TNTEU B.Ed., Contemporary India and Education-BD1CE- Unit 3. EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE COMMUNITIES

UNIT - 3 UNIVERSALISATION OF
EDUCATION IN INDIA
Contemporary India and
Education
Dr.Raja Mohammed T
M.Sc.,M.Ed.,M.A(His).,M.Phil.,M.A.,(Psy).,Ph.D.,TNSET

STATE-SPECIFIC GER, A FEW OBSERVATIONS
 Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu has consistently maintained a
high GER for males and females, with the highest overall
GER in 2020-21 at 49.3 percent.
 Kerala: Kerala has consistently maintained a high GER
for males and females over the years, with the overall
GER in 2020-21 at 39.8 percent
 Uttar Pradesh: Uttar Pradesh has a lower GER than the
national average, with the overall GER in 2020-21 at 21.8
percent.
 Bihar: Bihar has a lower GER than the national average,
with the overall GER in 2020-21 at 18.8 percent.
 Ref: https://educationforallinindia.com/ger-at-higher-education-level-in-
india2023/#:~:text=Kerala%20had%20the%20highest%20GER,Tamil%20Nadu
%20(42.5%20percent).

UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY
EDUCATION IN INDIA
 Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE)
has been accepted as a national goal in India.
Central and State governments are making
active efforts to achieve this goal.
 The Article 45 in the Directive Principles of State
Policy in the Constitution mandated the State to
endeavour to provide free and compulsory
education to all children up to age fourteen in a
period of ten years

EDUCATION IN INDIA
 Universalisation of Provision means that school facilities
should be provided to all the children between the age of 6
to 14.
 • Universalisation of Enrollment means that all the
children between the age of 6 to 14 must be enrolled.
 • Universalisation of Retention reveals a child who joins
primary school; he or she should remain there till he or she
completes all their primary education.

EDUCATION IN INDIA
 Universalisation of elementary education
basically evolves three important things:
 Universalisation of provision,
 Universalisation of enrollment
 Universalisation of retention

EDUCATION IN INDIA
 Efforts made by center and state governments •
 1. All India Council for Elementary Education
AICE 1957 •
 2. Primary Education Acts

EDUCATION IN INDIA
 Efforts made by governments •
 3. Kothari Commission 1964 • Lower and upper
primary •
 4. National Policy on Education 1986 •
 Accepted UEE as national goal •
 Facilities, quality, trained teachers, text books,
provisions to remove inequalities of caste etc.,

EDUCATION IN INDIA
 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan {SSA} •
Approved in November 2000

The project was launched on 8th June 2013, it was
implemented by MHRD as a centrally sponsored
scheme with matching contribution from the State
Government and Union Territories.
The State Government and the Center through
“The Project Appraisal Board” will monitor the
project annually.
RASHTRIYA UCHATAR SHIKSHA
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Components of RUSA
❖ The main component of the programme is to set up new
universities and upgrade existing autonomous colleges to
universities
❖ The other attempt will be to convert colleges to cluster universities
and set up new model colleges.
❖ In order to enhance skill development,
❖ RUSA also supports reforming, restructuring and building capacity
of institutions
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Objectives of RUSA
❑ To achieve the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) target of 25.2% by
the end of 12th Plan and 32% by the end of 13th Plan.
❑ To improve the overall quality of State institutions by ensuring
conformity to prescribed norms and standards and adopt
accreditation as a mandatory quality assurance framework.
❑ To ensure reforms in the affiliation, academic and examination
systems.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Objectives of RUSA
➢ To ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational
institutions and ensure capacity building at all levels of employment.
➢ To create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to
devote themselves to research and innovations
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Objectives of RUSA
➢ To improve equity in higher education by providing adequate
opportunities of higher education to SC/ST, socially and educationally
backward classes; promote inclusion of women, minorities, and
differently abled persons.
➢ To promote autonomy in State universities and include governance in the
institutions.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Salient Features of RUSA
✓ It would create new universities through upgradation of existing
autonomous colleges and conversion of colleges in a cluster.
✓ It would create new model degree colleges, new professional colleges
and provide infrastructural support to universities and colleges.
✓ Faculty recruitment support, faculty improvement programmes and
leadership development of educational administrators are also an
important part of the scheme.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Salient Features of RUSA
❑ It also supports reforming, restructuring and building capacity of institutions
in participating States.
❑ It promotes healthy competition amongst States and institutions to address
various concerns regarding quality, research and innovation
❑ It ensures governance, academic and examination reforms and establishes
backward and forward linkages between school education, higher education
and the job market.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Challenges in achieving RUSA
Gender disparity:
The National Sample Survey Organisation’s most recent estimate show a Gross
Enrollment Ratio of 15.8 percent for women against 22.8 percent for men.
Except for education and medicine, enrollment of boys is higher than girls in all
other faculties.
தேசிய மாேிரி கணக்ககடுப்பு அமமப்பின் மிக சமீபத்ேிய மேிப்பீட்டின்படி,
ஆண்களுக்கு 22.8 சேவ ீ
ேத்ேில் இருந்து கபண்களின் கமாத்ே தசர்க்மக விகிேம் 15.8
சேவ ீ
ேமாக உள்ளது. கல்வி மற்றும் மருத்துவம் ேவிர மற்ற அமைத்து கபண்கமள
விட ஆண்கமள தசர்க்மக அேிகமாக உள்ளது.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Inadequate infrastructure:
With rapid expansion, most of the institutions are not coping up with the
required infrastructure. This deficiency has ultimately resulted in paper
degree education with very low level of employability of graduates which
are being produced
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Low industrial training:
There is a need to support necessary infrastructure within institutions as
well as to promote institution industry interface by involving industry in
curriculum development, developing database of available facilities across
institutions.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Faculty crunch:
The growth in teaching faculty has not been kept in pace with the growth
of teaching institutions and enrollment, thus causing great imbalance
between teacher student ratio
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Decline in research:
Out of total enrollment, there is less than one percent enrollment in research,
against 86 percent in graduate, 12 percent postgraduate and one percent in diploma
and certificate courses. India’s global share of scientific publications of 3.5
percent is very low as compared to China’s share of more than 21 percent as
estimated by Thomas and Reuters.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Large affiliations:
Affiliated colleges with 89 percent enrollment of total students are main
stay in the system of higher education as they contain bulk of enrollment.
Almost all the newly established colleges are affiliated to State
Universities, increasing their burden of affiliation system. Over affiliation
dilutes the focus on academic quality and research.
ABHIYAAN (RUSA)

Integration traditionally refers to the education of children with special
needs in mainstream settings
The goal is not about how to find a good job or make big money, but
about how to develop a complete human being
Every part of the individual - mind, body, emotion and spirit, should be
developed at the same time and be integrated into the whole person.
Integrated Education

The concept of integrated education arises as an outcome of National
Policy of Education (1986), recommended to provide equal opportunity to
all not only for access but also for success.
Integration signifies the process of interaction of disabled children with
normal children in the same educational setting. Integration also means
‘mainstreaming’ or ‘normalisation’.

Integrated Education is the educational programme in which exceptional
children attend classes with normal children on either a part or full time
basis.
It is placement of the disabled children in ordinary schools with some
specialised educational help and services.

Salient Features of Integrated Education
❖ It does not create a feeling of differentiation among disabled children.
❖ It helps to remove inferiority complex among disabled children.
❖ It provides peer group help in learning from normal children.
❖ It provides disabled children a chance to enjoy school life with normal
children.
❖ It ensures social integration.

Salient Features of Integrated Education
✓ It inculcates affection, love and respect for disabled children among
normal children.
✓ It is less expensive as special infrastructure is not required.
✓ Special learning material and specially trained teachers are not
appointed.
✓ Disabled or challenged students may get help from peers for learning
and get motivated for learning.

Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC)
❖ The Government of India has brought about a scheme known as
❖ The overall aim of the programme is to enable such people to face life
courageously and develop a level of self-confidence thus bringing
them into mainstream of the society.

❑ IEDC is a centrally sponsored scheme which aims to provide
Educational Opportunities to the “not so abled” children.
❑ It has been regarded as one of the major initiatives from the
Government of India to promote “integrated education”. This
programme was initiated in 1974 by the Ministry of Welfare, Central
Government.

❑ Under this program children were to be provided with financial
support for books, stationery, school uniforms, transportation, special
equipments and aids.
❑ The State Governments were provided with 50 percent of the financial
assistance to implement this programme in regular schools.

Inclusive Education for children with special needs has been one of the
major interventions of the erstwhile Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA) RTE
and RMSA schemes. From the year 2018-19, Samagra Shiksha lays
emphasis on improving quality of education for all students,.
.
Inclusive Education

The component also emphasizes the implementation of the Right to Free
and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 for children with special
needs (within the age group of 6-14 years). In addition, separate resource
support (financial assistance towards salary of special educators) is also
made available in order to appropriately address the needs of children with
special needs within the school..
Inclusive Education

Inclusive Education Programmes
The Right to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 mandates
free and compulsory elementary education to all children including
children with special needs.
In order to address the educational needs of children with special needs at
the secondary and senior secondary level, the scheme for Inclusive
Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS)
Inclusive Education

Inclusive Education Programmes
The Scheme aimed at enabling all students with disabilities completing
eight years of elementary schooling, an opportunity to complete four years
of secondary schooling in an inclusive and enabling environment in the
general education system at the secondary level (classes IX to XII).
Inclusive Education

objectives of the component are :
❖ Identification of children with disabilities at the school level and
assessment of her/his educational needs.
❖ Provision of aids and appliances, assistive devices, to the children with
special needs as per requirement.
Inclusive Education

✓ Removal of architectural barriers in schools so that children with
special needs have access to classrooms, laboratories, libraries,
play/recreational area and toilets in the school.
✓ Supplying appropriate teaching learning materials, medical facilities,
vocational training support, guidance and counseling services and
therapeutic services to children with special needs as per his/her
requirement in convergence with line departments.
Inclusive Education

❖ General school teachers will be sensitized and trained to teach and
involve children with special needs in the general classroom.
❖ For existing special educators, capacity building programs will be
undertaken.
.
Inclusive Education

➢ Children with special needs will have access to support services through
special educators, establishment of resource rooms, vocational education,
therapeutic services and counseling etc.
.
Inclusive Education

Benefits of Inclusive Education
➢ All the children away from education will be benefitted
➢ Disabled or challenged students may get a support and help from
normal students.
➢ All the students excluded from school because of some reason may get
chance to enjoy school life with normal students.
.
Inclusive Education

Benefits of Inclusive Education
✓ Disabled or challenged students get motivated for learning.
✓ They may get a confidence and can learn to face problems and challenges
because of peer help.
.
Inclusive Education

Difficulties in implementation of Inclusive Education
Characteristics of individual pupils should match to facilitate participation
in schooling and the curriculum limitations. No tested methods and
techniques and teaching aids available to disabled or challenged students
may not get proper help from teachers and peers. They may face any other
problems because of inadequate facilities and teaching aids required to
meet their needs. They may get inferiority complex because of their
disability
Inclusive Education

Inclusive Education
Differences between Integrated and Inclusive Education
Integrated Education Inclusive Education
Can have their own criteria of
integrating students with some
disability or ability
Do not have their own criteria of
including students as main aim is
to include all the students who
are excluded from education.
Not very expensive as inclusive
education.
Can be more expensive as special
planning is done for
infrastructure, curriculum and
trained staff is appointed.
Regular curriculum is also
followed by challenged students
with same school timing.
Special curriculum is designed
and followed for challenged
students with may be less school
timing for according to need

Inclusive Education
Differences between Integrated and Inclusive Education
Integrated Education Inclusive Education
Challenged or gifted students in
any way are occupied in same
normal classrooms.
Special classrooms are designed
according to their needs.
Children with some disability
are integrated in normal school
only
Children with some disability are
included in normal schools but
with some special facilities for
them.
No formal planning is required Formal planning is required
No special infrastructure,
trained staff, special curriculum
is required
Special infrastructure, trained
staff, special curriculum is
required

Even though there are various approaches of the Government in making
universalization of elementary education successful, let us also know the
hurdles in making the universalization of elementary education in India
கோடக்கக் கல்விமய உலகளாவிய மயமாக்குவேில் அரசின் பல்தவறு அணுகுமுமறகள்
இருந்ோலும், இந்ேியாவில் கோடக்கக் கல்விமய உலகளாவிய மயமாக்குவேில் உள்ள
ேமடகமளயும் கேரிந்து ககாள்தவாம்
Challenges in achieving Universal
Elementary Education

Policy of Government அரசின் ககாள்மக
Administration of Education கல்வி நிர்வாகம்
Inadequacy of Money பணத்ேின் தபாோமம
Shortage of Trained Teachers பயிற்சி கபற்ற ஆசிரியர்கள் பற்றாக்குமற
School Buildings பள்ளி கட்டிடங்கள்
Unsuitable Curriculum கபாருந்ோே பாடத்ேிட்டம்
Wastage and Stagnation விரயம் மற்றும் தேக்கம்
Social Evils சமூக ேீமமகள்

Policy of Government அரசின் கைொள்கை
The main cause for this is that the policy of Government was based on
idealism.
Basic education was accepted as the form of national education. Being
inspired with this aim, work started to convert the existing primary
schools into basic schools. India is a vast country with a very large
population. Money was too much in shortage for implementation of so
expensive a scheme of conversion of a large number of elementary
schools.

Administration of Education கல்வி நிர்வாகம்
In most of the States, the responsibility of universal primary education is
on the authorities of Blocks, Municipalities and Educational Districts. The
progress of expansion of primary education gets slow because of the
indifference and incapability of these institutions. It is the responsibility of
the nation to educate its citizens. It is necessary that the Government of
India should take upon itself the sacred work of universal enrolment and
universal retention at the elementary stage.

INADEQUACY OF MONEY
Money is a serious problem that confronts primary schools. Income of the
local institutions responsible for primary education is so much limited that
they are totally incapable of meeting the expenditure of compulsory
education.

Shortage of Trained Teachers பயிற்சி கபற்ற ஆசிரியர்கள்
பற்றாக்குமற
There is shortage of trained teachers to make ‘Elementary Education
Universal and Compulsory’. Nowadays, the young teachers do not wish to
work in rural areas. But the fact remains that majority of primary schools
are in rural areas. The chief reason of non-availability of suitable teachers
is the low salary of primary teachers

School Buildings
Even the Third and Fourth All India Educational Surveys indicate that
even now there are lakhs of villages and habitations without schools.
There are nearly 4 lakhs schools less villages in India. It is not that easy to
provide necessary funds for setting up such a large number of schools with
buildings and other equipment

Unsuitable Curriculum
The curriculum for primary schools is narrow and unsuitable to the local
needs. The curriculum should be interesting for the children for its
continuance. Learning by work should replace the emphasis on
monotonous bookish knowledge. Education of craft should be given int he
primary schools in accordance with the local needs and requirements. But
the schemes of craft education in the primary schools should not of highly
expensive ones.

Wastage and Stagnation
It is another major problem and great obstacle for Universalization of
Elementary Education, due to the lack of educational atmosphere,
undesirable environment, lack of devoted teachers, poor economic
condition of parents, and absence of proper equipment's In order to check
such massive wastage and stagnation at the primary stage, existing educational
system and curriculum should be reformed, teaching method should be interesting,
school buildings should be adequate and neat and clean, and the parents should be
educated.

Social Evils
Social evils like superstition, illiteracy faith in ancient conventions and
child marriages, untouchability etc create obstacle in the expansion of
compulsory primary education. Some persons get their sons and daughters
married at a very minor age against the Child Marriage Prohibition Act
and deprive these school-going children of the fruits of education.

Education imparts knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that are
important for the social, economic and political development for any
country. This role is well articulated in Sustainable Development Goal 4
(SDG 4), which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
for all and promote lifelong learning.
எந்ேகவாரு நாட்டிற்கும் சமூக, கபாருளாோர மற்றும் அரசியல் வளர்ச்சிக்கு முக்கியமாை
அறிவு, ேிறன்கள், மேிப்புகள் மற்றும் அணுகுமுமறகமள கல்வி வழங்குகிறது. இந்ே பங்கு
நிமலயாை வளர்ச்சி இலக்கு 4 இல் (SDG 4) நன்கு கவளிப்படுத்ேப்பட்டுள்ளது, இது
அமைவருக்கும் உள்ளடங்கிய மற்றும் சமமாை ேரமாை கல்விமய உறுேி கசய்வேற்கும்
வாழ்நாள் முழுவதும் கற்றமல தமம்படுத்துவேற்கும் முயல்கிறது.
Education for collective living and
peaceful living
கூட்டு வொழ்க்கை மற்றும் அகமதியொன
வொழ்க்கைக்ைொன ைல்வி

❖ Students of today are the leaders of tomorrow, over the years education
has played a very important part in shaping up our society.
❖ Education is one of the most important aspect of a student’s life.
❖ It makes them aware of the rights and wrongs of the society.
❖ It helps grow as people, helps them to take decisions of the right and
the wrong doings, there can never be any alternatives to education ever.
.
peaceful living

The Four Pillars of Education were produced in the report for UNESCO in 1996 by the
Commission on Education presided by Jacques Delors.
( F r a n c e ) Chairman of the Commission;
former President of the European Commission (1985–95);
former French Minister of Economy and Finance.
கல்விக்காை நான்கு தூண்கள் யுகைஸ்தகாவிற்காை அறிக்மகயில் ஜாக் கடதலார்ஸ்
ேமலமமயிலாை கல்வி ஆமணயத்ோல் 1996 இல் ேயாரிக்கப்பட்டை.(Fr a n c e) ஆமணயத்ேின்
ேமலவர்;ஐதராப்பிய ஆமணயத்ேின் முன்ைாள் ேமலவர் (1985-95);முன்ைாள் பிகரஞ்சு
கபாருளாோரம் மற்றும் நிேி அமமச்சர்.
peaceful living

The Four Pillars of Education
One of the most influential concepts of the 1996 Delors Report was that of the
four pillars of learning. Formal education, the report argued, tends to emphasize
certain types of knowledge to the detriment of others that are essential to
sustaining human development.
peaceful living

கேரிந்து
ககாள்ள
கற்றல்
கசய்வேற்கு
கற்றல்
ஒன்றாக
வாழ்வேற்கு
கற்றல்
எவ்வாறு
இருக்க
தவண்டும்
என்பேற்க்க
கற்றல்

Learning to know, by combining a sufficiently broad general knowledge
with the opportunity to work in depth on a small number of subjects. This
also means learning to learn, so as to benefit from the opportunities
education provides throughout life.
Learning to know

preencoded.png
Learning to Know (அறிந்து கற்றல் )
Key Points:
• Emphasis on understanding fundamental knowledge.
• Encourages curiosity, inquiry, and lifelong learning.
• Builds the foundation for critical thinking.
Examples:
• Education: Learning science concepts like gravity, atoms, or photosynthesis.
• Real-Life: Developing problem-solving skills through math puzzles.
Tamil:
• அடிப்படை அறிவு மற்றும் புரிதலுக்கு முக்கியத்துவம்.
• ஆர்வம், ஆராய்ச்சி, மற்றும் வாழ்நாள் கற்றடை ஊக்குவிக்கிறது.
• விமர்சன சிந்தடனக்கு அடித்தளமாக உள்ளது.
உதாரணம்:
• கல்வி: ஈர்ப்பு விடச, அணுக்கள், அல்ைது ஊதா சமீபத்தின் தன்டமகடள அறிதல்.
• வாழ்க்கக: கணிதப் புதிர்களின் மூைம் சிக்கல்கடளத் தீர்க்கும் திறன் வளர்த்தல்.

Learning to do, in order to acquire not only an occupational skill but also, more
broadly, the competence to deal with many situations and work in teams. It also
means learning to do in the context of young peoples’ various social and work
experiences which may be informal, as a result of the local or national context, or
formal, involving courses, alternating study and work.
Learning to do

preencoded.png
Learning to Do (செய்ய கற்றல் )
Key Points:
• Focus on skills for employability and adaptability.
• Links knowledge with practical application.
• Prepares individuals for teamwork and real-world challenges.
Examples:
• Education: Conducting science experiments or participating in group projects.
• Real-Life: Internships, vocational training, or cooking a recipe.
Tamil:
• வவடைவாய்ப்பு மற்றும் மாற்றத்திற்கான திறன்கடள டமயமாகக் ககாண்ைது.
• அறிவுக்கும் நடைமுடறக்கும் இடைப்டப வழங்குகிறது.
• குழு வவடை மற்றும் நிஜ உைக சவால்களுக்கு தனிநபர்கடள தயாரிக்கிறது.
• உதாரணம்:
• கல்வி: விஞ்ஞான ஆராய்ச்சிகள் நைத்துதல் அல்ைது குழு திட்ைங்களில் பங்வகற்பது.
• வாழ்க்கக: பயிற்சிகள், கதாழில் சார்ந்த பயிற்சிகள், அல்ைது சடமயலுைன் கதாைர்புடைய கசயல்பாடுகள்.

Learning to live together, by developing an understanding of other people and an
appreciation of interdependence – carrying out joint projects and learning to
manage conflicts -in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual
understanding and peace.
Learning to live together

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Learning to Live Together (ஒன்றிகணந்து வாழ கற்றல் )
Key Points:
• Promotes respect, tolerance, and cultural understanding.
• Encourages collaboration and conflict resolution.
• Essential for peaceful coexistence in diverse societies.
Examples:
• Education: Participating in cultural exchange programs or group discussions on global issues.
• Real-Life: Volunteering in community projects or resolving disputes amicably.
Tamil:
• மரியாடத, சகிப்புத்தன்டம, மற்றும் பண்பாட்டு புரிதலுக்குச் சிறப்பு அளிக்கிறது.
• ஒத்துடழப்பு மற்றும் வமாதல்கடள தீர்க்க உதவுகிறது.
• பல்வவறு சமூகங்களில் அடமதியான இடை வாழ்வுக்குத் வதடவயானது.
உதாரணம்:
• கல்வி: பண்பாட்டு பரிமாற்ற திட்ைங்களில் பங்வகற்பது அல்ைது உைகளாவிய பிரச்சிடனகள் கதாைர்பான குழு விவாதங்கள்.
• வாழ்க்கக: சமூக திட்ைங்களில் சுயவவடை கசய்யுதல் அல்ைது வமாதல்கடள அடமதியாக தீர்க்க உதவுதல்.

Learning to be, so as better to develop one’s personality and be able to act with
ever greater autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility. In that connection,
education must not disregard any aspect of a person’s potential: memory,
reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacities and communication skills.
Learning to be

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Comparison Chart
Pillar Focus Area Example
Learning to Know Knowledge Acquisition Reading a book on history
Learning to Do Practical Skills Apprenticeships, group activities
Learning to Be Personal Growth Creative writing, self-reflection
Learning to Live Together
Social Harmony Participating in team sports, debates
அறிந்து கற்றல் அறிவு வசகரிப்பு வரைாறு பற்றிய ஒரு புத்தகம் படித்தல்
கசய்ய கற்றல் நடைமுடறத் திறன்கள் பயிற்சி, குழு கசயல்பாடுகள்
கமய்ப்கபாருளாக வர கற்றல் தனிப்பட்ை வளர்ச்சி படைப்பாற்றல் எழுத்து, சிந்தடன
கசயைாக்கம்
ஒன்றிடைந்து வாழ கற்றல் சமூக ஒற்றுடம குழு விடளயாட்டுகளில் பங்வகற்பது,
விவாதங்கள்

TNTEU B.Ed., Contemporary India and Education-BD1CE- Unit 3. EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE COMMUNITIES

TNTEU B.Ed., Contemporary India and Education-BD1CE- Unit 3. EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS OF INDIVIDUALS AND DIVERSE COMMUNITIES

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