Qualitative Research

In the name of Allah Kareem,
Most Beneficent, Most Gracious,
the Most Merciful !

SUPERIOR GROUP OF COLLEGES
Qualitative research is “an informal, subjective, semi systematic research approaches
that usually emphasizes words rather than numbers in the collection and analysis of
data” and that is inductive in nature. In other words it generates theory.
Qualitative Research
General Aims Of Qualitative Research:
1- Views of participants
2- It does not claim to generalize
3- Theory generation

THE MAIN PREOCCUPATIONS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCHER
These preoccupations reflect epistemologically grounded believes about
what constitutes acceptable knowledge. The qualitative researchers are
more influenced by interpretivism. In this section five different pre-
occupations among qualitative researchers will be outlined and
examined
1. See through the eye of the people been studied
2. Emphasis on process of social life
3. Description and the emphasis on contexts
4. Flexibility and limited structure
5. Concept and theory grounded in data

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. General Research Question
2. Selecting Relevant Site(s) and Subjects
3. Collection or Relevant Data
4. Analyze and Interpretation of Data
5. Conceptual and Theoretical Work
6. Writing up Findings/Conclusions
5a. Collection of Further Data
5b. Tighter Specification of the Research Question (s)

Reliability and Validity
Validity refers to the issues of whether or not an indicator really measures the
concept that it is devised to measure whereas Reliability is the stability or the
consistency of measurement.
1. Member Checking
2. Triangulation
3. Self-Reflection and Rich thick description
4. External audit
5. Authenticity

Qualitative Sampling
In qualitative research researcher preferably uses non probability
sampling that includes:
1. Convenience sampling
2. Snow ball sampling
3. Quota sampling
Qualitative Methods
In qualitative research four methods are used for data collection that is as
follows:
1. Interview
2. Focus group
3. Document analysis
4. Unstructured observation

“A person to person interaction or debate between two or more
individual with a specific purpose in mind.”
What is Interview?
Types of interviews:
There are several types of interviews that are as follows
1. Telephone Interview
2. Email Interview
3. Ethnographic Interview
4. One-on-one interview
5. Group Interview

Modes OF INTERVIEWS
2- Unstructured Interview:
The interviewer is free to move the conversation in any direction of interest that
may come up. Constantly, unstructured interviewing is particularly useful for
exploring a topic broadly.
3- Semi structured Interview:
In this interview we have a list of questions on fairly specific topics to be covered,
often referred to as an interview guide, but the interviewee has a great deal of
flexibility in how to reply
1- Structured Interview:
This is a fixed format interview in which all questions are prepared beforehand
and put in the same order to each interviewee.

Comparison Chart (Nature of Interviews)
Structure Interviews Un Structure Interviews Semi Structure Interviews
b It provides the precision
and reliability required in
certain situations
1- This interview is useful
for exploring a topic
broadly
1- The same questions are
asked of all those involved
2- This type of interview is
easy to code and enter in the
software to get the findings.
2- Each interviewee is
asked a different series of
questions
2- The kind and form of
questions go through a
process of development to
ensure the their topic focus
3- This type of interview took
less time so in less span of
time more interviews can be
conducted.
3- This style lacks the
reliability and precision of
structure interview
3- To ensure equivalent
coverage
4- This interview lacks the
free flow of a friendly
conversation
4- Some times interviewer
and interviewee are
diverted from their
discussion objective.
4- Equivalent interview time
is allowed in each case

Interview procedure
Interview procedure is the set of sequential interdependent activities that
results in collection of comprehensive information regarding the research
topic. It consists of following steps
1. Interview objectives
2. Methodology
3. Interview composition and screening
Geographical coverage: Lahore, Karachi, Islamabad, ,
Gender: -Males & Females
Age: - 25 plus
Job Tenure: - Minimum 3 years
Positions in organizations - faculty members (minimum lecturer)
Usage Pre-requisites: - 20% Inter level
- 30% Bachelors level
- 50% Masters level
Organization type -Private or Public -
(Private must be affiliated educational
institute, college, University(HEC
recognized)

Interview procedure
4. Interview schedule
S.No. Activity Dates
1 Objective setting and Screener development 14th Nov’08
2 Approval of objectives and screener 15th Nov’08
3 Selection of sites and respondents 16th – 20th Nov’08
4 Development of guidelines and arrangements 16th – 20th Nov’08
5 05- interviews (A) 22nd – 28th Nov' 08
6 05- interviews (B) 24th – 28th Nov' 08
7 05- interviews (C) 24th – 28th Nov' 08
8 Transcripts 24th – 8th Dec’08
9 Analysis and Report writing 15th Dec’08
10 Report submission 17th Dec’08
5. Deciding about the ethical issues
I. Identifying yourself as researcher
II. Developing respondent consent form defining
i. the research purposes
ii. types of information required
iii. confidentiality and anonymity statement
iv. surety of security, summary publicity, fair uses of
information and wastage of data after due time period

Interview procedure
6. Discussion guide
7. Questions preparation
i. Pruning and revising possible questions
ii. Trailing
iii. Piloting and pre-piloting
iv. Prompts and probing
8. Conducting the interview
i. Preparation phase
1. Research area office to be in upright condition (illumination, seating
arrangement, noise free, etc)
2. Walkman with new batteries (verified twice).
3. Required documents (screener summary sheets) designed and ready
4. Cassettes (new) to be ready with tags and coding
5. Board markers, plain papers, pencils and other stationary items
6. Moderator guidelines printed and set on the table
7. Refreshment for the interviewee
8. Pick n drop facility for the interviewees
9. Gifts for the interviews as thanks for sparing time
10
.
Interviewee dress code suitability, matching, colour choice etc

Interview procedure
ii. Initial contact phase
iii. Orientation phase
iv. Substantive phase
v. Closure phase
09- Transcribing the interviews
10. Analyzing the data
i. First Stage Analysis
ii. Thematic analysis
iii. Stage-structure analysis
11. Coding the data
12. Analysis grid
13. Writing up interview data

'Soft„, Nonnumeric, textual intangible or
subjective data that describes but not
measure the
attributes, characteristics, properties, etc.,
of a thing or phenomenon.
Example
Conversation, text, audio, video
colors, smells, tastes, textures, or
sounds,
Qualitative Data

 Qualitative Data analysis is a process of gathering,
modeling, and transforming qualitative data with the
goal of
 highlighting useful information
 suggesting conclusions, and
 supporting decision making.
Qualitative Data Analysis: what & why

How to conduct QDA: a step by step process
1.Get to know your data
2.Analyze your data
3.interpret your findings
4.prepare your report

• read and re-read the text.
• listen to the tape recordings several times.
• Write down any impressions you have. These
impressions may be useful later.
• Before beginning any analysis, consider the
quality of the data and proceed accordingly
10.i. Get to know your Data
Good analysis depends on understanding the data.

Before proceeding to analysis, review the purpose
of the evaluation and what you want to find out.
Identify a few key questions that you want your
analysis to answer. Write down these questions.
These will help you decide how to begin. The full
process of analyzing a transcription can be split into
different stages that were discussed one by one:
1. The first step is just to read each transcription, go through them and
highlighting the important statements from each portion as called
substantive statements
2. Analyze your data

EXAMPLE
Excerpt
First of all I would like to say few things before I give an answer to it. This is an organization which
gives you a plenty of (0.2) you see! Opportunities in which you can participate in decision making. I
always:::: been allowed by top management to participate in decision making. Like (0.2) if there are
anything regarding hiring faculty or there is any matter regarding curriculum improvement. They
have always asked me to participate in decision making and I have always give then decisions and
they have always cater those decisions implemented in their systems.
Substantive Statement
This is an organization which gives you a plenty opportunities in which you can participate in
decision making. I always:::: been allowed by top management to participate in decision making.
[For example] if there are anything regarding hiring faculty or there is any matter regarding
curriculum improvement. [The management] always asked me to participate in decision making and
then decisions and they have always catered those decisions implemented in their systems.

2. After identifying the substantive statements you
should conduct thematic analysis; that is the
process of deriving themes out of the substantive
statements. Themes can be of two categories.
I. Preset Themes
II. Emergent Themes
i. Basic Theme
ii. Organizing Theme
iii. Global Theme
10.ii.Thematic analysis

EXAMPLE
(Basic themes) (organizing themes) (global themes)
1. Plenty of opportunities regarding decision
2. decision acceptable by top management
3. decision regarding hiring faculty and curriculum
improvement
4. ideas , suggestions are taken when hire any person and
implementing any system
5. decision to have powers and authority regarding the
ideas are so much considered by the organization
Participation in decision making
Supportive
HR
practices
1. reward is one thing which has made this organization a
singular success
2. when the rewards compare with any competitive
institution, I feel myself lucky to be a part of this
organization
3. the rewarded ratio is quite high as compare to been
unrewarded
4. The effort has been appreciated and they
((management)) have pat on the back, that well done
and keep up the good work.
Fairness of rewards
1. growth in my career, the maximum skills and
knowledge are gained ((by me)) IN THIS
ORGANIZATION
2. knowledgeable, up-to-date information
Growth Opportunities

It is the process of identifying the stages or levels of
the themes while working on the successive interview
transcripts, in order to develop the general flow of
different stages in the narrative to show the
progression.
10.iii.Stage-Structure analysis

HR PRACTICES
Recruitment and selection
Participation in decision making
Training and development
Compensation and reward
Job commitment Job Satisfaction
Performance

It is the process of developing a code book for being
able to refer to certain respondents‟ words in
transcription. In this process the researcher will define
codes for each interviewee, category, subcategory,
question, and substantive statement.
11.Coding the Data

Code: aA1.2 i
Global theme Code: Numbers (1,2,3 …...)
Organizing theme Code: Decimals (.1,.2,.3,….)
Basic theme Code: Roman Numbers (I,ii,iii…..)
Question Code: Small letters (a,b,c…..)
Interviewee Code: Capital letters (A,B,C…..)

After having done all the analysis and the code book
the researcher will develop an analysis grid
(spreadsheet) manually or using Microsoft excel
integrating all major categories taking interviewees at
one side and the categories at top. Then reviewing all
the transcripts the researcher will fill in all the
statements with coded reference against each
statement
12.Analysis Grid

Interpret your findings
On getting completed the analysis grid as outcome of the analysis process the
researcher needs to explain his finding using the themes, categories and the
connections between them. Interpreting the data involves attaching meaning
and significance to the analysis.
How to interpret
• Read through the grid
• Develop a list of key points or findings
• Think about what have you learned; the major lessons
• Develop an outline for presenting your findings
• Write down the meanings you derive as per your understanding from the set
of categories and the quotes from the edited version of transcripts. Stress on
the more significant findings with the help of excerpts with proper coding.

Finally the researcher will write down a report on the outcomes of the
data debating on the key themes, and categories derived from the
interview process using analysis grid.
13.Writing up the report
How to write report
• Explain the background and objectives of your work with the
justification of topic, and the interview method you selected
supported of literature.
• Brief about the step by step process of interview and the
rationale for the selection of interviewee
• Elaborate the qualitative analysis done on the basis of
transcripts and the interpretation.
• Give references both in-text and end-list to authenticate your
report.

Focus Group
“A focus group discussion is a tool in which a small group of people (8-10
individuals) engages in a roundtable discussion of selected topics of interest
in an informal setting” it can be
1. Group focused
2. Content focused

Document Analysis
It is a systematic process of gathering analyzing,
evaluating and using a very heterogeneous set
of documents including
i. Personal documents (Diaries, letters, and autobiographies
etc),
ii. Public documents (Public inquiry transcripts, magazines,
newspaper, TV programs etc)
iii. Organizational documents (Memos, minutes of meeting,
daily reports etc)

Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observation is the unplanned, informal, watching and recording
of behaviors as they occur in a natural environment.
How to conduct
Take a notebook and pen:
1. Note down when you see something interesting.
2. Write down theories as you form them.
3. Don‟t jump to conclusions straight away.
4. Look for more evidence.
5. Ask people to confirm things

Qualitative Research

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Qualitative Research