in modern computing and linguistics. The Semantic Web uses metadata and ontologies to improve internet search accuracy, allowing machines to process and understand human language better. This is seen in Google’s search suggestions, which analyze user intent based on semantic meaning rather than just keywords. Semantic networks represent concepts and their relationships using structured graphs, which are essential for AI, chatbots, and machine learning models to understand context. Semantic memory refers to how meaning is stored and recalled in the human brain, explaining why certain words and concepts are easier to remember than others. Semantics in Everyday Life Semantics plays a crucial role in daily communication, shaping how words are understood depending on context. Situational semantics illustrates how the meaning of words changes based on circumstances. For instance, the phrase "I care for you" can express love in a romantic setting but imply medical responsibility in a hospital. Puns and wordplay also highlight semantic complexity, as seen in the phrase “Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana,” where "flies" can refer to both movement and insects, creating humor through ambiguity. Ambiguous words can lead to multiple interpretations, as with the word "crash," which could mean a car accident, stock market collapse, or loud noise, depending on the context.
  • 21.
    Philosophical and PsychologicalAspects of Semantics Several linguistic theories explore the relationship between semantics and thought. Prototype theory suggests that words and categories are understood through their most typical examples rather than strict definitions. When people think of the word "bird," they are more likely to picture a sparrow rather than a penguin because the former fits the common prototype of a bird. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis argues that language influences thought, meaning that speakers of different languages may perceive reality differently. For example, English treats time as linear, with clear past, present, and future tenses, while the Hopi language structures time in a way that does not fit this model.
  • 22.
    PRAGMATIC Pragmatics is thestudy of how context influences meaning in language. It examines how people interpret language beyond its literal meaning, considering factors such as implicature, speech acts, relevance, and conversation structure. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, which studies meaning that is grammatically or lexically encoded. The ability to understand another speaker’s intended meaning is known as pragmatic competence. The field of pragmatics emerged in the 1950s, influenced by the work of J.L. Austin and Paul Grice. Over time, it developed into a key subfield of linguistics, expanding upon the ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure, who emphasized that language consists of interrelated structural elements.
  • 23.
    Types of Pragmatics Pragmaticsinitially focused on synchronic studies (language at a given time), rather than diachronic studies (historical development of language). However, as the field expanded, two different schools of thought emerged: 1. Anglo-American Pragmatic Thought – Focuses on logic and philosophy of language. 2. European Continental Pragmatic Thought – Known as the perspective view, which examines language use in social contexts.
  • 24.
    Areas of Interestin Pragmatics Pragmatics covers several key areas that explore how meaning is shaped by context and speaker intention. Speaker’s meaning focuses on the speaker’s intentions and beliefs rather than just the phonetic or grammatical form of an utterance. Contextual meaning examines how factors such as speaker identity, location, and time influence interpretation. Implicature studies what is implied but not explicitly stated. For example, if someone says, “It’s cold in here,” they might be suggesting that they want the window closed. Social and physical distance analyzes how relationships and spatial separation between speakers affect language choices. Unintentional meaning explores meanings that are not deliberately conveyed. For instance, saying “That’s nice” in a sarcastic tone may imply the opposite of the literal interpretation. Information structure examines how utterances are organized and marked to help speakers and listeners maintain a shared understanding. Finally, formal pragmatics applies formal semantic methods to study how context influences meaning in structured ways.
  • 25.
    Ambiguity in Pragmatics Pragmaticsexplores how ambiguity arises when words or sentences have multiple meanings. For example, the sentence “You have a green light” could mean a traffic signal is green, permission to proceed, the presence of green lighting, or even that a person’s body is glowing green. Similarly, “I went to the bank” could refer to either a financial institution or the side of a river, while “Sherlock saw the man with binoculars” could mean that Sherlock used binoculars to see the man or that the man Sherlock saw was holding binoculars. These cases highlight lexical ambiguity, where a word has multiple meanings, and syntactic ambiguity, where sentence structure allows for multiple interpretations. Pragmatic context is necessary to resolve these ambiguities. Referential Uses of Language Referential expressions identify specific people, places, or things and rely on the relationship between the signifier and the signified, as explained by Ferdinand de Saussure. For example, the signified is the concept of a cat, while the signifier is the word “cat” that represents this concept. Referential meaning can be semantic-referential, where statements remain true regardless of context, such as “Santa Claus eats cookies.” It can also be indexical, where meaning depends on the speaker and situation, as in “I am hungry,” where the meaning of “I” changes depending on who says it. Certain words like "this" and "that" function as indexical signs, meaning their interpretation shifts depending on the context.
  • 26.
    Referential Expressions inConversation In conversation, referential expressions connect past and present discourse to ensure understanding. Several factors influence referential expressions: competing referents, when multiple things could be referred to; salience, which determines how noticeable or important a referent is; social unity, which helps maintain a shared understanding among speakers; and conversational distance, which considers how recently a referent was mentioned. These elements guide how speakers use referential expressions to maintain clarity in communication. Non-Referential Uses of Language Not all words are used to refer to objects or concepts; some function as pure indices, conveying social or contextual information. Examples include gendered language, where verb forms change based on gender; honorifics, such as “Sir” or “Madam,” which indicate social status; and avoidance speech, seen in cultures where special speech forms are used in certain relationships, such as the mother-in-law language in Aboriginal Dyirbal. These linguistic features do not change referential meaning but add social meaning to communication.
  • 27.
    The Performative Functionof Language J.L. Austin introduced performative utterances, which do not merely describe actions but perform them. Examples include “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” “I accept your apology,” and “This meeting is adjourned.” These utterances must meet felicity conditions, meaning they must be spoken in the right context by the appropriate person to be valid and effective. Jakobson’s Six Functions of Language Roman Jakobson identified six functions of language. The referential function describes the world, as in “The leaves have fallen.” The expressive function conveys emotions, such as “Wow, that’s amazing!” The conative function directs the listener, as in “Come here!” The poetic function focuses on the aesthetic quality of language, such as in poetry and slogans. The phatic function maintains social relationships, exemplified by phrases like “How are you?” Finally, the metalingual function explains language itself, as in “What does ‘syntax’ mean?” These functions illustrate the different ways language operates in communication.
  • 28.
    Pragmatics and RelatedFields Pragmatics is closely related to several fields of study. Sociolinguistics examines how language varies within speech communities, while linguistic anthropology explores its relationship with culture and society. Speech act theory investigates how language can perform actions, and computational pragmatics focuses on developing AI systems that process human language effectively. Formal Pragmatics and Literary Theory Formal pragmatics aims to create logical systems that incorporate contextual meaning in language. Philosophers like Carlo Dalla Pozza worked on bridging formal logic and pragmatics. In literary theory, Judith Butler’s concept of gender performativity is rooted in pragmatics, showing how repeated language use constructs social realities.
  • 29.
    Transformational Grammar Transformational grammar(also known as transformational-generative grammar or T-G/TGG) is a linguistic theory that explains the structure of a language through transformations and phrase structures. The theory was introduced by Noam Chomsky in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, which led to a significant shift in linguistic studies. Unlike structuralist approaches that focused on phonology and morphology, transformational grammar emphasizes syntax, aiming to define a set of basic and transformational rules that allow native speakers to generate and comprehend all grammatical sentences of a language (Encyclopedia of Linguistics, 2005). Observations on Transformational Grammar  The publication of Syntactic Structures in 1957 marked a revolution in linguistics, redefining grammar as an innate, subconscious ability to generate language rather than merely a system describing spoken sentences.  Structuralists examined actual spoken sentences and their systemic nature, while transformationalists sought to uncover the internal rules of language that generate all grammatical sentences while excluding ungrammatical ones (Kolln & Funk, 1998).  Some linguists acknowledged transformational grammar as the best theory available, but its unique claims about human language were often unclear (Geoffrey Sampson, 2001).
  • 30.
    Surface Structures andDeep Structures Chomsky proposed that every sentence has a deep structure in the speaker’s mind, which is transformed into a surface structure through transformational rules. The deep structure connects to the mental lexicon and is converted into a surface structure that aligns with pronunciation and comprehension. This transformation prevents redundancy by allowing multiple sentence variations to originate from a single deep structure rather than storing numerous surface structures (Pinker, 1999). Transformational Grammar and Writing Instruction Sentence-combining exercises existed before transformational grammar, but the concept of embedding (inserting clauses into sentences) provided a theoretical foundation for them. Even after Chomsky and his followers moved away from embedding, sentence combining remained influential (Lunsford, 1990).
  • 31.
    Functional grammar Systemic FunctionalLinguistics and Functional Grammar The approach to grammar in this book is based on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), developed by Michael Halliday. Functional Grammar focuses on how language operates in context, emphasizing meaning- making rather than strict grammatical rules. It views language as a dynamic system shaped by culture, expressing specific values, beliefs, and worldviews. Language use changes depending on the situation, including the purpose of communication, the subject matter, the audience, and whether it is spoken or written. The study of grammar in this approach is centered on how people use authentic language in various real-life contexts, particularly in school settings. Additionally, understanding grammar helps individuals critically evaluate texts, recognize biases, and analyze how language can be used to construct different perspectives. Achieving Different Social Purposes One of the primary functions of language is to accomplish different social purposes. People use language to describe, explain, argue, and recount, and these purposes are expressed through different text types, also known as genres. Young learners start with simple text structures, such as short recounts with minimal details, basic arguments without supporting evidence, and brief explanations. With teacher guidance, students gradually learn to interpret and produce more complex texts with unpredictable structures. This progression equips them with the necessary skills for secondary education and broader community participation. The Australian Curriculum requires students to develop proficiency in a variety of text types for different purposes. While this book does not focus on specific genres, it highlights how grammatical structures contribute to achieving different social functions, such as using the past tense in recounts or the present tense in information reports.
  • 32.
    Functional grammar Expressing Ideasand Representing Experience Language plays a crucial role in representing experiences and helping individuals express and understand what happens in their lives. This function, sometimes called the "observer" function of language, includes understanding and using the language of different academic disciplines. Each subject area has its own specialized way of using language to develop knowledge, such as the technical vocabulary of science or the narrative structures in literature. As students progress through school, they transition from using everyday, concrete language to discussing more abstract and specialized topics. This shift requires explicit teaching, as it does not occur automatically. For example, students must learn how to move from talking about "my family" to discussing the concept of "families" in general or from discussing a specific volcanic eruption to understanding the broader concept of "volcanic activity.“ Connecting Ideas Another essential function of language is the ability to connect ideas. While basic connections can be made using simple words such as and, but, and so, academic writing and comprehension require more sophisticated methods of linking thoughts. To construct and interpret complex relationships between ideas, students must learn how to use advanced grammatical structures and logical connectors. This skill helps students produce well-structured texts and is critical for academic success. The ability to form complex sentences that express multiple ideas continues to develop throughout secondary school, enhancing both writing and critical thinking abilities.
  • 33.
    Functional grammar Interacting withOthers Language is fundamental to social interaction, as it allows individuals to construct particular roles and relationships. In early childhood, students communicate informally, freely expressing emotions and attitudes in familiar settings. However, as they advance, they must learn how to communicate in more formal and structured ways. In school, students need to develop interaction skills for participating in group discussions, engaging in classroom debates, and communicating with both peers and adults. They must also understand different social roles, such as being a group leader, a mediator, or an observer. Additionally, students need to develop critical awareness of how language is used to persuade or influence them. For instance, they should be able to analyze whether they are being manipulated to accept a particular point of view and recognize the linguistic strategies used in persuasion. Creating Coherent and Cohesive Texts A major transition in students’ language development is the shift from spoken to written communication. Spoken language is spontaneous and relies on immediate feedback from conversation partners. In contrast, written language requires planning, revision, and structuring to ensure clarity. Unlike spoken interactions, written texts must be self-contained, meaning that readers should understand them without additional context or explanations. To achieve coherence, students must learn how to use grammatical tools such as sentence openers, text connectives, and paragraph structuring to guide readers through their ideas. The ability to construct well-organized and cohesive texts is a key educational milestone and continues to develop throughout secondary school.
  • 34.
    Cognitive Grammar Cognitive Grammaris a usage-based approach introduced by Ronald Langacker in Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (1987/1991). It emphasizes symbolic and semantic meanings rather than strict syntactic rules, aligning with cognitive linguistics and functionalism. Unlike traditional views, it considers grammar inherently meaningful. Grammar as Meaningful Langacker argues that grammar carries meaning, enabling speakers to construct complex expressions. It plays a crucial role in shaping human perception and interaction with the world. Symbolic Associations in Cognitive Grammar Rejecting rule-driven language models, Cognitive Grammar focuses on linguistic units as symbolic structures, including morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and texts. It connects phonological and semantic structures directly rather than through a separate syntactic system.
  • 35.
    Cognitive Grammar Assumptions ofCognitive Grammar 1.Grammar is part of human cognition – Grammar interacts with cognitive faculties like perception, attention, and memory, shaping sentence construction. 2.Grammar reflects real-world experiences – Language structures align with human perceptions of reality, influencing how speakers conceptualize events, time, and space. 3.Grammar is meaningful – All grammatical elements, including function words and inflections, carry meaning. 4.Grammar encompasses a speaker’s entire linguistic knowledge – Lexicon and grammar form a unified system where words and structures work together. 5.Grammar is usage-based – Speakers dynamically adapt grammar based on communication context, selecting structures to emphasize meaning.
  • 36.
    Cognitive Grammar Langacker’s FourPrinciples of Cognitive Grammar 1.Functional Considerations – Language functions as a symbolic communication tool rather than a system of rigid rules. 2.Detailed and Precise Conceptual Descriptions – Grammar reflects conceptual structures in the mind, shaping cognitive representations of events. 3.Natural and Appropriate Language Descriptions – Language should be analyzed on its own terms without imposing rigid external frameworks. 4.Interdisciplinary Compatibility – Cognitive Grammar aligns with cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and evolutionary biology while remaining linguistically grounded.
  • 37.
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