Prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription with their clinical applications

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Transcription with
their clinical applications
Dr. Rohini C Sane
Burkittlymphoma
Systemic lupus erythematosus

The central dogma of molecular biology
DNA
RNA
Protein
Transcription
Translation
Reverse Transcription
Replication
The flow of genetic information
Conventional concept

The central dogma of molecular biology in bioinformatic era
• Genome: thetotalDNA(geneticinformation)containedinanorganismoracell.Itis
storehouseofbiologicalinformation.Itincludesthechromosomesinthenucleusandthe
DNAinmitochondria.
• Transcriptome: the RNA copies of the active protein coding genes. It is the
initial product of gene expression which directs synthesis of the protein.
• Proteomes: repository /storehouse / repertoire of cell’s proteins. It
represents the entire range of proteins and their biological functions in a cell.

The central dogma of molecular biology
Genome
Transcriptome
Proteomes
Transcription
Translation
Replication
The flow of genetic information
Current concept
( bioinformatics era)

Transcription(RNA synthesis)
Transcription : the synthesis of RNA molecule using DNA as a template ,that results in the
transfer of information stored in double stranded DNA into a single stranded RNA , which is
used by the cell to direct its protein synthesis.
Eukaryotic cell
Duringtranscription,themessagefromDNAiscopied inthelanguageofnucleotides.(4letterlanguage).

Expression of genetic information by transcription
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
DNA(gene)
Eukaryotic rRNA
Meth7-Gppp pApApA
Eukaryotic mRNA with
cap(7-methylguanosine
triphosphate) and Poly
A tail( AAA)
tRNA

Synthesis of RNA(transcription) from DNA
5’ ATGCACGTTACA 3’ Coding strand
3’ TACGTGCAATGT 5’ Template strand
RNA polymerase
5’ ATGCACGTTACA 3’Inactive primary RNA transcripts
Posttranscriptional modification
5’ AUGCUCGUUACA 3’ Active RNA
DNA
Transcription : the mRNA base sequence complementary to that of the template strand and
identical to that of coding strand. In mRNA ,U replaces T.

Basic requirements of Transcription
• Definition of Transcription: is a process in which Ribonucleic acid(RNA) is
synthesized from DNA template catalyzed by RNA polymerase .
(NMP) n+ NTP → (NMP) n+1+ PPi
• Gene: a functional unit of DNA that can be transcribed.
• Template strand of DNA : One of two DNA strands(non coding strand or anti-sense
strand)→to produces working copies of RNA molecules(formation of
complementary copies of RNA molecule /transcript) .
• Other strand of DNA does not participate in transcription →referred as Coding
strand of the gene or Sense Strand= non-template Strand
• Coding strand :commonly used with exception of T for U
• Primary mRNA :contains codons for same base sequence as coding strand
• Substrates: 4 ribonucleoside triphosphates (ATP,GTP, CTP,UTP)
• Enzymes : DNA dependent RNA polymerase ( RNA polymerase → RNAP) responsible
for the synthesis of RNA in 5’→3’ direction using DNA template.

Characteristics of Transcription
• Transcription is selective i.e. entire molecule is not expressed in
transcription.
• RNA are synthesized for selected regions of DNA, other regions of DNA,
there may not be any transcription at all. (exact reason?→Inbuilt signals in
the DNA molecule)
• Three Stages of transcription : initiation , elongation and termination
• The RNA synthesized is complimentary to one of the strand and identical to
the other coding strand.
• Product of transcription : inactive primary RNA transcripts
• inactive primary RNA transcripts undergo post transcriptional modifications
to produce functionally an active RNA molecules.
• Post transcriptional modifications : splicing, terminal base additions, base
modifications etc.

Ribonucleotides (ATP,GTP, CTP,UTP) required for transcription
Substrates for transcription

Types of Cellular RNA
• Types of Cellular RNA include:
1. Messenger RNA(mRNA)
2. Ribosomal RNA( rRNA) involved in protein synthesis
3. Transfer RNA(tRNA)
4. Several small nuclear RNA ( snRNAs)→ involved in mRNA splicing

Functions of RNAs in protein biosynthesis
mRNA:serveasatemplateforproteinbiosynthesisandtransfergeneticinformationfromDNAtoprotein
synthesizingmachinery.
tRNA:carriesaminoacidsinanactivatedformtotheribosomefortranslations(proteinsynthesis)of
informationinthesequenceofnucleotidesofthem-RNA.
rRNA:maintainsribosomalstructureandalsoparticipatesinproteinbiosynthesisbybindingofm-RNAto
ribosome.ItfunctionsasanenzymeRibozymehavingcatalyticactivities.




Prokaryotic RNA polymerase
• Prokaryotes have single RNA polymerase that transcribes all three RNAs :
2. Ribosomal RNA( rRNA) involved in protein synthesis
RNPA contains four subunits (2 ,’ ,) which form the core enzyme .
The active enzyme = core enzyme + fifth subunit (sigma  factor)+ omega
subunit
Function of sigma  factor: binding of the polymerase to specific promoter
regions of DNA template .
RNAP is metalloenzyme containing Zinc molecule .

Subunits of Prokaryotic DNA dependent RNA polymerase
Prokaryotes have single RNA polymerase that transcribes all three RNAs i.e.
2. Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
➢Subunits of DNA dependent RNA polymerase/RNA polymerase (RNAP):
2 alpha (), beta (), beta (’) , omega subunit and sigma ()



’

Core enzyme
Sigma factor
ProkaryoticRNA polymerase
holoenzyme
 omega subunit

Eukaryotic RNA polymerases
• In contrast to prokaryotes , eukaryotic cells have three types of RNA
polymerases:
1. RNA polymerase I
2. RNA polymerase II
3. RNA polymerase III
➢Eukaryotic RNA polymerases are :
a. complex than prokaryotic RNA polymerase.
b. Differ in template specificity.
c. Differ in location in the nucleus.
d. Are responsible for the transcription of different sets of genes.

Types of Eukaryotic RNA polymerases and RNAs formed
Type of DNA dependent
RNA polymerase(RNAP)
Location Type precursors of RNA
formed
Sensitivity towards
Amanitin
RNA polymerases I or A Nucleolus 18S ,5.8S, and 28S rRNA Sensitive and inhibited
RNA polymerases II or B Nucleoplasm mRNA precursor, snRNA,
snoRNA, miRNA
Not inhibited
RNA polymerases III or C Nucleoplasm tRNA, 5S rRNA, some
snRNA, snoRNA
Moderately sensitive
Eukaryotic RNA polymerases of are more complex than prokaryotic RNA polymerase and
differ in their template specificity.

An overview of transcription in eukaryotes
5’
3’
3’
5’
RNA polymerases I RNA polymerases II RNA polymerases III
DNA
Ribosomal RNAs Messenger RNA,
snRNA,miRNA
Transfer RNA
5’
3’
Schematic diagram

Prokaryotic Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
Three types of rRNA molecules in E.Coli : 5S , 23S , 16 S .

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
Three types of rRNA molecules in E.Coli : 5S , 23S , 16S .
Three types of Eukaryotic rRNA synthesized from 60 S preribosomal RNA (long precursor)
: 5S, 28S, 5.8S and fourth 18s rRNA from 40s preribosomal RNA

Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
Prokaryotic rRNAs Eukaryotic rRNAs ( located in cytosol)
23 S rRNA


16S rRNA
 5S rRNA
23S rRNA

28S rRNA
 18S rRNA
 5.8S rRNA
 5S rRNAS = Svedberg unit related to molecular
weight and shape of molecule
rRNA in association with several proteins as components of ribosomes serve as sites for
protein synthesis . Some rRNA function as catalysts ( termed as a ribozyme).
Schematic diagram

Structure and function of Transfer RNA(tRNA)
Function of Transfer RNA(tRNA): carrier of amino acids during protein synthesis. One
specific type of tRNA molecule for each of 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins .
Variable loop

Small RNA
• Small RNA :
1. constitute  1-2% of total RNA in the cell
2. 30 different varieties
3. Stable in nature
4. Subgroup : Small nuclear RNAs (SnRNAs) involved in mRNA splicing .

Mitochondrial RNA polymerase
• Mitochondria contain a single RNA polymerase that more closely resemble
bacterial RNA polymerase than eukaryotic polymerases.

Micro-RNA(miRNA)
❑Micro-RNA (miRNA):
1. tiny RNAs produced by some genes
2. stable in nature
3. with 21-25 ribonucleotide bases
4. More than 200 varieties in human beings
5. Derived from large primary transcript inside the nucleus which is cleaved by certain
exonucleases to reduce their length.
6. Have hairpin structure showing internal hybridization to make two strands( called short
hairpin RNA (shRNA).
7. transported through nuclear pore into cytoplasm where one of the two strands is broken
by dicer nuclease. The selected strand is called the guide strand ,which is incorporated
into RNA induced silencing complex ( RISC) to form functional silencer of mRNA .
8. The guide strand provides the specificity to RISC , which binds and then degrades
complementary target mRNA in cytoplasm.
9. Binds to matching pieces of messenger RNA , turn it into double stand and prevent it
from doing job ( alters function of mRNA). The process effectively blocks the production
of the corresponding protein causing translational arrest.

siRNA or interfering RNA or RNAi
❑siRNA or interfering RNA or RNAi :
1. double-stranded RNA which would silence gene corresponding to that RNA. It is
the faster way to turn off genes.
2. with 21-25 ribonucleotide bases
3. degrade the mRNA through specific cytoplasmic organelle called P bodies.
4. decrease level of functional proteins in the cells( function similar to micro -RNA).
5. RNA interference is protective mechanism against virus . They can used to treat
diseases (silencing disease causing genes)especially HIV infection.
6. used in preclinical trials in animal models for treating incurable neurogenerative
disorders.
7. Andrew Fire and Craig Mello(Noble 2006) demonstrated that when double
stranded RNA was given to round worms ,it would silence the gene corresponding
to RNA.

Primary transcript of RNA
❑Transcription unit : is the region of DNA that includes not only genes for
mRNA synthesis but also the initiator, promoter regions ,introns and
terminator regions.
❑Primary transcript of RNA: Initial , linear RNA copy of transcription unit( the
segment between specific initiation and termination sequences).
❑The Primary transcript of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic tRNA and rRNA
are post transcriptionally modified by cleavage of the original transcripts by
ribonucleases.
❑tRNA are then further modified to help each species to retain its unique
identity.
❑Prokaryotic mRNA is generally identical to its primary transcript.
❑Eukaryotic mRNA is extensively modified both co and post transcriptionally.

Post transcriptional modifications of inactive primary RNA transcripts for
synthesis of functional RNA
❑Post transcriptional modifications involve enzymatic alterations of inactive
primary RNA transcripts (made by RNA polymerase) to functional RNA to be
located in cytoplasm . These modifications are extensive in eukaryotes but
not in prokaryotes (minor processing) .
❑ Post transcriptional modifications may involve either:
▪ Cleavage :of large precursor RNA for removal of excess sequences from the
primary transcript by the action of endonuclease or exonucleases to a
smaller molecule .
▪ Splicing : involves the removal of sequences called introns (sequences that do
not code for proteins) from the primary transcript and joining of other
sequences called exons (coding sequences) to each other to form functional
RNA.
▪ Terminal addition of nucleotides
▪ Nucleoside modification

Template strand of DNA for synthesis of Messenger RNA(mRNA)
TemplatestrandofDNA:OneoftwoDNAstrands(noncodingstrandoranti-sensestrand)→toproducesworkingcopies
ofRNAmolecules(formationofcomplementarycopiesofRNAtranscript).OtherstrandofDNAdoesnotparticipatein
transcription→referredasCodingStrandofgeneorSenseStrand= non-templateStrand

Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic mRNA
Introns Prokaryotic mRNA
exon1 exon2 exon3
Protein1 Protein2 Protein3
Eukaryotic mRNA
PolycistronicP P P
5’ 3’
Monocistronic
Protein
-AAAAA
5’ 3’Intron Exon Intron
Poly A Tail
5’ CAP
H3C-C- P P P
Translation
Translation
Exons : coding sequences
Introns : non-coding sequences

Schematic diagram

Comparison of between RNA and DNA
Criteria RNA DNA
location Mainly seen in cytoplasm Mostly inside nucleus
Number of nucleotides Usually 100-5000 bases Million of base pairs
Number of strand/s Generally single stranded Double stranded
Constituent sugar ribose deoxyribose
Purines Adenine ,Guanine Adenine ,Guanine
Pyrimidine Cytosine ,Uracil Cytosine ,Thymine
Chargaff's rule Guanine content not equal to
cytosine and Adenine is not
equal to Uracil
Guanine content equal to
cytosine and Adenine is equal
to Thymine.
Reaction with alkali Destroyed by alkali Alkali resistant

Comparison of Replication and Transcription
Criteria Replication(DNAsynthesis) Transcription(RNAsynthesis)
steps Initiation,elongation,and
termination
Initiation,elongation,and
termination
Directionofsynthesis 5’→3’ 5’→3’
Watson’sCrickbasepairing Followed followed
Substrate Deoxyribonucleotides
(ATP,TTP,GTP,CTP)
Ribonucleotides
(ATP,UTP,GTP,CTP)
ComplementarybasepairofAdenine Thymine Uracil
RNA primer Required Notrequired
Proofreadingactivitytoexcise
mismatchednucleotides
PresentandusedbyDNA
polymerase
RNApolymeraselacksactivity
thereforenoproofreadingduring
transcription
UtilizationofGenomeintheprocess Theentiregenomemustbe
copied duringDNAreplication
Asmallportionofthegenomeis
transcribedintoRNA

Comparison of RNA and DNA polymerase
RNA polymerase DNA polymerase
no primer required primer required
no proof reading activity-less fidelity proof reading activity—high fidelity
no exonuclease /endonuclease activity exonuclease /endonuclease activity
no ability to repair mistakes (proofreading ) ability to repair mistakes (proofreading )
Mistakes made are less dangerous –RNA and
are not transmitted to daughter cells.
Mistakes made are dangerous –DNA and
are not transmitted to daughter cells.

Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription
Criteria Prokaryotictranscription Eukaryotictranscription
Cellularcompartment transcriptionandtranslationoccur
insamecellularcompartment.
transcriptionandtranslationoccur
indifferentcellularcompartments.
Transcriptionwithinthenucleus
andtranslationoutsidenucleus.
Timefactorforthecourseof
translation
BacterialmRNAtranslationbegins
duringtranscription.
Translationcanoccuronlyafter
transcriptionhasfinished.
Translationofprimarytranscriptof
mRNA
Occurswithoutundergoing
processingofprimarytranscriptof
mRNA.
Occursonlyafterextensive
processingofprimarytranscriptof
mRNA.
Basesequenceofpromotersite TATAAT(Pribnowbox)locatedat
base -10regionandTGTTGACAat
base-35region
TATAAAlocatedatbase-25region
andCAATlocatedatbase-75
region
Numberof RNApolymeraseto
synthesizeRNA
One/singleRNApolymerase ThreetypesofRNApolymerasesin
nucleus

Schematic representation of prokaryotic transcription
DNA directed RNA synthesis
V
dDDNA
mRNA
Nascent protein
Ribosome →
Prokaryotic cell
Steps of transcription Prokaryotic cell : Initiation , elongation and termination

Schematic representation of eukaryotic transcription
V
DNA 
mRNA
Nascent proteinRibosome →
Cytosol
Nucleus
Transport
3’
3’5’
5’
Processing
Primary transcript
Steps of transcription Eukaryotic cell : Initiation , elongation and termination

❖Transcription (process of RNA synthesis) is best understood in prokaryotes .
It is applicable to eukaryotes even though the enzyme involved and
regulatory signals are different.

Schematic representation of prokaryotic transcription
V
dDDNA
mRNA
Nascent protein
Ribosome →
Prokaryotic cell
Steps of transcription Prokaryotic cell : Initiation , elongation and termination
Roger Kornberg (Noble 2006):
elucidated molecular basis of
transcription.

Steps of Transcription in prokaryotes
❖Four steps of Transcription in prokaryotes :
1. Template recognition
2. Initiation
3. Elongation
4. Termination

RNA polymerase for Transcription in prokaryotes
• Enzyme required for Transcription in prokaryotes : A single enzyme DNA
dependent RNA polymerase or simply RNA polymerase
• Function of RNA polymerase : synthesis of all three types of RNA
• RNA polymerase : mw 465000(465kDa) and holoenzyme has 5 polypeptide
units viz 2Alpha,1 Beta,1 Beta’, 1 (core enzymeα 2 β β’)+ Sigma factor ()
• Cofactors of RNA polymerase: Mg +2 , Zn+2
• Substrates of RNA polymerase : four 5’ triphosphates (UTP, ATP ,CTP,GTP )
and DNA template
• Steps of Transcription in prokaryotes : Initiation ,Elongation, Termination
• Products of RNA polymerase in transcription : primary transcript
Except prokaryotic m- RNA, all other primary transcript undergo post-
transcriptional changes.

SubunitsofRNApolymeraseresponsibleforTranscriptioninprokaryotes
❖subunits of RNA polymerase : 2 Alpha,1 Beta, 1 Beta’, 1 (core enzyme α 2 β
β’) + Sigma factor ()
• 2 Alpha subunits (α 2) : these are identical subunits ,each of which is encoded
by the rpo A gene . Alpha subunit is essential for core protein assembly .
• Beta subunit (β) :This is encoded by the rpo B gene . The anti tuberculosis
drug rifampicin binds to Beta subunit and inhibits transcription initiation,
whereas streptomycin blocks transcription elongation.
• Beta’ subunit(β’) : this subunit is encoded by the rpo C gene ,binds to two
Zn 2+ that may be required as a cofactor for catalytic activity . Hairpin inhibits
Transcription in vitro by binding to the Beta’ subunit( β’).
• Sigma factor ( factor): binding of the polymerase to specific promoter
regions of DNA template and increase the affinity of the holoenzyme to the
promoter site.

Functions subunits of RNA polymerase of prokaryotes
 ’
 

Core enzyme
Holoenzyme

Omegasubunit
(functionunclear)
Zn Zn ’ Subunit fixes at initiation site→ template
binding.
Sigmafactorrecognizesthe promotersite
andincreaseaffinityofholoenzymetothe
promotersite.
Zinc molecules serve as cofactor
 Subunits required
for enzyme assembly
 Subunit has
5’→3’polymerse
activity
Schematic diagram

Role of Sigma factor ( factor) of RNA polymerase in prokaryotes
• Sigma factor7 ( 7factor): is the most common Sigma factor in
E.coli that is responsible for transcription initiation by promoter . It
enables the RNA polymerase holoenzyme to recognize and bind
tightly to promoter sequences.
• Other Sigma factors are expressed under altered environmental
conditions such as  32 during heat shock and  N during nitrogen
starvation have been recognized .

An overview of transcription in prokaryotes
Coding strand
Template strand
RNA polymerase
5’
3’
3’
5’
RNA5’
Schematic diagram
RNA synthesis occurs in 5’ →3’ direction
Transcription by DNA dependent RNA polymerase
(RNA polymerase → RNAP)occurs in 3’→ 5’ direction
Double stranded DNA
unwinds partially

Initiation of transcription
C A T T G A T G
G U A
Template DNA strand →
New RNA strand →
Start site
3’ 5’
3’5’
RNAP enzymePromoter site

Elongation of transcription
A C A T T G A T G
G U A A C U A C
Template DNA strand →
New RNA strand →
Start site
3’ 5’
3’5’
RNAP enzyme
Promoter site

Initiation of Transcription in prokaryotes
• Initiation : Transcription in prokaryotes is initiated by binding of RNA polymerase
(holoenzyme=core enzyme +sigma factor)to a specific region of DNA strand called
the Promoter region /site. (this binding is prerequisite for the transcription to start).
• Promoter site : are characteristic sequences of DNA .They are different in
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Transcription in prokaryotes begins at a specific site in DNA called the start site
/point and stops at a terminator sequence.
• A transcription unit :The sequence extending between a Promoter region and a
terminator sequence.
• Upstream sequences (denoted by a negative sign) : bases in DNA sequences before
/prior to start point of gene to be transcribed.
• Downstream sequences (indicated by a positive sign) : bases in DNA sequences
after/following start point of gene to be transcribed.
➢Position +1 indicates the first nucleotide that will be transcribed into RNA.

Promoter regions for Transcription in prokaryotes
• Promoter region : a specific region on DNA where RNA polymerase binds.
• Two base sequences on coding DNA strand which the sigma factor of RNA
polymerase recognize for initiation of transcription in prokaryotes .
• Prokaryotic genes have two promoter sequences :
1. Pribnow box (TATA BOX) has 6 nucleotide bases of T A T A A T(consensus
sequence) and usually located on the left side 1 base pairs away(upstream/
front) from the start point of transcription.
2. The ‘-35 ’sequence/region: A second recognition side in the promoter
region of DNA, with base(consensus) sequence T T G A C A and is located 35
base pairs (upstream hence-35 ) left side from the site of transcription start.

Promoter regions of DNA in prokaryotes
Template strand -35 bases -10bases Coding region of gene
TTGACA TATAAT5’ 3’
5’3’
Start of transcription
-35 sequences Pribnow box
Coding Strand
Schematic diagram

Promoter sites of prokaryotic transcription
G T T G A C A A T A A T Gene to be transcribed
C A A C T G T T A T T A
-35 region Pribnow box
(-10 region)
5’ transcript ( RNA
product )
sequences within Promoter sites recognized by RNA Polymerase Start point of transcription
Coding strand
5’
3’
Template
strand
T T
A A
Prokaryotic genes have two promoter sequences:
1. Pribnow box of prokaryotic gene has the consensus sequence T A T A A T and is centered
at -10 ( usually found 10 base pairs upstream start point).
2. The other promoter sequence ( -35 region ) has the consensus sequence T T G A C A( 35
base pairs upstream start point).
DNA
19
Base
Pairs
7
Base
pairs

PromotersequencesandSigmafactorinE.coli
RNApolymeraserecognizesandbindsto-35and-10sequencesonthepromotorregion.
Sigmafactor7 (7factor):isthemostcommonSigmafactorinE.colithatisresponsiblefortranscription
initiationbypromoterinitiation. 32 are expressed during heat shock and  N during nitrogen
starvation have been recognized .
Pribnow box
(TATA BOX)
promoter site
The ‘-35
’sequence/region
: promoter site

Silent features of Bacterial Promoter region
❖E.Coli promoter sequence  7 ranges between 4 -6 base pairs.
❖RNA polymerase binds to the promoter around – 55 to +2.
❑4 features are conserved in bacterial promoters:
TTGACA …….16-18 bp …TATAAT …..5-8 bp….start point
1. Start point : is usually a purine (A or G) and is the central base in the
sequence CG(A) T.
2. The -1 sequence : is present - 1 nucleotides upstream of the Start
point contains 6 bp AT rich consensus sequence TATAAT with the
following percentage of conservation: T8 A 95 T 45 A6 A5 T95
3. The -35 sequence : is present - 35 nucleotides upstream of the Start
point has consensus sequence TTGACA and functions as a recognition
site for RNA polymerase and enhances interaction with Sigma factor( ) .
4. The distance between the -1 sequence and the -35 sequence is 6-18bp.

The -35 sequence and The -1 sequence of bacterial promoter
The-1sequence:ispresent-1nucleotidesupstreamoftheStart pointcontains6bpATrichconsensus
sequenceTATAATwiththefollowingpercentageofconservation: T8 A 95 T 45 A6 A5 T95
The-35sequence:ispresent-35nucleotidesupstreamoftheStartpointhasconsensussequenceTTGACA
andfunctionsasarecognitionsiteforRNApolymeraseandenhancesinteractionwithSigmafactor().
Thedistancebetweenthe-1sequence andthe-35sequenceis6-18bp.

Process of Template recognition of Transcription in prokaryotes
1. RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to -35 and -10 sequences on the
promotor region.
2. The sigma factor () increases the affinity for promoter.
3. The initial binary complex of the enzyme and the promoter DNA is
termed as the closed complex.
4. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA double helix over a short distance of
about 17bp converting closed complex to open complex.
5. DNA unwinding forms the Transcription bubble and makes the template
stand available for Transcription.

Transcription bubble formed by unwinding of DNA by RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA over a short distance of about 17bp converting closed
complex to open complex . DNA unwinding forms the Transcription bubble and makes the
template stand available for Transcription.

Process of Initiation of Transcription in prokaryotes
1. Involves the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the first
nucleotide (usually a purine nucleotide i.e. GTP or ATP) and second
nucleotide (usually UTP or CTP), thereby creating a ternary complex of
RNA polymerase-DNA –nascent RNA.
2. The 5’ triphosphate group on the first nucleotide is not hydrolyzed but
remains intact throughout Transcription.
3. RNA polymerase makes short transcript of up to 9 bp releases them and
reinitiates RNA synthesis by a process termed as abortive initiation .
4. The mean time for promoter Clearance by RNA polymerase is 1- 2 seconds.
5. Following initiation ,the sigma facto () is released from the holoenzyme
and the core enzyme undertakes elongation.

Process of Template recognition of Transcription in prokaryotes

Elongation of transcription in prokaryotes
• As the holoenzyme RNA polymerase recognizes the Promoter region,
the sigma factor is released and transcription proceeds .
• Double helical structure of DNA unwinds and as transcription goes on
→results in supercoils( overcome by topoisomerase)

Elongation of Transcription in prokaryotes
DoublehelicalstructureofDNAunwindsandastranscriptiongoeson→resultsinsupercoils(overcomeby
topoisomerase).AstheholoenzymeRNApolymeraserecognizesthePromoterregion,thesigmafactoris
releasedandtranscriptionproceeds.

Characteristics of Elongation of transcription in prokaryotes
• Site for binding of the binding of RNA polymerase to DNA : Promoter region
• Direction of RNA synthesis: from 5’ end to 3’(5’→3’anti-parallel to the DNA
template).
• Substrate for RNA polymerase for elongation of transcription: Ribonucleotides
ATP,GTP,CTP,UTP for the formation of RNA
• For the addition of each nucleotide to the growing chain ,a pyrophosphate (PPi)
moiety is released.
• The sequence of nucleotide bases in mRNA complementary to the template DNA
strand & identical to that of coding strand (except RNA contains U in place of T in
DNA).
➢Mistake in RNA synthesis are less dangerous as not transmitted to daughter cells.
➢The double helical structure of DNA unwinds as the transcription goes on ,
resulting in supercoils.
➢The problem of supercoils is overcome by topoisomerase.

Steps of Elongation of Transcription in prokaryotes
1. Elongation proceeds after the formation of the first phosphodiester bond.
2. RNA polymerase moves along DNA unwinding short region for elongation in front
of transcription bubble and rewinds DNA behind it.
3. Ribonucleotides are successively added to the growing RNA chain.
4. The 3’ end of RNA forms a transient hybrid of 8-1 base pair with the template
DNA.
5. The core enzyme then continues the elongation of the transcript.
6. By the 10 nucleotides have been added , the sigma factor dissociates.
7. The released sigma factor can combine with free core enzymes to form another
holoenzymes that can initiate transcription.
8. The process of elongation of the RNA chain continues until a termination signal is
reached.
9. RNA polymerase is released from elongation arrest by GreA and Gre B .

Process of termination of transcription in prokaryotes
❖Transcription continues until RNA polymerase encounters the
terminator sequence/signals .
❖Termination involves the following events :
1. Release of RNA transcript from DNA
2. Dissociation of the RNA-DNA hybrid
3. Reformation of the DNA duplex

Two mechanisms of Termination of Transcription in prokaryotes
❖The process of Termination of Transcription in prokaryotes stops by
Termination signals .
❖In prokaryotes ,termination of transcription occurs by one of the two well
characterized mechanisms.
❖Two mechanisms of Termination of Transcription in prokaryotes:
1. Rho () factor dependent termination
2. Rho () factor independent termination

Events of Termination in transcription in prokaryotes
Events of Termination : Release of RNA transcript from DNA ,Dissociation of the RNA-DNA
hybrid ,Reformation of the DNA duplex

Rho() factor dependent Termination of Transcription in prokaryotes
❖Rho-dependent termination , requires a protein factor called rho() factor which
recognizes termination signal/sequence.
❖Rho () factor :
1. is a specific protein(a hexamer with 5’→3’ helicase activity and RNA –dependent
ATPase activity)
2. binds to growing / nascent RNA upstream of the terminator(ATPase activity in
bound state).
3. binds weakly to DNA.
4. doesn't bind to RNA polymerase .
❑Functions of Rho () factor at the termination sequence :
➢unwinds RNA-DNA duplex.
➢ dissociates/displaces RNA polymerase from DNA template as in a bound state(it
acts as ATPase), resulting in termination of transcription(RNA synthesis).
➢ dissociates RNA primary transcript from DNA template.

Rho () independent Termination of Transcription in prokaryotes
• Rho () factor independent termination : The termination is brought about
by the formation of hairpin loop(secondary structure) of newly synthesized
RNA. This occurs due to Palindromes .
• Palindrome is a word that reads alike forward & backward (MADAM ,ROTOR)
• The presence of palindromes in the base sequence of DNA template in the
termination region is known .
• As a result of this, newly synthesized RNA folds to form hairpins (due to
complementary base pairing) that cause the termination of Transcription. This
dislodges the RNA polymerase from DNA template and release of the newly
synthesized transcript.
• This hairpin loop structure is followed by a sequence of four or more uracil
residues which are essential for termination. The RNA transcript ends within or
just after then.

Mechanism of Rho () independent Termination of Transcription in prokaryotes
• Rho () independent (intrinsic) termination :is based on two structral
features at the end of the RNA transcript:
1. A self complementary hairpin structure 15-2 nucleotide before the end of
the RNA . The base pair of the hairpin which is GC rich, prevents RNA
binding and disturbs the RNA-DNA hybrid .
2. A string of U residues that base pair weakly with corresponding A residues
in the template DNA strand . As a result , RNA dissociates from the RNA-
DNA hybrid.

Mechanism of intrinsic termination of transcription
UUUUUU
AAAAAA
String of U residuesDNA template
RNA polymerase
Pause site
RNA transcript
GC –rich stem
Terminationhairpin

A hairpin loop structure formed
by nascent RNA in Rho-
independent termination
phase of transcription
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
AhairpinloopstructurefollowedbyasequenceofUridineresidues.AstringofUresiduesthatbasepair
weaklywithcorrespondingAresiduesinthetemplateDNAstrand.Asaresult,RNAdissociatesfromtheRNA-
DNAhybrid.
Schematic diagram
Aselfcomplementaryhairpinstructureof 15-2
nucleotidesbeforetheendoftheRNA.Thebasepairsof
thehairpin(whichisGC rich)preventsRNA bindingand
disturbstheRNA-DNAhybrid.
Noncomplementarysequencesinaprimarytranscript
A A U C C A C A G G C G C C A G U U C C G C U G G C G C A U U U U
U C
U C
G
G C
A U
C G
C G
G C
C G
G C
5’ – U-A- A-U- C-C-A-C-A-G A-U-U-U-U-OH- 3’
Primary transcript of RNA
A A T C C A C A G G C G C C A G X X X X X C T G G C G C A
T T A G G T G T C C G C G G T C X X X X X G A C C G C G T
Coding stand of DNA
Template stand of DNA Transcription

Rho () factor dependent and Rho () factor independent termination of Transcription in
prokaryotes:1
Rho–dependentterminationofTranscriptioninprokaryotesrequiresa
proteinfactorcalledrho()factorwhichdissociates/displacesRNA
polymerasefromDNAtemplateasInaboundstate(itactsasATPase),
resultinginterminationof transcription(RNAsynthesis).
Rho() independentTerminationofTranscriptionin
prokaryotes:newlysynthesizedRNAfoldstoformhairpins
(duetocomplementarybasepairing)thatcausethe
terminationofTranscription.

Rho () factor dependent and Rho () factor independent termination of
Transcription in prokaryotes:2

Process of transcription in prokaryotes
5’ 3’
Newly synthesized RNA ( primary transcript)
5’
3’
3’
5’
Termination of transcription by Rho factor
Promoter region Termination region
Transcription unit
Sigma factor→ 
Recognition of promoter by sigma factor DNA template
5’
3’
3’
5’
5’
3’
5’
3’
3’
5’
3’
5’

Coding strand


 Rho factor
Core enzyme
Binding of core enzyme and initiation of RNA synthesis
Elongation continues until termination region is reached
I
II
I
I
III
I
I
I I I I
III
IIIIIII I
+

Summary of Synthesis of RNA from DNA template
Promotersite
5’
Transcription unit Terminationsite
3’
DNA Template→
5’ 3’
Newly synthesized RNA

Promotersite Transcription unit Terminationsite
3’
5’



5’


Initiation
Elongation
Elongation
Termination
Sigma factor
Rho factor
RNA polymerase
5’
5’

Post transcriptional modifications of inactive primary RNA transcripts for
synthesis of functional RNA
❑Post transcriptional modifications involve enzymatic alterations of inactive
primary RNA transcripts (made by RNA polymerase) to functional RNA to be
located in cytoplasm . These modifications are extensive in eukaryotes but
not in prokaryotes (minor processing) .
❑ Post transcriptional modifications may involve :
▪ Cleavage of large precursor RNA for removal of excess sequences from the
primary transcript by the action of endonuclease or exonucleases to smaller
molecules .
▪ Splicing : involves the removal of sequences called introns (sequences that do
not code for proteins) from the primary transcript and joining of sequences
called exons (coding sequences) to each other to form functional RNA.
▪ Terminal addition of nucleotides
▪ Nucleoside modification

Nucleoside(base)modificationsas a PosttranscriptionalmodificationofinactiveprimaryRNA
transcriptsfor synthesis of functional RNA
❑In prokaryotes , Nucleoside(base)modificationsas a Posttranscriptional
modificationofinactiveprimaryRNAtranscriptsfor synthesis of functional rRNA
(in cytoplasm) is of two types:
1. involve modification of bases : e.g. some bases of rRNA are methylated.
Uridylate residues of tRNA are modified to form ribothymidylate and
pseudo uridylate.
2. involve modification of ribose unit of r RNA

RNA processing by nucleoside modification
CH3 CH3
1
N
N
3
2 4
5
6
N Dimethyl adenosine (methylated base) in prokaryotes
N
N
H
O
H
H
O
HN
N
Ribose
Uridylate
CH3
O
HN
O H
N
Ribose
Ribothymidylate
Ribose
H
NHHN
O
O
Pseudo uridylate

Cleavage as a Posttranscriptionalmodificationofinactiveprimary
RNAtranscriptsfor synthesis of functional RNA in Prokaryotes
❑In prokaryotes:
• Synthesis of functional tRNA and rRNA occurs by cleavage and modification of
newly synthesized RNA chains (PosttranscriptionalmodificationofinactiveprimaryRNA
transcripts/nascentRNA) .
• mRNA is not Posttranscriptionallymodified and is functional immediately after its
synthesis . In fact ,its translation often begins before transcription is complete.
• Three types of rRNA molecules in E.Coli : 16 S, 23S , 5S .
• These three types rRNA molecules in E.Coli are cleaved (excised) from a single
primary RNA transcript by highly precise nucleases(ribonuclease P and
ribonuclease III). Ribonuclease III cleaves 16 S, 23S and 5S rRNA molecules from
the primary transcript by cleaving double helical regions at specific sites. The
primary RNA transcript contains spacer regions .
• All the Transfer RNA (t- RNAs) of prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo post
transcriptional modification. tRNA molecules in E.Coli is cleaved (excised) from a
single primary RNA transcript by highly precise nuclease ( ribonuclease P ) which
generates the correct 5’ terminus of all tRNA molecules. Ribonuclease P contains
catalytically active RNA molecule.

PosttranscriptionalmodificationsofinactiveprimaryRNAtranscriptsforsynthesisfunctional
mRNAinProkaryotic andEukaryoticcells
In prokaryotes ,mRNA is not Posttranscriptionallymodified
and is functional immediately after its synthesis . In fact,
its translation often begins before transcription is
complete.

PosttranscriptionalmodificationsofinactiveprimaryRNAtranscriptsforsynthesisof
rRNA in E.coli
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
DNA(gene)
5’ 3’
Spacer
regions
16 S t RNA 23 S 5S
16 S t RNA 23 S 5S
Ribonuclease P
Ribonuclease IIICleavage
PrimaryRNAtranscripts
In E.coli chromosome, the genes for RNA
are arranged in specified order specifying
the 16S, 23S and 5S rRNA units . RNA
polymerase transcribes the three genes in
order.
Schematic diagram

Enzyme and Direction of rRNA synthesis in prokaryotes(E.Coli)
rRNA synthesis occurs in 5’ →3’ direction
Enzymes and direction of transcription : DNA dependent RNA polymerase (RNA polymerase
→ RNAP) responsible for the synthesis of rRNA in 5’→3’ direction
TranscriptionbyDNAdependentRNApolymerase(RNApolymerase→RNAP)occursin3’→5’direction

Terminaladditionofnucleotidesto inactiveprimarytRNAinPosttranscriptional
modifications
❖Terminaladditionofnucleotidesto inactiveprimarytRNAinPosttranscriptional
modifications involve:
▪ Addition of CCA nucleotides to a 3’ terminal sequence of inactiveprimary
tRNA to make it functional molecule in protein biosynthesis.

Posttranscriptionalmodificationsof ProkaryoticPrimary transcript of tRNA(prokaryotic
transfer RNA processing)
❑All the Transfer RNA (tRNAs) of prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo post
transcriptional modification of longer precursor molecule.
❑Post translational modification of primary transcript into mature Eukaryotic
tRNAs involve following alterations:
a. Cleavage of a 5’ leader sequence(trimming). 16 nucleotide sequence at the
5’ end is cleaved by RNAase P(ribozyme) .
b. Splicing to remove introns i.e. 14 nucleotide introns in anticodon loop is
removed by nucleases .
c. Replacement of the 3’ terminal UU by CCA(addition of CCA nucleotides to
3’ terminal end of tRNAs by nucleotide transferase ) i.e. Uracil residues at
the 3’ end replaced by the CCA sequence found in all mature tRNAs.
d. Modification of several bases(converting the existing bases into unusual
ones)i.e. many bases are converted to characteristic modified bases of
tRNA .

Leader sequence
Amino acid
attachment site
Anticodon arm
Processing of tRNA precursor to mature tRNA
D loop
D arm
T c arm
Variable
arm
Acceptor arm→

PosttranscriptionalmodificationsofinactiveprimaryRNAtranscriptsforsynthesis
oft-RNA:splicing,terminalbaseadditions,nucleoside(base)modifications

 AdditionofCCAnucleotidestoa3’terminalsequenceof inactiveprimarytRNAtomakeitfunctional
moleculeduringproteinbiosynthesis.tRNAmoleculesinE.Coliiscleaved(excised)fromasingleprimary
RNAtranscriptbyhighlyprecisenuclease(ribonucleaseP)whichgeneratesthecorrect5’terminusofall
tRNA molecules.RibonucleasePcontainscatalyticallyactiveRNAmolecule.

RNA processing by nucleotide modification
CH3 CH3
1
N
N
3
2 4
5
6
N Dimethyl adenosine (methylated base) in prokaryotes
N
N
H
O
H
H
O
HN
N
Ribose
Uridylate
CH3
O
HN
O H
N
Ribose
Ribothymidylate
Ribose
H
NHHN
O
O
Pseudo uridylate

Schematic representation of eukaryotic transcription
V
DNA 
mRNA
Nascent proteinRibosome →
Cytosol
Nucleus
Transport
3’
3’5’
5’
Processing
Primary transcript
Steps of transcription Eukaryotic cell : Initiation , elongation and termination
Roger Kornberg
(Noble 2006):
elucidated
molecular basis
of transcription.

Steps of transcription in Eukaryotes
Criteria Initiation Elongation Termination
Requirements
of step of
transcription
Chromatin remodeling followed
by binding of transcription
factors and RNA polymerase to
promoter regions located
upstream or downstream the
coding sequences/region (exon)
to initiate transcription
Local unwinding of
Duplex DNA helix
A termination signal
sequences
Process
involved in
step of
transcription
Enhanced by transcription
factors bound to enhancer
sequences.
The DNA template
is read by RNA
Polymerase in
3’→5’ direction to
synthesize RNA
transcript in 5’→3’
direction
(elongation)
RNA polymerase and
primary RNA transcript
(newly synthesized
RNA) released from
DNA resulting in
termination of
transcription.

Silent features of Transcription in eukaryotes
1. Transcription in Eukaryotes is much more complicated than in prokaryotes.
2. Eukaryotic genes require promoters for transcription initiation .
3. Each of three types of polymerases has distinct promoters .
4. Promoters are always present on the same molecule as the gene they regulate.
These promoters are referred as cis-acting elements .
5. Each type of RNA Polymerase use a different Promoters :
a. RNA polymerase I : have single type of promoter present in rRNA gene.
b. RNA polymerase II : contain a TATA box near the transcription start site .
c. RNA polymerase III : located in upstream position as well as downstream positions
the initiation site of transcription .They are usually downstream of the start point.
➢RNA polymerase I and RNA polymerase II are similar to the prokaryotic promoter in
that they are upstream the start point.

Structural aspects of Eukaryotic RNA polymerases
❖Structural aspects of Eukaryotic RNA polymerases are as follows :
The three Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases are large complex proteins
containing 2 large subunits of and about 1 smaller subunits . The
subunits show homology with Alpha,1 Beta, 1 Beta’ (,,’) subunits of
E .coli RNA Polymerase (RNA Pol).

Eukaryotic RNA polymerases for Transcription
• The nuclei of Eukaryotes contain three distinct RNA Polymerases .RNA Polymerases
I,II and III that differ in their sensitivity to the fungal toxin -amanitin . All three
enzymes require transcription factors to initiate transcription .
1. RNA Polymerase I/A : present in nucleolus and responsible for the synthesis of
precursors for the large ribosomal RNA(rRNA) .It transcribes all the rRNA except
5S rRNA. It is insensitive to -amanitin.
2. RNA Polymerase II/B : present in the nucleoplasm and responsible for the
synthesis of the precursors for messenger RNA (mRNA) & small nuclear RNAs
(Sn- RNA). It is highly sensitive to -amanitin.
3. RNA Polymerase III/C :located in the nucleoplasm and transcribes genes for
transfer RNA (tRNA) & small ribosomal RNAs (5SrRNA ) , U6snRNA and other
small RNA . It is moderately sensitive to -amanitin.
• In Eukaryotes ,besides the three distinct RNA Polymerases , there exist
Mitochondrial RNA polymerase (resembles prokaryotic RNA polymerase in structure
& functions ).

Types of Eukaryotic RNA polymerases and RNAs formed
Type of DNA dependent
RNA polymerase(RNAP)
Location Type precursors of RNA
formed
Sensitivity towards
-Amanitin
RNA polymerases I or A Nucleolus 18S ,5.8S, and 28S rRNA Sensitive and inhibited
RNA polymerases II or B Nucleoplasm mRNA precursor, snRNA,
snoRNA, miRNA
Not inhibited
RNA polymerases III or C Nucleoplasm tRNA, 5S rRNA, some
snRNA, snoRNA
Moderately sensitive
Eukaryotic RNA polymerases of are more complex than prokaryotic RNA polymerase and
differ in their template specificity.

An overview of transcription in eukaryotes
5’
3’
3’
5’
RNA polymerases I / A RNA polymerases II/B RNA polymerases III/C
DNA
18S ,5.8S, and 28S
Ribosomal RNAs
Messenger RNA,
snRNA , snoRNA,
miRNA
Transfer RNA
5’
3’
Schematic diagram

Comparison of Eukaryotic RNA polymerases used in Transcription
Criteria RNA Polymerase I RNA Polymerase II RNA Polymerase III
Location in a cell nucleolus nucleoplasm nucleoplasm
Transcribes genes for large ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) .It transcribes
all the rRNA except
5S rRNA.
messenger RNA
(mRNA) & small
nuclear RNAs (SnRNA
snoRNA, miRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
& small ribosomal
RNAs (5SrRNA) ,
U6snRNA and other
small RNA
Promoters have single type of
promoter present in
rRNA gene.
contain a TATA box
near the transcription
start site .
locatedinupstream
positionaswellas
downstreampositionsthe
initiationsiteof
transcription.
sensitivitytowards the
fungaltoxin-amanitin
insensitive highly sensitive moderately sensitive
to -amanitin

Promoters of eukaryotic polymerases
• Eukaryotic genes ,like prokaryotes require promoters for transcription
initiation.
• Each of three types of eukaryotic polymerases has distinct promoters.
• Promoters are always present on the same molecule of DNA as the gene they
regulate. These promoters are referred as cis-acting elements . Such
sequences serve as binding sites for Transcription Factors, which in turn
interact with each other and with RNA polymerase II.

Silent features of Eukaryotic Promoter region
❖Each type of eukaryotic RNA polymerase uses different promoters . The promoters
used by RNA polymerase I and II are similar to prokaryotic promoter in that they
are upstream of the start point gene to be transcribed.
❖Promoters of RNA polymerase (RNA pol III) are downstream of the start point gene
to be transcribed.
❖RNA polymerase (RNA pol II) located in the nucleoplasm catalyzes the transcription
of protein coding mRNA genes and some snRNA genes .
❖RNA polymerase (RNA pol II) Promoter region contains following sequence :
1. Minimal core Promoter elements include :TATA box located 25-35 nucleotides
upstream of the Start site /point with consensus sequence 5’- TATA(A/T)A (A/T)-3’
which positions (RNA pol II) for correct transcription initiation .
2. Initiator ( INR) element : present around the transcription Start site and has
consensus sequence 5’-C/TC/TANT/AC/TC/T-3’.
3. Upstream regulatory element (URE) located several hundred base pairs
Upstream of core Promoter and determines the frequency of transcription.

Upstream regulatory element (URE) in Eukaryotes
❑Upstream regulatory element (URE) include :
1. GC boxes that bind Sp1 and Sp2.
2. CAAT box that binds CAAT binding factor (CTF)
3. Enhancers and silencers :that increase or decrease the rate of transcription
initiation respectively . These are found Upstream or downstream from
transcription start site respectively and can exert their effects even when located
thousand base pairs away from transcription unit.
4. Insulators : sequences between silencers and enhancers that prevent
interference between these sequences.
5. Response elements : identify the particular groups of genes and include heat
shock response elements (HSE) ,glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) and
metallothionein unit(MRE) .
6. Other regulatory sequences for transcription: repressor, inducers , derepressors
and hormone response element (HRE).

Promoter sites of Transcription in Eukaryotes
❑Many eukaryotic genes encoding proteins have promoter sites with TATAA
consensus sequence. Many eukaryotic promoters also have CAAT and GC box.
❑Promoter sites (a sequence of DNA bases) in Eukaryotes:
• is identical to Pribnow box in prokaryotes with a TATAA consensus sequence of
DNA bases known as Goldberg-Hogness box or TATA box.
• located on the left side about 25 nucleotides away(upstream, centered at -25) from
the start site of m- RNA synthesis .
• Other recognition sites are located between 70 -80 nucleotides away
(upstream, centered at -75)from the start of transcription. These include:
1. CAAT box with GGCAATCT consensus sequence located at -75 .
2. CG box with GGGCG consensus sequence.
• One of these two sites (or sometimes both)helps in RNA polymerase II to recognize
the requisite sequence of DNA for Transcription.
• Enhancer sequences : stimulates transcription of eukaryotic genes(located quite
distant from the start site either on the its 5’ or its 3’ sites .

Components of RNA polymerase II promoter
Response
elements
Enhancers/
silencers
GC box CAAT box GC box TATA box INR Coding region
Upstream regulatory element (URE) Core promoter
Transcription start site

Promoter regions of DNA in Eukaryotes
Template strand -70 bases -25bases Coding region of gene
GGCCAATC ATATAAA5’ 3’
5’3’
Start of transcription
CAAT box Goldberg-Hogness box
Schematic diagram
Coding Strand

Promoter sites of eukaryotic transcription
G G C G G C A A T C T A T A A A Gene to be transcribed
C C G C C G T T A G A T A T T T
GC box CAAT box TATA box
( Goldberg-
Hogness box)
5’ transcript (
RNA product )
sequences within Promoter sites recognized by RNA Polymerase II +1 start point
Coding strand
3’
5’
Template
strand
5’
3’
T
A
GG
C C
Eukaryotic genes encoding proteins have promoter sites a TATAA consensus sequences called
TATA box or Goldberg-Hogness box, centered at about -25.
Many eukaryotic promoters have a CAAT box with GGCAATCT consensus sequences centered at
-75 and G C box with GGGCG consensus sequence.
Promoter sequences are responsible for directing RNA polymerase to initiate transcription at a
specific site known as start point or initiation site.
Transcriptional initiation does require primer (like replication).
DNA
- 75 -25

Locations of enhancer sequences
Schematic diagram
DNA
5’ 3’
5’ 3’
Enhancer P
Promoter
Gene
An Enhancer sequence located upstream promoter region.
P Gene Enhancer
Promoter
An Enhancer sequence located downstream promoter region.
Severalnucleotidebasepairscanseparatetheenhancersequencefromthegeneitregulates

Silent features of Enhancers of Transcription in Eukaryotes
• Enhancers of Transcription in Eukaryotes are DNA sequences that regulate the
frequency of transcription of genes of eukaryotes cells. They can increase gene
expression by about 1 folds by increasing rate of initiation by RNA polymerase II.
• This is made possible by binding of Enhancers(contain DNA sequences called
response elements) in close vicinity of specific Transcription factors to form
activators . The chromatin forms a loop that allows the transcription factor bound to
promoter and enhancer to be close together in space to facilitate Transcription .
• Thus they are another type of cis-acting DNA sequences/ elements . They can be
upstream(to the 5’ side), downstream( to the 3’ side) or within genes. Moreover,
they are effective when present on either DNA strand.
• They have no promoter activity of their own but can stimulate the transcription of
genes .
• They differ from promoters in that their sequences are dissimilar and they may be
located thousands of base pairs away from the start point of transcription .
• A particular enhancer is effective only in certain cells e.g. the immunoglobulin
enhancers functions only in B- lymphocytes but not elsewhere.

Cancer and Enhancers of Transcription in Eukaryotes
❖Cancer can result if relation between genes and enhancers is disturbed.
e.g. a chromosomal translocation brings the protooncogenes myc under the
control of immunoglobulin enhancer which leads to dysregulation of myc gene
and play role in development of cancer ,Leukemia and Burkitt lymphoma.

Dysregulation of myc gene and Burkittlymphoma
Achromosomaltranslocation bringstheprotooncogenesmycunderthecontrolofimmunoglobulin
enhancerwhichleadstodysregulationofmycgeneandplayroleindevelopmentofcancer,Leukemiaand
Burkittlymphoma.
Burkittlymphoma

Dysregulation of myc gene and Leukemia
Achromosomaltranslocation bringstheprotooncogenesmycunderthecontrolofimmunoglobulinenhancer
whichleadstodysregulationofmycgeneandplayroleindevelopmentofcancer,LeukemiaandBurkittlymphoma.

Role of silencer of transcription in eukaryotes
❖Silencer of transcription in eukaryotes :
1. are DNA sequences which bind proteins that act to inhibit the rate of
transcription(reduce gene expression).
2. Are similar to enhancers in that they act over long distances.

Initiation of Transcription in Eukaryotes:1
❖The molecular events required for Initiation of Transcription in
Eukaryotes are more complex than in prokaryotes. Transcriptional initiation
does not require a primer.
❖ Function of promoter sequences : responsible for directing RNA
polymerase to initiate transcription at start point or initiation site
❖Three stages of Initiation of Transcription in Eukaryotes:
1. Chromatin containing the promoter sequence is made accessible to the
Transcription machinery.
2. Binding of Transcription factors(TFs) to DNA sequences in the promoter
region .
3. Stimulation of Transcription by enhancers.

Initiation of eukaryotic transcription:2
➢Multiple Initiation factors are needed for eukaryotic transcription because
complexity of their RNA polymerases and diversity of promoters .
➢The binding of the RNA polymerase to DNA template results in the
unwinding of the DNA double helix.
➢The RNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of phospho-diester bond
between the first two bases. The first base is usually a purine nucleoside
triphosphate.

Transcription factors(TF) of in Eukaryotes
• AlargenumberTranscriptionfactors(TFs)interactwiththeEukaryoticpromoterregions.
❑Transcription factors:
a. bind to each other and in turn to the enzyme RNA polymerase II.
b. Recognize and bind to their specific DNA sequences through a variety of motifs ,
such as helix-loop-helix, zinc finger and leucine zipper. The chromatin structure in
that region must be altered (remodeled) to allow assess to the DNA.
c. are encoded by different genes, synthesized in cytosol and must transit to their
sites of action (called trans-acting factors).
d. are minimal requirements for recognition of the promoter , recruitment of RNA
polymerase II to the promoter and initiation of transcription. (Eukaryotic RNA
polymerase II does not itself recognize and bind the promoter).
e. Specific TFs (transcriptional activators) bind to sequences within and outside the
core promoter. They are required to modulate the frequency of initiation, to
mediate the response to signals such as hormones and to regulate genes
expressed at a given point of time.
f. Specific TFs bind other proteins (coactivators) recruiting them to the transcription
complex. Coactivators include the HAT enzymes involved in chromatin remodeling.
➢A typical protein coding eukaryotic gene has binding sites for many such TFs.

Types of Transcription factors(TF) in human
• A large number Transcription factors(TFs) interact with the Eukaryotic promoter regions .
They are encoded by different genes, synthesized in cytosol and must transit to their sites of
action (called trans-acting factors).
• Each eukaryotic RNA polymerase has its own promoters and TFs.
• In human ,about six Transcription factors have been identified:
1. TFIID(recognizes and bind the TATA box through its TATA binding protein(TBP)component.
In addition it has 11 TBP –associated factors)
2. TFIIA
3. TFIIB
4. TFIIF(targets RNA pol II by decreasing RNA pol binding to nonspecific sites and thus brings
the RNA pol polymerase II to promoter).It is required for promoter clearance.
5. TFIIE
6. TFIIH(with helicase activity melts DNA and its kinase activity phosphorylates
phosphorylase allowing it to clear promoter. Thus ,It is required for promoter clearance
along with TFIIF). It helps RNA pol II to gain access to the template strand.

Formation of preinitiation complex(PIC):1
• Transcription by RNA pol II involves the formation of a preinitiation complex(PIC)
followed by initiation , elongation and termination stages of transcription.
• Requirements for Formation of preinitiation complex(PIC): RNA pol II and the
general TFs viz TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIF, TFIIH and TFIIJ.
• Steps involved in Formation of preinitiation complex(PIC):
1. Binding of TFIID to promoter through its TATA binding protein (TBP) component.
2. Binding of TFIIA and TFIIB.
3. Binding of RNA pol II with TFIIF followed by binding of TFIIE ,H and J. TFIIF targets
RNA pol II by decreasing RNA pol binding to nonspecific sites and thus brings the
RNA pol polymerase II to promoter.
4. Binding of TFIIH . After synthesizing short lengths of RNA promoter at the
promoter , TFIIH phosphorylates the C-terminal domain(CTD) of RNA pol II due to
which enzyme undergoes a conformational change that facilitates promoter
clearance.
5. The Transcription factors are cleared and RNA pol II continues transcription.

RNA pol II CRNA pol IIRNA pol II
Formation of preinitiation complex(PIC):2
TATA box Start point
TFIID
TFIID
TFIID
TFIIA
TFIIA
TFIID
TFIIA
TFIIB
TFIIB
TFIIF
TFIIE
TFIIH
TFIID
TFIIJ
TFIIA TFIIB
TFIIE
TFIIH
TFIIF
TFIIJ
RNA pol II C
TFIIF
RNA pol II C

Process of Elongation of Transcription in Eukaryotes
1. Elongation proceeds after the formation of the first phosphodiester bond.
2. RNA polymerase moves along DNA unwinding short region for elongation in front
of transcription bubble and rewinds DNA behind it.
3. Ribonucleotides are successively added to the growing RNA chain.
4. The 3’ end of RNA forms a transient hybrid of 8-1 base pair with the template
DNA.
5. The core enzyme then continues the elongation of the transcript.
6. By the 10 nucleotides have been added , the sigma factor dissociates.
7. The released sigma factor can combine with free core enzymes to form another
holoenzymes that can initiate transcription.
8. The process of elongation of the RNA chain continues until a termination signal is
reached.
9. RNA polymerase is released from elongation arrest by GreA and Gre B .

Rho () independent Termination of Transcription in Eukaryotes
• In eukaryotes cells termination is less well defined . It is believed that it is similar
to rho independent prokaryotic termination.
• Rho () factor independent termination : The termination is brought about by the
formation of hairpin loop(secondary structure) of newly synthesized RNA. This
occurs due to Palindromes .
• Palindrome is a word that reads alike forward & backward i.e. MADAM,ROTOR.
• The presence of palindromes in the base sequence of DNA template in the
termination region is known .
• As a result of this, newly synthesized RNA folds to form hairpins (due to
complementary base pairing) that cause the termination of Transcription. This
dislodges the RNA polymerase from DNA template and release of the newly
synthesized transcript.
• This hairpin loop structure is followed by a sequence of four or more uracil residues
which are essential for termination. The RNA transcript ends within or just after
then.

Mechanism of Rho () independent Termination of Transcription in Eukaryotes
• Rho () independent (intrinsic) termination :is based on two structral
features at the end of the RNA transcript:
1. A self complementary hairpin structure 15-2 nucleotide before the end of
the RNA . The base pair of the hairpin which is GC rich, prevents RNA
binding and disturbs the RNA-DNA hybrid .
2. A string of U residues that base pair weakly with corresponding A residues
in the template DNA strand . As a result , RNA dissociates from the RNA-
DNA hybrid.

Rho () factor independent termination of Transcription in Eukaryotes
Rho() independentTerminationofTranscriptioninEukaryotes:newlysynthesizedRNAfoldstoform
hairpins(duetocomplementarybasepairing)thatcausetheterminationofTranscription.AstringofU
residuesthatbasepairweaklywithcorrespondingAresiduesinthetemplateDNAstrand.Asaresult,RNA
dissociatesfromtheRNA-DNAhybrid.

Process of transcription in Eukaryotes
5’ 3’
Newly synthesized RNA ( primary transcript)
5’
3’
3’
5’
Termination of transcription by Rho factor
Promoter region Termination region
Transcription unit
Sigma factor→ 
Recognition of promoter by sigma factor DNA template
5’
3’
3’
5’
5’
3’
5’
3’
3’
5’
3’
5’

Coding strand


 Rho factor
Core enzyme
Binding of core enzyme and initiation of RNA synthesis
Elongation continues until termination region is reached
I
II
I
I
III
I
I
I I I I
III
IIIIIII I
+

Synthesis of RNA from DNA template
Promotersite
5’
Transcription unit Terminationsite
3’
DNA Template→
5’ 3’
Newly synthesized RNA

3’
5’



5’


Initiation
Elongation
Elongation
Termination
Sigma factor
Rho factor
RNA polymerase
5’
5’

Ribozymes in Eukaryotes
• A Ribozyme is a catalytic RNA molecule (RNA enzyme).
• Ribozyme is seen in both prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. They exhibit Michaelis
–Menten kinetics. The ribozymes are vestigial remnants of nucleic acids which
were biological catalysts in precellular era.
• Example of Ribozymes include the following :
1. RNase P : a ribonucleoprotein that functions as an endonuclease and
generates the 5’ end of mature of tRNA. The RNA component is sufficient to
function as an endonuclease and the protein required to stabilize the RNA or
facilitate its functions.
2. The self –splicing group I introns L-19 intervening sequence (IVS ): in
Tetrahymena thermophili L-19 RNA behaves as a nucleotidyl transferase
and catalyzes transesterification reactions during rRNA splicing .
3. Peptidyl transferase : present in the lager subunit of ribosome and hence
used for protein biosynthesis.

Post transcriptional modifications in Eukaryotic cells
❑Eukaryotic post-transcriptional process is more extensive than in
prokaryotes. This is partly due to presence of well distinct nucleus from
which most RNAs must be transported . RNAs are processed during this
transport .
❑Purpose : processing gives them the characteristics they need to be
functional in the cytoplasm.
❑Substrate :The transcription products of all three eukaryotic polymerases
are processed.

ComparisonofPosttranscriptionalmodificationsofdifferenttypes Primary transcript RNAs
inEukaryoticcells
Posttranscriptionalmodifications
ofPrimary transcript of rRNA
of Primary transcript of tRNA
of Primary transcript of
mRNA
Cleavage Splicing to remove introns
(non-coding sequences)and
join exons(coding sequences)
Ribose sugar modification Addition of CCA at 3’ end Addition of 7methylguanosine
cap at 5’ end and poly A tail at
3’ end
Nucleotide Base modification Nucleotide Base modification
Trimming Trimming

Eukaryotic Ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
Three types of Eukaryotic rRNA synthesized from 45S preribosomal RNA (long precursor) :
28S, 18S, 5.8S.
The forth types of Eukaryotic rRNA synthesized by transcription of 5S gene by RNA
polymerase III : 5S ( it is modified separately).

Post transcriptional modification of Eukaryotic rRNA
• Eukaryotic rRNA processing is similar to that of prokaryotes.
• Three types of Eukaryotic rRNA synthesized from 45S preribosomal RNA
(long precursor) : 28S, 18S, 5.8S
• Post transcriptional modification of 45S preribosomal RNA : cleaved and
trimmed by specific endonucleases to produce mature functional rRNA
molecule (as in prokaryotes spacer sequences are removed).
• The forth types of Eukaryotic rRNA by transcription of 5S gene by RNA
polymerase III : 5S ( it is modified separately).
➢ The 5.8S rRNA base pairs with the 28S rRNA during formation of ribosomal
subunits , which is completed before transport from nucleus to cytoplasm.

PosttranscriptionalmodificationsofinactiveprimaryRNAtranscriptsforsynthesisofEukaryotic rRNA
ThepreribosomalRNAsoriginallysynthesizedareconvertedtoribosomalRNAs(rRNA)byaseriesof post
transcriptionalmodifications.

Comparison of Ribosomal RNA(r- RNA) in prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Three types of Eukaryotic rRNA synthesized from 45 S preribosomal RNA (long precursor)
: 28S, 18S, 5.8S and the forth types of Eukaryotic rRNA by transcription of 5S gene by RNA
polymerase III : 5S

Eukaryotic mRNA processing
• Mature ,functional mRNA is formed from extensive processing of large
precursor called Heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) primary transcript
product of RNA polymerase II .
• (hnRNA) primary transcript is extensively modified after transcription.

Heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) in Eukaryotes
• The collection of all inactive primary RNA transcripts produced by RNA
polymerase II in nucleus of eukaryotes is often referred as Heterogenous
nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
• Post transcriptional modifications of Heterogenous nuclear mRNA occurs in the
nucleus to produce mRNA .The mature mRNA then enters the cytosol to
perform its function of protein synthesis(translation).

PosttranscriptionalmodificationsofHeterogenousnuclearRNAinEukaryotes
Heterogenous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
End
modifications
Splicing Cutting
Chemical
modifications
Cap pol(A) tail
Introns removed
Cut
Pieces
New chemical
groups added
Pre RNA

Post transcriptional modification of Eukaryotic Messenger RNA(mRNA)
The inactive primary transcript of mRNA components of Heterogenous nuclear
RNA (hnRNA) undergoes extensive co and post transcriptional modifications
before functional mRNA is produced in the nucleus . This transcript is a product
of RNA polymerase II.
Modifications of primary mRNA transcript include:
1. The 5’ capping : The 5’end of m-RNA is capped with 7-methylguanosine
attached by an unusual 5’ → 5’ triphosphate linkage to ribose at 5’ –end.
5-Adenosylmethionine is donor of methyl group . This cap is required for
translation and stabilizes the structure of mRNA.
2. Poly -A tail : A large number of Eukaryotic mRNA possess an adenine
nucleotide chain at the 3’end. This Poly -A tail as such is not produced
during transcription. It is later added to stabilize mRNA. Poly -A tail get
reduced as the mRNA enters cytosol.

PosttranscriptionalmodificationsofinactiveprimaryRNAtranscriptsforsynthesisfunctional
mRNAinEukaryoticcells
Introns
Exon
Pre-mRNA in Eukaryotic cell
5’ 3’
Monocistronic-AAAAA5’ 3’
Intron Exon Intron Poly A Tail
5’ CAP
H3C-C- P P P
Transcription by polymerase II
Addition of 5’CAP and Poly A tail
RNA splicing
introns removed
Exons:Proteincodingsequences
Introns:non-codingsequences

Promoter
Protein
export from nucleus Translation in cytosol
5’ UTR 3’ UTR
PPP 3’5’H3C-C-

DNA
Schematic diagram

Capping at 5’end of primary transcript
• The 5’ end of eukaryotic mRNA consist of cap of 7-methylguanylate attached to
triphosphate linkage to the ribose at the 5’-end.
❑Processing reactions of 5’ capping of hnRNA :
a. Is the first processing reaction for pre mRNA.
b. Creation of cap requires removal of the  from 5’ triphosphate of the pre mRNA
followed by addition of GMP (from guanosine triphosphate GTP) catalyzed by
nuclear enzyme guanyl transferase.
c. Methylation of this terminal guanine occurs in the cytosol and is catalyzed by
guanine -7-methyl transferase using S-adenosyl-methionine(SAM) as a source of
the methyl group .
❑Role/functions of 5’cap:
a. Helps in the binding of mature mRNA to the ribosome during initiation of protein
biosynthesis.
b. Facilitates stabilization of mRNAs by protecting them from digestion by nucleases
that degrade RNAs from their 5’ end.
c. Eukaryotic mRNA lacking the cap are not translated efficiently.

Characteristics of Poly-A tail of hnRNA
❑Location of Poly A tail: 3’ end of most eukaryotic mRNA (polynucleated→ Poly A)
❑Characteristics of Poly A tail of eukaryotic mRNA :
a. A chain which have 20 to 300 adenylate residues linked by phosphodiester bonds
(with several exceptions e.g. mRNA of Histones).
b. is not transcribed from DNA but added after transcription by polyadenylate
polymerase using ATP as the substrate.
❑Synthesis of Poly A tail :
a. Eukaryotic primary transcripts are cleaved downstream of consensus sequence by
a specific endonucleases that recognizes the polyadenylation signal sequence
(AAUAAAA) found near 3’ end of the RNA.
b. cleavage does not occur if this sequence or a segment of some 20 nucleotides on
its 3’ end is deleted.
c. After cleavage by endonuclease, A poly A polymerase adds about 200 -300
adenylate residues to the 3’ end of transcript.
d. ATP is the donor of adenylate.

Addition /synthesis of poly(A) tail of a primary transcript hnRNA
Template DNA
5’
3’
3’
5’
5’ Cap AAUAAA cleaving signal
hn RNA ( Nascent RNA)
Cleavage by specific endonuclease
Addition of tail by poly (A) polymeraseATP
Ppi
5’ Cap AAUAAA AAAAAA(n) OH 3’
II I
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I I
Schematic diagram

Functions of Poly A tail
❑Functions of Poly A tail:
1. It is involved in stabilization of mRNA anditsexitfromnucleus.
2. It may enhance translation efficiency.
3. mRNA molecule devoid of poly A tail is less effective template for protein
synthesis than is one with poly A tail.
4. Other functions?
5. After the mRNA enters the cytosol , the poly-A tail is gradually shortened.

Structure of Eukaryotic messenger RNA
5’cap
5’ untranslated leader sequence
Coding region/sequence
3’ untranslated trailing sequence
Poly -A tail
Start Stop
5’-end -OHGppp pApApApApA
3’-end
Structure of 5’cap: The 5’end of m-RNA is capped with 7-methylguanosine
attached by an unusual 5’ → 5’ triphosphate linkage to ribose at 5’ –end. 5-
Adenosylmethionine is donor of methyl group . This cap is required for translation
and stabilizes the structure of mRNA.
Structure ofPolyAtail:Achainwhichhave20to300adenylateresidueslinkedby
phosphodiesterbonds.Itisnottranscribed butaddedaftertranscription

Mature and functional messenger RNA (mRNA)
5’cap
Poly -A tail
Functions of 5’cap:helpsinthebindingofmaturemRNAtotheribosomeduringproteinbiosynthesis.It
facilitatesstabilizationofmRNAsbyprotectingthemfromdigestionbynucleasesthatdegradeRNAsfromtheir
5’end.
FunctionsofPolyAtail:involvedinstabilizationofmRNAanditsexitfromnucleus.Itenhancestranslation
efficiency.

Untranslated regions of mRNA
• Protein synthesis is often regulated at the level of initiation of translation , is a
critical step.
• The regulation occurs by cis-regulatory elements ,which are located in the 5’
and 3’ UTRs( untranslated regions) and trans-acting factors.
• A breakdown in the regulatory machinery can perturb cellular metabolism,
leading to various physiological abnormalities.
• The highly structured UTRs ,along with features such as GC -richness ,
upstream open reading frame, internal ribosome entry site significantly
influence the rate of translation of mRNAs.
• Changes in cis-regulatory sequences of the UTRs ( point mutation and
truncation) influence expression of specific genes at level of translation.

Clinicalmanifestationsrelatedtoalterationsincis-regulatorysequencesoftheUTRs
• Changes in cis-regulatory sequences of the UTRs may alter physiological
balance from healthy to disease state suggesting crucial role of UTRs as that of
coding sequences in health and disease.
• Diseases associated with changes in cis-regulatory sequences of the UTRs:
a. Hereditary thrombocytopenia
b. Breast cancer
c. Alzheimer disease
d. Fragile X syndrome
e. Bipolar effective disorder

Half life of messenger (mRNA)
• Half life of an mRNA may be determined in part by rate of degradation of its
poly A tail.
• Location of degradation /shortening of mRNA : cytoplasm
• Initiation of Degradation of mRNA : only after removal of poly A tail
➢Storage of some mRNA : in an unadenylated form and receive the poly A tail
only when translation is imminent .

Splicing in Messenger RNA primary transcript in Eukaryotes
3. Introns removal:
▪ Introns : are the intervening nucleotide sequences (genes)in mRNA which do not
code for proteins(non-coding sequences between exons) . A few eukaryotic primary
transcripts contain no introns . e.g. those from Histone genes lack introns. The
primary transcript for  chain of collagen contain >50 introns.
▪ Exons (expressed portion of the gene)of mRNA : possess genetic code/coding
sequences of genes and responsible for protein synthesis .
▪ Process of splicing : introns are excised from primary transcript and exons are linked
to form functional mature mRNA . Spliceosome accomplishes this task.
▪ Promotion of The splicing and excision of the Introns : by small nuclear ribonucleic
protein particles (snRNPs pronounced as snurps) .
▪ Formation of snRNPs: by the association of small nuclear RNA(snRNA) with proteins.
▪ Spliceosome : represent the snRNP association with hn-RNA at the exon-intron
junction .
▪ Location of Post transcriptional modifications of Heterogenous nuclear RNA :
nucleus
➢The mature mRNA then enters the cytosol to perform its function (translation) .

Splice site
The consensus sequences at the introns /exon boundaries of the hnRNA (primary
transcript) :
a. are AGGU.
b. almost may vary to some extent on the exon side of boundary.
c. almost all introns begin with a 5’ GU and end with a 3’ AG.
d. at the 5’ splice in vertebrates is AGGUAAGU.
e. At the 3’ end of an intron, the consensus sequence is a stretch of 10 pyrimidine
(U or C), followed by any base and then by C and ending with the invariant AG.
➢Since every 5’ GU and 3’ AG combination does not result in a functional spice site ,
indicating other features within the exon and intron define appropriate splice sites .
These indicate other features within the exon and intron define the approximate
spice site.
➢Introns also have an internal site located between 20 and 50 nucleotides upstream
of 3’ spice site , it is called the Branch site.
➢In mammals, variety of branch site sequences are found.

Schematic representation of Splice sites
Intron
Upstream exon Downstream exon
-GUAAGU -----A --------(Py)n NCAG-
Branch site
5’ splice site 3’ splice site
AG G
Consensus sequences for 3’ and 5’ splice site where Py = Pyrimidine , N= any nucleotide

Characteristics of splicing in mRNA
❑Characteristics of splicing :
1. Accurate process
2. Very sensitive
3. happens quite often

Splicing in mRNA eukaryotes:1
• Most genes in higher eukaryotes are composed of exons and introns.
• The process by which introns are excised and exons are linked to form
functional mRNA is called splicing.
• Different genes have different numbers of introns of different sizes.
• The splicing must be very accurate and very sensitive .
• One nucleotide slippage in a splicing point would shift the reading frame on
the 3’-side of splice to give entirely different amino acid sequence.

Splicing in mRNA eukaryotes:2
Process of splicing : introns are excised and exons are linked to form functional mRNA .

Faulty splicing can cause diseases
• Splicing of hn-RNA has to be performed with precision to produce functional
mRNA.
• Faulty /aberrant splicing causes some forms of diseases e.g.  thalassemia in
human
•  thalassemia is due to a mutation that results in a nucleotide change at an
exon-intron junction .
• The result is a diminished or lack of synthesis of  chain of hemoglobin ,and
consequently the disease  thalassemia.

SplicingofhnRNAhastobeperformedwithprecisiontoproducefunctionalmRNA.
Aberrantsplicing:causessome
formsofthalassemia

Relationship between eukaryotic chromosomal DNA and mRNA
Chromosome 1.5 x18 base pairs
Gene cluster (16 genes) 1.5 x16 base pairs
One Gene (with 8 exons and 7 introns ) 2.4 x14 base pairs
Primary transcript (8x 13 nucleotides) mRNA
(2x13nucleotides)Diagrammatic representation

Splicing mechanism
❑Splicing of primary mRNA transcript :
a. is a complicated and multistep process.
b. Requires several small RNAs (small nuclear RNAs= snRNA) and proteins that form
a large complex called a spliceosome .
c. small nuclear RNAs molecules are associated with specific proteins to form
complex termed as small nuclear riboproteins particles( snRNPs) and known as
snurps . The binding of snRNPs brings the sequences of neighboring exon into the
correct alignment for splicing.
❑Snurps :
1. rich in uracil.
2. identification by numbers preceded by a U(few designated as U1, U2, U4,U5, and
U6).
3. involved in the formation of spliceosome.
4. are essential for splicing mRNA precursors.

Formation of mature RNA from eukaryotic mRNA
intron Exon2
ATP SnRNPs (Sn-RNPs –small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles)
ADP + Pi
Exon1 Exon2
SnRNPs
Exon1 Exon2 excised intron
mRNA
Exon 1
+

Smallnuclearribonucleoproteinparticles(snRNPs)involvedinthesplicingofhnRNA
Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein
particles(snRNPs )
Function
U1 Binds the 5’ splice site and then 3’ splice site
U2 Binds the branch site of the introns
U4 Masks the catalytic activity of U6
U5 Binds the 5’ splice site
U6 Catalyzes splicing
Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein: In association with protein ,Uracil-rich small nuclear RNAs
form small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snurps) designated as U1 U2 etc. that
mediate splicing . They facilitate the removal of introns by formation of base pairs with the
consensus sequences at each end of the intron and formation of spliceosomes. They all are
located in the nucleus.
U= Uracil-rich

Small nuclear RNAs and Systemic lupus erythematosus:1
• Systemic lupus erythematosus(SLE):
1. Fatal inflammatory autoimmune disease
2. Results from an autoimmune response to produce antibodies
against own nuclear proteins such as “snurps”(small nuclear RNAs=
snRNPs) in patients.

snurps and Systemic lupus erythematosus:2
Systemic lupus erythematosus: Results from an autoimmune response to produce antibodies against
own nuclear proteins such as “snurps”(small nuclear RNAs= snRNPs) in patients.
Rash and red patches

Biochemistry of splicing process in eukaryotes :1
❑Splicing starts with the cleavage of the phosphodiester bond between the upstream exon (
exon-1) and 5’ end of the intron.
❑The phosphate attached to G at the 5’ end of the intron forms a 2’ 5’ phosphodiester bond
between 2’ hydroxyl group of the adenine nucleotide residue at branch site of intron and
the 5’ terminal phosphate of the intron and cleavage occur at the end of the first exon
which continues to be held in place by the spliceosome. This reaction is called
transesterification . This generates a new 3’ hydroxyl group at 3’ end of exon-1.
❑The Adenylate residue is also joined to other nucleotides by normal 3’ , 5’ phosphodiester
bonds . Hence , a branch is generated at this site .
❑A second cleavage occurs at the 3’ end of the intron after the A G sequence.
The newly formed 3’ hydroxyl terminus of exon 1 attacks the phosphodiester bond between
exon 2 and 3’ end of the intron ( 3’ splice site ). This is a second transesterification reaction.
Splicing is thus accomplished by two transesterification reaction rather than by hydrolysis.
1. The first reaction generates a free 3’ –OH group at the end of exon 1 and
2. Second reaction links this group to the 5’ phosphate of exon 2.

Biochemistry of splicing process in eukaryotes :2
The exons 1 and 2 are joined and the intron is released in the form of a lariat ( a
rope with noose at one end used for catching cattle).
The number of phosphodiester bonds stays the same during these steps ,which
is essential because it allows the splicing reactions itself to proceed without an
energy source such as ATP and GTP.
The mature mRNA molecule leave the nucleus and pass into cytosol through
pores in nuclear membrane.
The introns of primary transcript of tRNA are removed by different mechanism.

Mechanism of splicing for mRNA precursor in eukaryotes
Upstream Downstream
Exon-1 Exon-2
A
G
P
5’
Splice
site →
G
U
A
G
U
5’
3’
G
P
G
A
C
2OH-A
Branch
site
3’splice site
G
U
A
G
U
P
A
3’
P
P
G
A
C
G
A
C
G
A
3’OH
5’
3’
G
2’
5’
3’
OH
I
Precursor Lariat intermediate
G
P
P
A
G
U
A
G
U
G
U
A
A
G
U
P
Lariat form of intron
G
A
3’
5’

Spliced
product
2’
+
Schematic diagram

Different mRNAs produced by alternate splicing in eukaryotes
• A hnRNA with multiple exons is sometimes spliced in different ways in
different tissues.
• Some hnRNA can be spliced in alternative ways to yield different mRNA
molecules which can produce different proteins .
• Alternate splicing results in mRNA heterogenicity and a mechanism for
producing divert set of proteins from limited set of genes. In fact, the
processing of hnRNA molecules becomes a site for the regulation of gene
expression .
• By selecting the exons in a given hnRNA (precursor mRNA) it should be
possible to generate different mRNA from the same section of genomic DNA.
• E.g. in eukaryotic cells ,the mRNA for tropomyosin ,an actin filament-binding
protein of cytoskeleton undergoes tissue specific alternative splicing with
multiple isoforms of the tropomyosin protein.

Alternative splicing results in mRNA heterogenicity in eukaryotes
Exon1 Exon2 Exon3 Exon4
Exon1 Exon2 Exon4 Exon1 Exon3 Exon4
Exon2 Exon3 Exon4 Exon1 Exon4
Intron1 Intron2 Intron3
hnRNA(precursormRNA)
Exon1
Alternate splicing of Calcitonin gene yields an RNA that synthesizes calcitonin in thyroid and
calcitonin –gene related peptide (CGRP) in brain .
Alternate splicing in the alpha Tropomyosin transcript produces 8 different mRNAs .
Schematic diagram

Proteins undergo alternative RNA splicing
1. Actin
2. Troponin
3. Tropomyosin
4. Myosin
5. Fibrinogen
6. Calcitonin
7. Alcohol dehydrogenase
8. Aldolase
9. Fibronectin

Clinical importance of splicing in mRNA
❑Importance of splicing in mRNA :
1. Provides a mechanism for expanding the versality of genome sequence.
2. One nucleotide slippage in a splice point would shift the reading frame on the 3’
side of the splice to give an entirely different amino acid sequence .
3. Sequence of glucokinase = 10 exons + 9 introns , expression of GK gene is
regulated differently in liver and pancreas because of two different promoters in
these tissues . Presence of 2 different promoters in these tissue → differential
splicing of exons → differential expression of genes in liver and pancreas.
4. Splicing defects : are responsible for 15% of all genetic diseases.
5. Aberrant splicing(splice site mutation): Mutation that cause the incorrect splicing
of beta globin mRNA responsible for some forms of thalassemia(defective
synthesis of beta chain of hemoglobin).
6. Studies on the mechanism of splice site selection will be crucial to the field of
proteomics. Alternate splicing identified in case of at least 40 different genes.

RNA editing
• The sequence in the DNA determines the coding sequence in mRNA and final the
amino acid sequence in the protein.
• A change in the base sequence of RNA after transcription by process other than RNA
splicing is called RNA editing.
❑RNA editing:
1. Involves the enzyme mediated alteration of base sequence of RNA in the cell
nucleus before translation.it occurs in organelle as a co- or post transcriptional
event.
2. Involve the insertion , deletion or substitution of nucleotides in the RNA molecule.
3. Results in the synthesis of a different polypeptide.
➢Substitution of one nucleotide for another has been observed in human and can
result in tissue specific differences in transcript e.g. gene of Apoprotein B, Apo B
gene.
➢Two Forms of Apoprotein B:
a. 14.1 kbp apo B-100 (4536 amino acid residues)
b. 7.0 kbp apo-B -48 ( 2152 amino acid residues)

Types of RNA editing
Criteria Simpleediting Insertionalediting Panediting Polyadenylation
editing
mechanism Involvesingleresidue
conversion.
Involveinsertionofa
singlenucleotideor
smallrunsof
nucleotidessuchas
Ginsertionsduring
transcription.
Involve
insertion/deletion
ofmultipleuridine
residues.
InwhichPremRNA
lackingastopcodon
ispolyadenylated
withthefirstoneor
twoadenylate
residuesproviding
missinginformation.
example ApoproteinmRNAgives
risetotruncatedproteinin
smallintestinebecausethe
codonforGlutamineCAA
isconvertedtostopcodon
UAAbyCtoTtransition.
Transcriptionofthe
paramyxovirusP
gene.

mRNA editing of Apo B gene
• The sequence in the DNA determines the coding sequence in mRNA, and
final the amino acid sequence in the protein.
• Changes in the coding information by editing mRNA have been reported in
recent years.
• about .1 % of mRNA undergoes editing .
• e.g. the conversion of CAA codon in mRNA (of apoprotein B gene) to UAA by
the enzyme cytidine deaminase . As a result of ,originating from the same
gene , the liver synthesizes a 1 kDa protein(apoB 1)while the intestinal
cells 48 kDa protein (apoB 48). Thus, codon for Glutamine is changed to a
termination codon.
• This happens due to formation of termination codon UAA from CAA in m-
RNA editing.

mRNA editing of Apo B gene
CAA ( Glutamine codon)
Transcription
ApoB gene
Unedited mRNA5’ 3’
UAA( stop codon ) Translation in liver
RNA editing by
cytidine deaminase
NH4
Edited mRNA
Apo B 48 ( 2152 amino acid residues )
Translation in intestine
ApoB 100 ( 4536 amino acid residues )
Schematic diagram

Apoprotein B
Criteria ApoproteinB100 ApoproteinB48
Organinvolved synthesis liver Smallintestine
GeneforapoproteinBApoB
encodes
14.1kbpmRNAtranscriptencodes
ApoproteinB-100
7.0 kbpmRNAtranscriptencodes
ApoproteinB-48
NumberofAminoacidresidues 4536aminoacidresidues 2152aminoacidresidues
AcytidineresidueofmRNAis
deaminatedtouridinewhich
changesthecodonatresidue2153
fromCAA(Glutamine)toUAA
(stopcodon).Deaminationis
catalyzedbydeaminasepresentin
thesmallintestinebutnottheliver
andisexpressedonlyatcertain
developmentalstages.

Structure and function of Transfer RNA(tRNA)
Function of Transfer RNA(tRNA): carrier of amino acids during protein synthesis
Variable loop

Posttranscriptionalmodificationsof EukaryoticPrimary transcript of tRNA(Eukaryotic
transfer RNA processing)
❑All the Transfer RNA (tRNAs) of prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo post
transcriptional modification of longer precursor molecule . The primary transcript
folds into characteristics tRNA structure with stem and loops.
❑Post translational modification of primary transcript into mature Eukaryotic tRNAs
involve following alterations:
a. Cleavage of a 5’ leader sequence(trimming). 16 nucleotide sequence at the 5’
end is cleaved by RNAase P(ribozyme) .
b. Splicing to remove introns i.e. 14 nucleotide introns in anticodon loop is
removed by nucleases .Splicing Exons.
c. Replacement of the 3’ terminal UU by CCA(addition of CCA nucleotides to 3’
terminal end of tRNAs by nucleotide transferse ) i.e. Uracil residues at the 3’ end
replaced by the CCA sequence found in all mature tRNAs.
d. Modification of several bases(converting the existing bases into unusual ones)i.e.
many bases are converted to characteristic modified bases of tRNA .

Leader sequence
Aminoacid
attachmentsite
Anticodon arm
Processing of Eukaryotic tRNA precursor to mature tRNA
D loop
D arm
T c arm
Variable
arm
Acceptor arm→
Alterations involved in Post translational modification of primary transcript into mature tRNA s : Cleavage of a 5’ leader
sequence ,Splicing to remove introns , Replacement of the 3’ terminal UU by CCA and Modification of several bases

Genetic code
• The information needed to direct the synthesis of protein is contained in the
mRNA in the form of a Genetic code.
• The Genetic code is the system of nucleotide sequences of mRNA that
designates particular amino acid sequences in the process of translation .
• Codons : are a group of three adjacent bases that specify the amino acids of
protein (the genetic code is the relation between the sequences of bases in
DNA and the sequences of amino acids in protein).

Relation between the Genetic code(sequences of bases in DNA) and the
sequences of amino acids in protein
TheGeneticcodeisthesystemofnucleotidesequencesofmRNAthatdesignates particularaminoacid
sequencesintheprocessoftranslationi.e.thegeneticcodeistherelationbetweenthesequencesofbasesin
DNAandthesequencesofaminoacidsinprotein.

Characteristics of genetic code:1
1. Total Number of possible codons : 64(4 nucleotide bases A,G, C and U used to
produce the three base codon therefore 43 or 64 different combinations of
bases possible codon sequences.
2. Stop or termination or nonsense codons :three (UAA, UAG, and UGA) do not
code for any amino acids and normally signal termination of polypeptide
chains. These are arbitrarily named Amber , Ochre and Opal.
3. Code is degenerate but unambiguous: there are 61 codons for 20 amino
acids , one amino acid has more than one codon and the code is referred to
as degenerate indicating that there are redundancies , i.e. although an amino
acid may have more than one codon , each codon specifies only one amino
acid . Thus genetic code is unambiguous . Degeneracy minimizes the
deleterious effects of mutations.

Characteristics of genetic code:2
4. Codons that designate the same amino acids are called synonyms. E.g. UUU
and UUC code for Phenylalanine .
5. Two amino acids Methionine (AUG) and Tryptophan(UGC) have only one
codon.
6. Remaining amino acids have multiple codons e.g. specific six different
codons of Arginine CGU, CGC,CGA,CGC ,AGA and AGG.
7. Universal nature of codon : each codon is the same in almost all known
organisms . Exception genetic code found in human mitochondria e.g. UGA
codes for Tryptophan instead of serving as a stop codon . AUA codes for
Methionine instead of Isoleucine and CUA codes for threonine instead of
Leucine.
8. Code is non-overlapping and without punctuation : code is read
sequentially without spacer bases , from a starting point as a continuous
sequence of bases , taken 3 at a time. E.g. AUG/CUA/GAC/UUU read as
AUGCUAGACUUU without punctuation between the codons.

Exceptional genetic codons found in human mitochondria
Codon Codes for all organisms Human mitochondria
UGA stop codon Tryptophan
AUA Isoleucine Methionine
CUA Leucine Threonine

Wobble hypothesis
• The genetic code assumes that each codon base pairs in antiparallel fashion
with the anticodon of the tRNAs that are specific for the amino acid
corresponding to the code word.
• The first two bases of these codons are the same , whereas the third is
different “ wobble ”.
• Wobble allows some tRNAs to recognizes more than one codon.
• The non-standard base pairing occurs in the third position of the codon, the
position that has the least effect on specifying a particular amino acid.

Rules for Wobble hypothesis codon-anticodon interactions:1
❑Rules of Wobble hypothesis proposed by Crick :
1. The first two bases of a codon pair in the standard way i.e. always form
strong Watson Crick base pairs with corresponding bases of the anticodon
and confer most of the coding specificity .
2. For a given amino acid codons that differ in either of the first two bases
must be recognized by different t-RNAs .e.g. different t-RNAs for codes for
UUA and CUA , both coding for Leucine.
3. The first base of an anticodon (reading in the 5’→ 3’ direction) determines
whether a particular tRNA reads more than one codon for given amino
acid:

Rules for Wobble hypothesis codon-anticodon interactions:2
❑Four rules of Wobble hypothesis proposed by Crick :
▪ When the first base of the anticodon is C or A it can read only one codon.
▪ When it is U or G , it can read two different codons.
▪ When the wobble base of an anticodon is I (Inosine) or certain other
modified bases , it can read three different codons.
▪ Thus , part of the degeneracy of the genetic code arises from wobble
( imprecision) in the pairing of third base of the codon . That is the reason ,
why there is frequent appearance of inosine , one of the unusual nucleotides
in anticodons.
4. It is not necessary to have 61 different types of tRNA to read all 61 possible
code words. A minimum of 32 tRNA is required to translate all 61 different
codons for the amino acids .

Role of the bases of an anticodon(5’→3’)in wobble hypothesis
Criteria can read
First base of the anticodon is C or A One codon
First base of the anticodon is U or G two different codons
Wobble base of an anticodon is I (Inosine) or
modified bases
Three different codons

Inhibitors of transcription
• The synthesis of RNA is inhibited by certain antibiotics and toxins . Some bind to DNA
and other to RNA polymerase .Antibiotics (serve as therapeutic drug) inhibit RNA
synthesis in prokaryotes but not in eukaryotes.
• Actinomycin D (Dactinomycin): It is synthesized by Streptomyces . It binds
specifically and tightly with double stranded DNA and thereby prevents it from being
an effective DNA template stand for transcription. Thus ,it blocks the movement of
RNA polymerase needed for RNA synthesis . It is extensively used as an inhibitor of
transcription in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes without affecting DNA replication
or translation. It inhibits the growth of rapidly dividing cells makes it an effective
therapeutic agents for cancer .It is the first antibiotic used in treatment of cancer.
• Rifampin : Rifampin binds to the beta subunit of prokaryotic RNA polymerase and
inhibits its activity. Thus it inhibits the initiation of transcription. It has no effect on
eukaryotic nuclear RNA polymerase . It is widely used in treatment of tuberculosis
and leprosy.
•  -Amanitin: toxin produced by the mushroom (Amanita phalloides is delicious in
taste but poisonous= death cap) . It binds with RNA polymerase II of eukaryotes and
inhibits transcription (hence protein synthesis).

Comparison of Inhibitors of transcription
Criteria ActinomycinD(Dactinomycin) Rifampin -Amanitin
synthesized
by(Source)
Streptomyces synthetic Amanitaphalloidesis
deliciousintastebut
poisonousmushroom.
Mechanism
of action
Itbindsspecificallyandtightlywith
doublestrandedDNAandthereby
preventsitfrombeinganeffective
DNAtemplatestand.Thus,itblocks
themovementofRNA polymerase
neededforRNAsynthesis.
bindstothebetasubunit
ofprokaryoticRNA
polymeraseandinhibits
itsactivity.Ithasnoeffect
oneukaryoticRNA
polymerase.
ItbindswithRNA
polymeraseIIof
eukaryotesandinhibits
transcription.
Therapeutic
use
inhibitsthegrowthofrapidly
dividingcellsmakesitaneffective
therapeuticagentforcancer.Itisthe
firstantibioticusedintreatmentof
cancer.
widelyusedintreatment
oftuberculosisand
leprosy.
Antibiotic

Actinomycin D as an Inhibitor of transcription
❑Actinomycin D(Dactinomycin):
• Source : synthesized by Streptomyces .
• Mechanism of action : It binds specifically and tightly with double stranded
DNA( intercalates DNA) and thereby prevents it from being an effective DNA
template stand. Thus, it blocks the movement of RNA polymerase needed for
RNA synthesis .
• Therapeutic use: It is extensively used as an inhibitor of transcription in both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes without affecting DNA replication or translation.
It inhibits the growth of rapidly dividing cells makes it an effective therapeutic
agent . It is the first antibiotic used in treatment of cancer.

Rifampin as an Inhibitor of transcription
Rifampin : used in treatment of tuberculosis and leprosy. Rifampin binds to the beta subunit
of prokaryotic RNA polymerase and inhibits its activity. It has no effect on eukaryotic RNA
polymerase .

-Amanitin as an Inhibitor of transcription
• Source : toxin produced by Amanita phalloides which is delicious in taste but
poisonous mushroom .
• Mechanism of action : It binds with RNA polymerase II of eukaryotes and
inhibits transcription.
• Therapeutic use: effective antibiotic

3’-detoxyadenosine as an Inhibitor of transcription
❑3’-detoxyadenosine as an Inhibitor of transcription :
• Source : a synthetic analog
• Mechanism of action : incorrect entry into chain causing chain termination

Principle of Antisense therapy:1
• The mRNA contains a message/information or sense to be translated into
protein.
• If nucleotide having complementary sequence to mRNA is made , it is said to
be antisense.
• When oligonucleotide (either RNA or DNA) is added ,it will trap the normal
mRNA and so protein synthesis is inhibited . This is said antisense strategy.
• Small oligonucleotides about 7 to 10 nucleotides in length can act as
antisense molecules. The antisense nucleotides are delivered into cells by
liposome encapsulation.
• Clinical are trials on cancer and HIV are being conducted using antisense
molecule.

Principle of Antisense therapy:2
antisense DNA oligonucleotide
Protein
DNA
mRNATranscription→
Antisense
oligonucleotidetrap
normalmRNA Translation
inhibited
Cytosol
Nucleus

Cellular RNA contents:1
• A typical bacterium contains .5- .1pg of RNA which contributes
to about 6% of the total cell weight .
• A mammalian cell ,being larger in size contains 2- 3pg of RNA which
contributes to about 1% of the total cell weight .
• Transcriptome ,represents the RNA derived from protein coding
genes actually constitutes only 4 %, while 96% is the non-coding RNA.
• The non-coding RNAs: ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, small nuclear
RNA ,small nucleolar RNA and small cytosolic RNA.

Cellular RNA contents:2
Total RNA
Coding RNA
4% of total
hnRNA†
m-RNA †
Noncoding
RNA
96% of total
Pre-rRNA†
rRNA†
Pre-tRNA†
tRNA †
small
nuclear
RNA*
small
nucleolar
RNA*
small
cytosolic
RNA*
* present in exclusively eukaryotic
† present in all organism

Cellular RNAs and their functions
Type of RNA Abbreviations Functions
Heterogenous nuclear RNA hnRNA ServesasaprecursorformRNAandotherRNAs.
Messenger RNA mRNA Transfer geneticinformationfromgenestoribosomes
tosynthesizeproteins.
Ribosomal RNA rRNA Providesstructural frameworkforribosomes.
Transfer RNA tRNA Transfersaminoacidto mRNAforproteinbiosynthesis.
Small nuclear RNA snRNA InvolvedinmRNAprocessing.
Small cytoplasmic RNA scRNA Involvedintheselectionofproteinsforexport.
Transfer-messenger RNA tmRNA Mostlypresentinbacteria.Addsshortpeptidetags to
proteinstofacilitatethedegradationofincorrectly
synthesizedproteins.

• Transcription : transfer of genetic information from gene on DNA to mRNA by
DNA dependent RNA polymerase .
• However ,genetic material of some plant and viruses is made of RNA.
• Some of the viruses known as retroviruses possess RNA as the genetic
material and causative agents of AIDS .
• Reverse Transcription: transfer of genetic information from RNA to DNA by
RNA dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase).
• Tumor Retroviruses : oncogenic cause cancer in animals and found in the
transformed cells of the tumors .
• RNA dependent DNA polymerase = reverse transcriptase: responsible for the
formation of a new DNA from RNA. This DNA is complimentary(cDNA) to viral
RNA and can be transmitted into host DNA.
• Temin and Baltimore (Noble1970) isolated enzyme isolated reverse
transcriptase.

Reverse transcription in RNA retrovirus
Schematic diagram
5’
Viral RNA
Reverse transcriptase
Primer
3’ 5’
3’ 5’
5’
RNA
3’ RNA DNA hybrid
RNA ase H hydrolyses RNA
DNA copy of RNA
DNA polymerase III
Double stranded DNA
HowardTeminandDavidBaltimore(NoblePrize1975)isolatedenzymeReversetranscriptase.

Three genes of Retroviruses
❖Retroviruses contain three genes :
1. gag : that encodes proteins that form the core of protein particles.
2. pol : that encodes reverse transcriptase and integrase
3. env : that encodes viral envelop proteins.
4. These genes are flanked by long terminal repeats ( LTR ) that help in
viral integration into host genome.
5. The RNA genome in Retroviruses replicate via a double stranded
DNA intermediate that gets integrated in host cell genome.
The Retroviral genome
LTR  gag pol env LTR

Synthesis of complimentary(cDNA) from mRNA:1
• The DNA expresses the genetic information in the form of RNA.
• The mRNA serves as a template for synthesis of double-stranded
complimentary(cDNA) by using reverse transcriptase and determines the
amino acid sequence in a protein.
• Use of Complimentary(cDNA): used as a probe to identify the sequence of
DNA in genes .

Synthesis of complimentary(cDNA) from mRNA:2

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription with their clinical applications

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