PPT 1 BMC.pptx

PPT 1 BMC.pptx

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  Subject: Introduction topsychology • Introduction to Psychology: Definition, History, and Applications
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  Introduction to Psychology:Definition, History, and Applications Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation. Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives. Television shows such as Dr. Phil feature psychologists who provide personal advice to those with personal or family difficulties. Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including relating to individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness.
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  Contd.. Psychology differs fromthe other social sciences — anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology — in that psychology seeks to explain the mental processes and behavior of individuals. Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior on a systemic level. The subfield of neuropsychology studies the actual neural processes while biological psychology studies the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior, mind and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g. animal cognition and ethology), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison.
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  Contd.. Psychology is commonlydefined as the science of behavior and mental processes. Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. In the past 20 years or so psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the brain or nervous system. It is still not clear in what ways these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways? Perhaps to understand this people need to know the definition of “Consciousness" and "brain state" – or is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' which bears no direct relationship to neural processes? The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise.
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  Contd.. History: The usualdate selected for the beginning of psychology is 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Started a formal psychology research laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Psychology has been around since antiquity, some say that the Kama Sutra speaks of psychology. Other studies preceded psychology that are either concerned with the same subject, just go about a different method of solving their problem or contributed to the method of solving the problem. These include philosophy, the natural sciences, and medicine. • Philosophy: Wanted to solve the same hypotheses but didn't use the same method as psychology • The Sciences: Physics, chemistry, biology, and physiology were all important contributors to the methods that are used by psychologists. Chemistry offers new drugs to treat behavioral problems, while the biological theory of evolution gave strong support for comparative psychology. Biology also offers much information on genetics, heredity, and physiological structures and processes which have been used by psychologists in considering the effects of these factors on behavior and thought processes.
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  Contd.. • Medicine: Inthe 1800s people who exhibited behavioral problems were thought to be possessed by the devil. In the early 1880s, medical interest brought the treatment for physical illnesses that were thought to cause abnormal patterns of behavior or thinking. By the late 1880s the abnormal patterns were classified as mental illnesses, and treatment changed accordingly. This led to the development of what is now called psychiatry and had important effects on psychology. The former might include neuropsychology, cognitive psychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology. Some examples of the latter are cultural psychology, community psychology, theoretical/ philosophical psychology, and critical psychology. History of psychology does not fall neatly into either of these categories. The subject is widely taught in psychology departments, and there is a substantial market for its textbooks. History of psychology is also a formal requirement in degrees that are approved by professional organizations like the American Psychological Association and the British Psychological Society, though neither of these organizations requires that it be offered as a separate course. The requirement can be met by including historical material in other courses.
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  Contd.. The term “historyof psychology” requires little explanation. It is the story of psychology from its earliest beginnings to the present day. Some debate has taken place over when the story begins. In spite of the well-known adage attributed to Ebbinghaus that “psychology has a short history and a long past,” text book writers have usually started the story with ancient Greeks. A well-known example is the textbook by Robert Watson titled The Great Psychologists: From Aristotle to Freud (1963). In the 1980s, two British historians of psychology took issue with this view (Richards, 1987; Smith, 1988).
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  History of Psychology Schoolof Psychology Description Important Contributors Structuralism Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or “structures” of psychological experience Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener Functionalism Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess William James
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  Contd.. • Wundtian Psychologyand Structuralism. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is credited with forming the first psychology laboratory (exclusively for psychological work) in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. This starting date is rather arbitrary, and historians have argued that other dates (and people) are defensible. We might attribute the founding to Wundt in 1874 when he published Principles of Physiological Psychology (while physiological was the word used in the translation from German, a more appropriate translation would have been experimental), or perhaps the founding could be two years later in 1881 when Wundt began the first journal in psychology, Philosophical Studies (you might think that Psychological Studies would have been a better and less confusing title, but there already was a journal by that name that dealt primarily with psychic forces). • Wundt was interested in studying the mind and conscious experience. He believed that a rigorous program of introspection could be used to report the processes at work in the inner consciousness. Introspection was a technique used by researchers to describe and analyze their own inner thoughts and feelings during a research experience. Wundt and his colleagues carried out numerous research studies examining the contents of consciousness. Some of the better known results are Wundt's tridimensional theory of feeling, and his work on mental chronometry. Thus, although mental processes themselves were not studied (they were unobservable), the time a mental process took was measurable and appropriate for study. • Wundt's contributions to psychology are briefly mentioned here. For the remainder of the 19th century Wundt and his laboratory were the center of psychology, and anyone seriously interested in pursuing psychology traveled to Germany to study with Wundt. This situation changed rapidly by the beginning of the 20th century when America took a stronghold on psychology. Perhaps Wundt's greatest influence was the mentoring of students: over 160 students (an astounding number) received their Ph.D. under Wundt's supervision. One of those students was Edward Bradford Titchener, who studied with Wundt in Germany and then immigrated to Cornell University (Ithaca, NY) to promote his own variation of Wundtian psychology called structuralism. •
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  Contd.. • Structuralism, thestudy of the anatomy of the mind, as a system of psychology shares some common characteristics with Wundt's ideas. Both systems were interested in the mind and conscious experience, and both used introspection. Structuralism departed from Wundt's ideas, however, in its application of introspection as the only method available for experimental inquiry, and applied much more rigorous standards in its use. Titchener also spelled out quite clearly what structuralism was NOT interested in: applied problems, children, animals, individual differences, and higher mental processes. • • Titchener's goal for structuralism was to use this rigorous introspective method to discover and identify the structures of consciousness, hence the title structuralism. Once the structures were understood, the laws of association could be verified and then one could study the physiological conditions under which ideas and concepts become associated. The ultimate goal was to understand the workings of the mind. Titchener contributed significantly to the rapid growth of psychology in America by having 54 Ph.D. students complete their work under his direction at Cornell University; he also separated the psychology department apart from the philosophy department there. Although the pursuit of structuralism basically died with Titchener (1867-1927), he provided a concrete system of psychology which would later be the subject and focus of major changes in psychology, resulting in a alternative approach to psychology: functionalism. •
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  Contd.. • Functionalism. Functionalismis important to the history of American psychology, because it is a system of psychology that is uniquely American. Wundtian psychology and structuralism both have their roots in Germany, but functionalism is an American product. Three men were instrumental in promoting functionalism: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and James M. Cattell. • What was so different about functionalism that set it apart from Titchener's structuralism? Whereas structuralism focused on discovering the structure of consciousness and how its contents are organized and stored, functionalists were more interested in how the mind worked, what mental processes accomplish, and what role consciousness plays in our behavior. As you can see, these are two strikingly different approaches. The functionalist wanted to know how and why the mind works (as opposed to how is it structured). • William James (1842-1910) is noted in this transition period from structuralism to functionalism for his clarity of thought and strong opposition to Titchener. At Harvard University in 1875-1876 he offered a course in "The Relations Between Physiology and Psychology." In 1890 James published a two volume Principles of Psychology which was an impressive work written with brilliance and clarity. James supported more than just the introspective method, and felt that more experimental procedures as well as comparative studies (between species) were valuable approaches. James contributed his honorable reputation and standing to oppose the division of consciousness into structures, offering an alternative approach for studying the mind. • G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) was a contributor to the founding of functionalism, but probably would not be considered a functionalist. Hall is famous for his number of accomplishments in psychology (see Table B.3). Particularly important were his (a) founding the first American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1883; (b) founding of the American Psychological Association in 1892; and (c) bringing Sigmund Freud to America in 1909 (Freud's only visit to the U.S.). Hall was interested in a number of topics, including studying children and how they develop, and he founded developmental psychology and educational psychology. Hall's interests highlight the functioning of consciousness, and how it allows us to adapt and survive in our environment
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  Contd.. • Behaviorism andNeobehaviorism. In 1913 a functionalism-trained John B. Watson literally declared war against the establishment by describing a totally new approach to psychology: Behaviorism. The goals of this new behaviorism were to study only behaviors and processes that were totally objective and fully observable. In this new system there would be no introspection, no discussion of mental concepts, no study of the mind, and no mention of consciousness. Watson, in a pure scientific approach, wanted to study behavior, making no assumptions beyond what was available to the senses. Although behaviorism had a slow beginning, it took off in the 1920s and became (along with neobehaviorism) the dominant system of psychology for four decades. Any type of behavior was appropriate for study under Watson so long as it met the criteria of behaviorism. The methods of behaviorism were limited to observation and objective testing/experimentation. • • Watson's views and behaviorism became quite popular both in psychology and to the general public. When studying and explaining behavior based on only what is observable, Watson did not depend on sexual overtones to explain behavior (this was a relief for many, because Freudian ideas seemed to suggest that sex and sexual desires were the basis for just about everything we do). His message of behaviorism gave people hope in that they were not explicitly tied to their past or their heritage, but could also be greatly influenced by their immediate environment. Watson's beliefs directly fed into the great American dream of the 1920's (freedom, liberty, hope) •
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  Contd.. Applications Psychological tests andmethods have proved useful in solving some concrete problems. Whereas basic researchers test theories about mind and behavior, applied psychologists are motivated by a desire to solve practical human problems. Psychology helps the human in many different fields. Psychology in Education: Psychology helps the students in getting Education by solving their problems. This is also called Education Psychology. Education Psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. Researchers and theorists are likely to be identified in the US and Canada as Educational psychologist, where as practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. This distinction is however not made in the UK, where the generic term for practitioners is “Educational Psychologist”.
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  Contd.. Educational psychology canin part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialists within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within facilities of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks. Psychology in Health: Health psychology is concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and the prevention of illness. Health psychologists work alongside other medical professionals in clinical settings, work on behavior change in public health promotion. Teach at universities and conduct research. The allied field ins Occupational Health Psychology.
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  Contd.. Four Basic Divisionsof Health Psychology 1. Clinical health psychology (CIHP): Clinical health psychology is a term that refers to the application of scientific knowledge, derived from the field of health psychology, to clinical questions that may arise across the spectrum of health care. CIHP is one of many specialty practice areas for clinical psychologists. It is also a major contributor to the prevention focused field of behavioral health and the treatment-oriented field of behavioral science. 2. 2. Public health psychology: Public health psychology is population oriented. A major aim of PHP is to investigate potential casual links between psychological factors and health at the population level. Public health psychologists present research results to educators. Policy makers, and health care providers in order to promote better public health. PHP is allied to other public health disciplines including epidemiology, nutrition, genetics and biostatistics.
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  Contd.. 3. Community healthpsychology (CoHp): Community health psychology investigates community factors that contribute to the health and well0being of individuals who live in communities. CoHP also develops community- level interventions that are designed to combat disease and promote physical and mental health. 4. Critical health psychology (CrHP): Critical health psychology is concerned with the distribution of power and the impact of power differentials on health experience and behavior, health care systems, and health policy. CrHP prioritizes social justice and the universal right to health for people of all races, genders, ages, and socioeconomic positions. Psychology in Politics: Political psychology is an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to the relationship between psychology and political science, with a focus on the role of human thought, emotion, and behavior in politics.
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  Contd.. It analyzes politicalscience as related to entities such as voters, lawmakers, local and national governments and administrations, international organizations, political parties, and associations. While the grammar of “political psychology” tends to stress psychology as the central field, the discipline could also be accurately labeled “the psychology of politics,” so as to more evenly recognize the interdisciplinary nature of the field. Also not fully conveyed by the label is the wide scope of the disciplines from which political psychology draws, including anthropology, cognitive and personality psychology, sociology and social psychology, psychiatry, international relations, and other more distant fields such as economics, philosophy, and the arts. The cross-fertilization between political science and psychology has risen to a modestly active level since its beginnings in the 1940s, though both fields have traditionally had a wider magnitude of collaboration with other disciplines, such as history with political science, and sociology with psychology.
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  Contd.. Psychology in Law: Psychologyin Law also called Legal Psychology. Legal psychology involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Legal psychologists typically take basic social and cognitive principles and apply them to issues in the legal system such as eyewitness memory, jury decision- making, investigations, and interviewing. The term “legal psychology’ has only recently come into usage, primarily as a way to differentiate the experimental focus of legal psychology from the clinically oriented forensic psychology. Many psychologists today work in legal system. They consult with attorneys, testify in court as expert witness, counsel prisoners, teach in law schools, and research various justice-related issues. Sometimes referred to as forensic psychologists, those who apply psychology to the law study a range of issues, including jury selection, eyewitness testimony, and confessions to police, lie-detector tests, the death penalty, criminal profiling, and the insanity defense.
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  Contd.. Psychologists in thisarea often testify in court as expert witnesses. In cases involving the insanity defense, forensic clinical psychologists are often called to court to give their opinion about whether individual defendants are sane or insane. Used as a legal defense, insanity means that defendants, because of a mental disorder, cannot appreciate the wrongfulness of their conduct or control it. Psychology in Industries and Organizations: Industrial and organizational psychology (also known as I/Q psychology work psychology, or personnel psychology) is the scientific of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Industrial and organizational psychologists contribute to an organizations success by improving the performance and well-being of its people. An I/O psychologists research and identifies how behaviors and attitudes can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, and feedback systems. I/O psychologists help organizations transition among periods of change and development. industrial and organizational psychology is related to the concepts of organizational behavior and human capital.
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  Contd.. The “industrial” sideof I-Q psychology has its historical origins in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of performance. This branch of the field crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty stations. After the War, the growing industrial base in the US added impetus to I-Q psychology. Walter Dill Scott, who was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I-Q psychologist of his time, although James McKeen Cattell and (elected president in 1895) and Hugo Miinsterberg (1898) were influential in the early development of the filed. Organizational psychology gained prominence after World War II, influenced by the Hawthorne studies and the work of researchers as Kurt Lewin and Muzafer Sherif. Psychology in Sports: Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from the fields of kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. In addition to instruction and training of psychological skills for performance improvement, applied sport psychology may include work with athletes, coaches, and parents regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building, and career transitions.
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  Contd.. Sports and exercisepsychology consist of instructing athletes, coaches, teams, exercisers, parents, fitness professionals, groups, and other performances on the psychological aspects of their sport or activity. It is pertinent to mention that the practice of applied sport psychology is not legally restricted to individuals who possess one type of certification or licensure. The subject of “what exactly constitutes applied sport psychology and who can practice it? Has been debated amongst sport psychology professionals. Practical ways to Apply Psychology in Everyday Life: 1. Get Motivated: When someone goal is to quit smoking, lose weight or learn a new language, some lessons from psychology offer tips for getting motivated. In order to increase someone’s motivational levels when approaching a task.
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  Contd.. 2. Improve LeadershipSkills: It doesn’t matter if someone is an office manager or a volunteer at a local youth group, having good leadership skills will probably be essential at some point in someone’s life. Not everyone is a born leader, but a few simple tips gleaned from psychological research can help to improve leadership skills. One of the most famous studies on this topic looked at three distinct leadership styles. 3. Become a Better Communicator: Communication involves much more than how someone speak or write. Research suggests that nonverbal signals make up a huge portion of interpersonal communications. In order to communicate message effectively. 4. Learn to Better Understand Others: Much like nonverbal communication, ability to understand someone’s emotions and the emotions of those around plays an important role in relationship and professional life. The term emotional intelligence refers to someone’s ability to understand both their own emotions as well as those of other people.
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  Contd..