Radioactive Elements Research Paper

Radioactive Elements Research Paper
A radioactive element does not have any stable isotopes, which means it may spontaneously
degenerate, emitting alpha particles, beta particles and occasionally gamma rays. Some examples of
radioactive elements are uranium, promethium and curium. Radioactive elements could be used
either negative or positive.
Majority of radioactive elements can be positively used, for example, curium and uranium. These
particular elements are used for science or medical research and also help detecting cancer in
patients. Radionuclides are also used to directly treat illnesses, such as radioactive iodine, which is
taken up almost exclusively by the thyroid, to treat hyperthyroidism. Elements like promethium can
be used in nuclear batteries for guided missiles, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One can propose that the presence of nuclear weapons has prevented war, but also that they have
made the consequences of possible war much much worse than before. Other than uranium, there is
another element which is negatively used, promethium. It has no role to play on living things and is
slightly dangerous because of its intense radioactivity. Test on animals showed that it become
localised on the surface of bones from which it can be only slowly removed.
Radioactive elements are all different and unique. Some radioactive elements have half lives of
seconds and others have over billions of years depending on the element. Most elements are man–
made because they are normally not found in nature. However, it has been verified that some of
these elements are produced and found in nature in very small amounts. Most elements have unlike
amount of isotopes, non–identical isotopes of the same element have different half lives.
Radioactive element is an unstable nucleus spontaneously emits particles and energy in a process
known as radioactive decay. Alternatively, it depends on how it might have been used, someone
people use it for positive and others for negative
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Chemical Reactions And Functions Of The Chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the study of the reactions and functions of the chemistry uses of the nucleus.
The nucleus contains two types of components called the nucleons, which consist of the proton and
neutron. The mass number of an atom is defined by the sum of the protons and neutrons; the atomic
number of an atom is defined by the number of protons only. Atoms which have different mass
numbers but have the same atomic number are referred as isotopes, for example carbon 12, 13, and
14.Nucleus with special numbers of the neutron and protons are referred as nuclides. Radio nuclides
are usually unstable and it continuously emits particles as well as emits the electromagnetic
radiation. Emission is the process of the unstable nucleus to undergo and become stable, this way it
reduces the cost of the energy. For example the Uranium–238,which decays into an alpha particle
(Helium nucleus) and a nucleon (Thorium–234). When the Uranium–238 decays it decomposed at
the same time, this process can be also called as alpha–decayed. The equation for that is:238U92 –>
234Th90 + 4He2 + Gamma rays.
There are three types of radioactive decay; alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The alpha radiation
includes a stream of the Helium–4nuclei; beta radiation has higher speed electrons when emitting
from unstable nucleus and normally has a negative charge(positron is the opposite side of the beta
decay); gamma radiation has not much altering ability on the mass on either atomic or mass number
thus it

Most Efficient Method Of Quantifying Radioactive Strontium
Summary This report, "Most Efficient Method of Quantifying Radioactive Strontium", determines
what the most efficient method is for quantifying radioactive strontium when analyzing samples for
radioisotopes of strontium, specifically Sr–89 and Sr–90. The analysis was performed from
information collected by studying journal articles, recalling personal experiences at work, and
reading textbooks about the different types of particle detectors. Information collected from the
referenced sources and personal experience show that the Cherenkov counting method is the most
efficient method for Sr–89 determination and the proportional counting method is the most efficient
method for Sr–90 determination. The report finds that proportional counting is the best method for
Sr–90 determination, Cherenkov counting is the best method for Sr–89 determination and a method
that incorporates different detectors is the most efficient method. It is recommended for an analytical
laboratory to always first use Cherenkov counting or proportional counting for strontium analysis. It
is also recommended to create technical work instructions for a multi–detector method that is
updated every 6 months with improvements on the method. 1.0 Introduction The analytical
chemistry laboratory at Kinectrics Inc. offers a wide variety of services that include radiochemistry,
general chemistry, and oils analysis. The radiochemistry laboratory, in which I was employed,
receives samples such as smears, liquids,

The Disaster Of Nuclear Reactors
An earthquake centered 130 km off shore of the city of Sendai in Miyagi caused 11 nuclear reactors
that were operating at 4 different nuclear plants to shut down on March 11, 2011(Fukushima
Accident, 2015). The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0, which is classified as one of the worst
earthquakes/ greatest earthquakes on the earthquake scale, the tsunami following the earthquake was
about 560 sq km resulting in over 19,000 human deaths. The earthquake and tsunami caused the
following nuclear units to shut down, Tokyo Electric Power Company 's (Tepco) Fukushima Daiichi
1, 2, 3, and Fukushima Daini 1, 2, 3, 4, Tohoku 's Onagawa 1, 2, 3, and Japco 's Tokai, total 9377
MWe net (ibid).
Nuclear plants create energy through radioactive substances that help the creation of energy.
Substances can become radioactive because the nucleus of each atom is unstable and can decay
giving off nuclear radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays (What is
Radioactivity, n.d.). Most power reactors use water as a coolant, in light–water reactors, the core is
surrounded by the coolant under pressure. The nuclear fuel contains uranium that contains 2 to 4
percent uranium–235. For fuel rods the uranium is changed to uranium dioxide (Nuclear Energy,
n.d.). Heat is created by the uranium–235 atoms splitting which is called fission then steam is made
which spins a turbine to drive a generator and produces electricity, this is a nuclear reaction.
Fukushima are boiling–water

Isotopes: Atoms, Different Forms Of
Isotopes, different forms of atoms, sometimes spontaneously decay producing radioactivity.
Atoms of the same element often vary slightly in weight due to either missing a neutron or having
an extra neutron, and these differing forms are termed isotopes. An atom is still the same element
regardless of how many neutrons it may have in its nucleus. For example, carbon atoms come in
several varieties, as do most atoms. The "normal" ones are carbon–12 (C–12); those atoms have six
protons and six neutrons. A few odd ones may have seven or even eight neutrons such as carbon–14
(C–14). Chemists consider C–14 an isotope of the element carbon. However, if we examine the C–
14 atom, we see that it is not perpetually stable. At some point in time

Radan Research Paper
History–
Radon was discovered in 1900 by German Chemist Friedrich Ernst Dorn. Radon was the third
radioactive element found after Polonium and Radium. Dorn discovered the element because of an
observation made by Marie Curie. Dorn discovered that when radium is released into the air the air
becomes radioactive. After observing the gas for a while Dorn discovered that radium produces a
gas when it breaks apart. Dorn first called the gas "Radium Emanation",Emanation meaning
something given off. In 1923, seven years after Dorns death scientists changed the name "Radium
Emanation" to Radon. Referring to where the gas comes from, Radium.
Development of the Periodic Table–
A Russian chemist named Dmitri Mendeleev was the first scientist to make ... Show more content
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All of Radons' isotopes are radioactive. Radons most stable Isotope. While there are no stable
isotopes in radon, the most stable isotope is 222Rn, which is a decay product of 226Ra. There are 3
Isotopes of Radon that occur in nature, radon–219, radon–220, and radon–222. Isotopes are two or
more forms of an element. Each isotope is different because of its mass number. All Isotopes of
Radon have very short half–lives and they do not remain in the atmosphere for very long. The half–
life of an element is the time it takes for half of a sample of the element to break down. The radon
Isotope with the longest half–life is Radon–222, lasting only 3.8 days. Most of Radons Isotopes do
not last more than a few seconds, or minutes. Some of the physical properties of Radon is that it is a
colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. When radon is at standard temperature and pressure, radon
forms a monatomic gas with a density of 9.73 kg/m3, about 8 times the density of the Earth's
atmosphere at sea level, 1.217 kg/m3. Some of the Chemical Properties of Radon is, Radon has an
atomic number of 86. Also it has a density of 9.73 g/l. The melting and boiling points of radon are –
71 C, and –62

Iodine-131: Nuclear Turnover
Introduction:
Iodine–131 is a synthetic radioisotope of the element Iodine and is commonly formed in nuclear
reactors. Other isotopes of Iodine include iodine–129, iodine–124 and 123 which is commonly used
in medical imaging and the less common iodine–125 which can be used to treat cancerous tissue.1
As Iodine–131 is a radioisotope it undergoes radioactive decay in order to stabilise itself. Iodine–
131 undergoes a type of radioactive decay called beta negative decay (–), where a neutron in the
nucleus is converted to a proton therefore changing the atomic number but leaving the atomic
weight unchanged. Beta decay also involves the emission of an electron as a beta particle2 An
Iodine–131 particle undergoes beta negative decay to form the stable isotope, Xenon–131 (Figure
1). Iodine–131 also emits small amounts of gamma radiation as it decays and has a relatively short
half– life of approximately 8 days.3
Discussion: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Seaborg and John Livingood in 1938 at the University of California, Berkeley Radiation laboratory.
The scientist discovered uses for its radioactive properties and by 1939 a paper had been published
suggesting that there was a potential for its use in medical diagnostic. More research was conducted
before 1946 when Iodine–131 was first used to treat thyroid cancer. Then eventually the isotope was
used for detection of brain and liver tumours during the

Radioactive Decay Honors
8.01 Half–Life and Radioactive Decay Honors
By: Amanda Sirianni
Naturally Occurring Radiation
Uranium:
1: Where is this substance most likely found, and how abundant is it?
Uranium can be found in a lot of places in small quantities such as rocks, soil, and water. However,
its harder to find uranium in amounts that are worth the trouble.
2: What type of decay does this substance undergo, and how harmful can it be to those exposed?
Naturally forming uranium undergoes radioactive decay by emission of an alpha particle and gamma
radiation. As the decay continues, it releases radiation.This is an extreme health issue that, in large
amounts, can cause cancer and liver damage.
3: What can be done to protect against the radiation produced by this isotope?
To avoid harmful uranium, people ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Is it used in the medical, industrial, scientific, or other fields?
Uranium can be used to produce nuclear energy, it's renewable, and it means less pollution which in
turn helps the environment.
Radiation Used by Humans and Technology
The use of iodine–131 in the medical field
1:What careers or fields use this type of radiation, and why is it used?
Doctors use Iodine–131. Iodine–131 can be used to treat someone with hyperthyroidism. It can also
be used to treat thyroid cancer. It can also be used as a type of medical imaging.
2:What are the benefits and risks associated with using this material, and how common is its use?
This material is used quite frequently as it can heal sick people. There are a few risks, but it's mostly
little things. A sore throat feeling can be a side effect.
However, there can be some more serious ramifications such as a loss of the thyroid gland all
together.
3&4: What waste materials, if any, are produced by the use of this substance, and how is the waste
handled and disposed of? What other important information should we be aware of regarding this
particular material and its

The Zinc Of Cobalt 60
COBALT–60
INTRO
Cobalt–60 or also known as co–60 is one of the many isotopes of the element, Cobalt. Cobalt has 28
isotopes other than Cobalt–60, these include: Cobalt–47, Cobalt–48, Cobalt–49, Cobalt–50, Cobalt–
51, Cobalt–52, Cobalt–53, Cobalt–54, Cobalt–55, Cobalt–56, Cobalt–58, Cobalt–59, Cobalt–60,
Cobalt–61, Cobalt–62, Cobalt–63, Cobalt–64, Cobalt–65, Cobalt–66, Cobalt–67, Cobalt–68,
Cobalt–69, Cobalt–70, Cobalt–71, Cobalt–72, Cobalt–73, Cobalt–74, Cobalt–75 and Cobalt–76
(Jefferson Lab, n.d.). Co–60 is a synthetically produced radioisotope with a half–life of 5.27 years
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014). It decays through beta particles and
gamma radiation (CDC, 2005). Cobalt–60 decays into stable isotope, Nickel–60 through beta minus
decay (radioactivity.eu.com, n.d.).
SAFETY ISSUES
Cobalt–60 can be very dangerous to human health. If ingested or inhaled, the majority of co–60 is
excreted in the feces and the rest is absorbed into the blood and tissues, mainly the liver, kidneys
and bones (CDC, 2014; United States Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2015). As co–60 is
involved in ionising radiation, all co–60 that is absorbed by liver, kidneys or bone tissue can cause
cancer and because it decays by gamma radiation, this results in an increased risk of cancer in
comparison to other radioisotopes along with skin burns, acute radiation sickness, or death. In
occasional circumstances, medical or industrial radiation sources are lost or stolen

The Birth Of Nuclear Medicine
Introduction It is difficult to determine the birth of nuclear medicine due to the many contributions
made my scientists of carious fields. However, most notably, during bla blah Understanding the
uses, benefits and side effect of nuclear medicine is crucial due to its significant and ongoing
contribution to the medical field. Throughout this paper focus will be placed on how radioactivity
has benefited the detection, control and at times, complete elimination of cancer. Background
Nuclear medicine is a medical speciality whereby radiopharmaceuticals – drugs containing
radioactive materials called radioisotopes – are given to a patient in order to determine the severity
of or treat a variety of diseases. However, to understand this and the impact that different physics
principles have on the function of nuclear medicine, these principles must first be explained. Atoms;
the building blocks of matter, contain a centrally located nucleus inside of which there are positively
and neutrally charged subatomic particles known respectively as protons and neutrons. Electrons
orbit around them and have a negative charge. The name isotope is given to atoms with the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons. When isotopes occur, they serve to stabilise
the proceeding atom, however, if there are too many or too few neutrons, then they become unstable
and are known as radioisotopes. Radioisotopes are often artificially created through irradiation,
which is where an

Fluorine 18 Research Paper
Radio isotope name Fluorine–18
Name of application (the purpose to which it is applied) It is used in the radiopharmaceutical
industry, positron emission tomography: metabolic abnormalities
Diagram of atomic structure of this isotope
Main uses of the radio isotope Fluorine–18 is the most frequently used radioisotope in Positron
Emission Tomography and the radiopharmaceutical industry. "PET is imaging for cancer. Fluorine–
18 is synthesised into fluorodeoxyglucose for PET." (Wikipedia). It is a nuclear medicine functional
imaging technique that is used to observe metabolic processes in the body as an aid to the diagnosis
of disease.
Fluorine–18 is used in PET because it is substituted for hydroxyl and ... Show more content on
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The short half–life of this isotope means that radiation levels reduce quickly. High–density shielding
material should be used when storing F–18 but this is impractical when handling the material. The
predominant radiation emitted is gamma rays. Therefore, field contamination monitors should use
sensitive gamma detectors.
References/ resources which are used 1. : En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Fluorine–18. [online] Available
at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine–18 [Accessed 27 Mar. 2018]
2. Accessdata.fda.gov. (2018). [online] Available at:
https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2005/021870lbl.pdf [Accessed 27 Mar.
2018].
3. dummies. (2018). The Process of Natural Radioactive Decay – dummies. [online] Available at:
http://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/the–process–of–natural–radioactive–decay/
[Accessed 27 Mar. 2018].
4. Docs.csg.ed.ac.uk. (2018). [online] Available at:
http://www.docs.csg.ed.ac.uk/Safety/rpu/gn/GN008.pdf [Accessed 27 Mar.

Radon-222 Research Paper
There are numerous different isotopes of radon so it is difficult to verify who discovered it first, but
radon–220 and –222 are the most common forms of this element. Radon–222 was first discovered
by a German chemist named Friedrich Ernst Dorn while he was studying radium's decay chain in
1900. However Robert Owens and Ernest Rutherford observed another isotope of radon first, radon–
220, in 1899. More specifically, Rutherford discovered radon's alpha radiation and Dorn discovered
that radium was releasing a gas. English physicist William Ramsay revealed his discoveries of the
five other noble gases around the same time as Friedrich Dorn's discovery. Ramsay had previously
predicted the existence of radon and even specified some of its

Electron Radiation
Atoms are the microscopic building blocks of all matter in the universe. Everything around us are
made of atoms, including radiation. The centre of an atom is called the nucleus, it is made of two
particles: protons, which carry a positive charge and neutrons, which have no charge. Electron carry
a negative charge and it is outside of a nucleus. The attraction of these negative electrons to the
positive nucleus is what keep the atom together. All the atom of the given elements has a specific
number of protons and neutrons, but sometimes it will have too many of those and become
radioactive and an unstable atom is called a radioisotope. When radioactive want to be stable again,
they must release energy until they get back to a balanced state. ... Show more content on
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Firstly, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant leaks radioactive water into underground and to
sea. The effect cause earthquake in 2011. After the earth quake on June 2011, scientists measured
that 5,000 to 15,000 terabecquerels of radioactive material was reaching the ocean. Since the
incident in 2011, scientists measured levels of radioactivity in fish and other sea life. Several species
of fish from this area had caesium levels that exceeded Japan's regulatory limit for seafood.
Scientists say the groundwater leaks could become worse, but warn against drawing conclusions
about the impacts on sea life before peer–reviewed studies are completed. Secondly, gamma rays
can be used in medical treatment to kill cancer cell. However gamma can be extremely dangerous
because they are a very powerful source of power, if they delivered in an unmonitored and
uncontrolled way they can kill humans, animals and plants. Gamma rays however can also disrupt
the physical properties of materials. They can cause plastics and steel to become brittle and to
eventually break.
In conclusion, radioactivity has both negative and positive aspects. Negative impacts include the
radiation leaking and damage healthy organism or cell during treatment while positive aspects
consist of many different uses in medical science, security and daily life items. I support the uses of
radioactivity because the positive aspects outweigh the negative aspects and I believe that in the
future the radioactivity can be used positively in many other

Finding use in “spacecrafts, pacemakers, underwater...
Finding use in "spacecrafts, pacemakers, underwater systems, electric automobiles, and remote
monitoring systems" (source 6), the atomic battery has existed for over a century and is growing to
benefit our world. The atomic battery generates electricity from a nuclear reaction, utilizing the
radioactive decay of specific elements. The atomic battery is certainly not meant for households or
as a source of common battery use, but rather powerful equipment needing to run for long, extended
periods. Atomic batteries are quite expensive, but can provide an immense amount of energy that
will conduct over an extremely long life period. This paper will explain the basic functioning of an
atomic battery, investigate a brief history of the atomic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Now we will discuss a brief history of early atomic battery development.
Henry G. J. Moseley, known for developing the Atomic Number and numerous other contributions
to physics and chemistry, created the first known atomic battery in 1913 with his demonstration of
the beta cell. He experimented with a radioactive isotope of the element radium, and the respective
emissions of beta particles, to form the first atomic battery (source 5). This first crude battery saw
minimal success and effectiveness, and it wasn't until 1954 when the "Radio Corporation of America
(RCA) began studying atomic batteries for the use of small radio receivers and hearing aids" that
atomic batteries became practical and more potential was realized (source 6). Moving forward to the
1980's, inventor Paul Brown developed an atomic battery that was much more powerful than most
thermal batteries out at the time. Brown used the emission of alpha and beta particles in radioactive
materials to create an extremely powerful magnetic field. As discussed before, these alpha and beta
particles contain kinetic energy to help collide atomic particles. The energy produced from this
system was so rapid and immense that controlling the cell was extremely difficult. This proved to be
a towering roadblock for most scientists to continue research for atomic batteries, until Brown was
able to invent an approach to encompass the uncontrollable magnetic fields. "This battery was so
powerful

Groundwater Samples Were Collected And Reported By Sultan...
Groundwater samples were collected and reported by Sultan et al. (2011) from Sinai for isotopic
analyses of H and O from open and productive wells tapping three types of aquifers: (1) fractured
basement, (2) Nubian Sandstone unconfined aquifer cropping out at the foothills of the basement
outcrops, and (3) alluvial. They believed that the unconfined and alluvial aquifers fed by a fractured
basement aquifer through discharging into the overlying sediments. The δD and δ18O isotopic
compositions of the groundwater samples from the unconfined Nubian Sandstone aquifers in the
recharge areas cropping out at the foothills of the basement outcrops are somewhat depleted (δD: –
22.7 to –32.8‰; δ18O: –4.47 to –5.22‰) compared to those from fractured basement outcrops (δD:
–19.9 to –23.2‰; δ18O: –3.77 to –5.05‰) and those from alluvial aquifers (δD: –22.7 to –23.4‰;
δ18O: –4.53 to –5.01‰), but they are less depleted than those reported from the Gulf of Suez
(Sturchio et al., 1996). The isotopic compositions of the samples from the fractured basement and
alluvial aquifers are similar to those of average modern precipitation from Al Arish and Rafah (Fig.
3). The unconfined aquifer shows a mixing between fossil waters of the Western Desert, formed in
pluvial period, and modern precipitation deposited in dry and warm climatic conditions (Sultan et
al., 1997, 2011).
6.3.6. EASTERN DESERT
Hydrogen and oxygen show a wide range of isotopic ratios for Eastern Desert groundwater samples,
which

Treating Brain Disorders: A Case Study
To continue, gold has other uses in the medical field along with treating brain disorders. This is
because gold is able to absorb radiation. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei
decompose to form nuclei with a higher stability. Energy and particles are released during the
decomposition process causes radiation. There are three different types of radiation; alpha, beta and
gamma. Alpha radiation is when an alpha particle, or helium nucleus, decays into an atom with a
mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. Idaho State
University (2011) explained that beta radiation is when an electron is released from the nucleus of a
radioactive atom, along with a particle called an antineutrino (para.

Why Is The Atomic Theory Important
The Atomic Theory is a theory that explains what matter is made of. The Atomic theory states that
matter can't be divided as it is made up of minute particles called atoms that cannot be separated.
The very word atom is derived from the Greek word Atmos which means indivisible.
Atomic theory timeline–
Year Person/People Event
442 BCE Democritrus and Leucippus These Greek philosophers came up with the idea that all
matter is composed of indivisible elements.
1803 John Dalton British chemist and physicist John Dalton theorised that matter is composed of
spherical atoms (that are in motion) of different weights and are combined in ratios by weight.
1896 Wilhelm Rontgen Discovered that certain chemicals glowed when exposed to cathode ... Show
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1913 Neils Bohr Refined the atomic model– founding the Bohr atomic model which consists of
electrons orbiting around the nucleus and chemical properties being determined by the number of
electrons in the outer orbits.
He also integrated Max Planck's quantum theory.
1926 Edwin Shrodinger Explained how electrons move in wave formation and developed the
'Shrodinger equation' that describes how the quantum state of of a system changes with time.
1931 James Chadwick Found the neutron component of the atomic nucleus. This allowed scientists
to make synthetic elements in a laboratory.
1938 Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner Discovered nuclear fission.
1951 Glenn Seaborg Made many discoveries to do with transuranium elements and made advances
in nuclear medicine.
1964 George Zweig and Murray Gell–Mann (Independently) Proposed 'Quark model' which
describes elementary particles that have no substructure which means that they can't divide.
Marie Curie and her achievements–
Marie (Sklodowska) Curie was born in 1867 in Warsaw and was interested in science from an early
age. Both of her parents were teachers and Marie was a keen learner but advanced education for
women was not available in Poland at that time. When she was 24, Marie travelled to Paris to study
mathematics and physics. In 1893, she completed her physics degree and the following year,
collected her degree in mathematics. Marie wished to become a teacher. In

Taking a Look at Cobalt 60
Cobalt 60 Cobalt 60 is one of many radioactive isotopes. It contains 33 neutrons and 27 protons.
Most people have not heard of Cobalt–60 unless they are involved in chemistry or the medial field.
This isotope is more common than a person thinks. It is an isotope that is useful in the medical field
and other places. This paper is all about Cobalt–60 and the history behind it as well as some other
useful information. Cobalt was discovered by a Swedish chemist by the name of Georg Brandt. In
1735, Georg was trying to prove that certain minerals had the ability to color glass blue and was not
due to bismuth but due to an unknown element (1). Since then, it has developed into a highly useful
isotope.
When people hear about radioactive isotopes, they wonder where the isotopes come from. The non–
radioactive version of cobalt (Cobalt–59) occurs naturally in various minerals (2). It also occurs
naturally in the air, water, soil, rocks, plants, and animals (6). Humans even have cobalt in their
body, but this is a very small amount. The body contains 1.5 mg of Cobalt–60 and the liver is the
principal organ of where a person can find it (1). Some isotopes are made naturally and some are
made unnaturally. Radioactive Cobalt–60 is not naturally made. It is formed when cobalt–59 is
collided by a neutron making it the radioactive isotope (3).
Cobalt decays to form Nickel–60. As it decomposes, it releases gamma radiation. Beta particles also
occur when Carbon–60 decays (4). The nuclear

Nuclear Medicine : A Global Link For The Scientific Community
Nuclear medicine is a relatively new process of medical practice in which radioactive material is
used to treat disease, inflammation, infection, and clotting disorders. (Nuclear Medicine
Radiochemistry Society, n.d.) The treatment of these conditions comes in medicinal form, through
radiopharmaceuticals. "[Radiopharmaceuticals] may be put into a vein, taken by mouth, or placed in
a body cavity. Depending on the drug and how it's given, these materials travel to various parts of
the body to treat cancer or relieve its symptoms" (American Cancer Society, 2014). By examining
the complications which are attempting to be solved, it is evident that the medicinal uses of
radioisotopes are a global link for the scientific community. However, in ... Show more content on
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A major characteristic of radioactive material is that it decays from one element to another through
particle and gamma decay. Essentially, all radioactive materials are byproducts of previously
decayed elements. In order to utilize the radioisotopes of their choice, providers must artificially
employ forms of specific radionuclide formation. This process is induced in a variety of ways,
namely, production in a particle accelerator or creation in a nuclear reactor.
"Overall there are some 3800 radioisotopes. At present there are up to 200 radioisotopes used on a
regular basis [in medical practice], and most must be produced artificially" (NMRS, 2003). Man–
made radioisotopes can be made through a cyclotron (a circular particle accelerator) or in a nuclear
reactor but "nuclear reactors are currently producing the vast majority of the isotopes" (Nuclear
Resource and Information Center, 2010). Consequently, focusing on the mechanics of their creation
in a nuclear reactor is the most effective way to analyze radioisotopes in medicine. "The
radioisotope most widely used in medicine is technetium–99m, employed in some 80% of all
nuclear medicine procedures–70,000 every day" (Hore–Lacy, 2009), and is the decayed
transmutation of molybdenum–99 within a technetium–99m generator. These technetium–99m
generators are actually

Hydrogen Concentration And Radioactive Isotopes
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; BUT they have the same
number of protons.
In nuclear chemistry, isotopes are shown in the following form:
Chlorine–35 is written as 35Cl and Rubidium–85 is written as 85Rb
Isotopes can be divided in two categories, radioactive and stable.
Stable Isotopes are isotopes that are not radioactive. They have stable nuclei and pose no known
physiological skills
Radioactive Isotopes is when the atom is unstable, it will attempt to gain stability by emitting
radiation in one of the three main forms. A substance is radioactive when it emits this radiation.
There are three types of radiation: α (alpha), β (beta) and γ (gamma) radiation:
Alpha Decay: is made of 'helium nucleus' (2 protons and 2 neutrons) that are ejected from unstable
large nuclei. Alpha radiation usually results when there are too many protons and neutrons in the
nucleus for it to be stable. For example, the decay of uranium–238: Beta Decay: is made up of
electrons ejected from an unstable nucleus (too may neutrons); but nuclei do not contain electrons.
Hence, the underlying reaction is the decomposition of a neutron: When neutron decomposes, it
forms an electron, which is immediately ejected as beta radiation, and a proton ('hydrogen nucleus'),
which is captured by the nucleus. Thus, the beta decay results in an

Radioactive Isotopes : What Is A Radioisotope?
Tatsuya Tsunemi
Radioactive Isotopes
What is a radioisotope?
An isotope means that same chemical elements but they are able to gain and lose some neutrons and
it means they have different mass numbers but that are all still the same element because they all
have same atomic number and same amount of electrons.
Some of them are stable and unstable and unstable ones start radioactive decay by time because of
some reasons which includes they cannot keep staying together, they have too many or too few
neutrons. This means they are a radioactive isotope and that is an isotope of any known element
with nucleus which is unstable and ends up scattering excess energy because of that nucle.
There are over 2000 of radioisotopes include man made ones. However, only 50 of them are found
in natural world today because they have half–life.
Technetium is the lowest atomic number in the periodic table which have no stable isotopes.
Natural technetium is very rare element on the earth and it often made by spontaneous fission from
Uranium–238 but amount of it is very tiny and all of isotopes from Technetium are radioactive
isotopes.
What is a half–life?
Radioactive half–life is the number of time to take for half of the original radionuclear to undergo
radioactive decay.
Technetium–99 which is the most common isotope of Technetium and it is the first chemical
element was made by people that has a half–life for 212,000 years to stable ruthenium–99 and
emitting beta particles.
Tc–99m, it is

Gastric Emptying Studies
What is a gastric emptying study? The definition of a gastric emptying study is "a procedure that is
done by nuclear medicine physicians using radioactive chemicals that measures the speed with
which food empties from the stomach and enters the small intestine". What does it have to do with
nuclear medicine and radioactive elements? That's a good question. It has to do with radioactive
elements because the meal, liquid, or both are mixed with a little bit of radioactive material, than
gamma rays are placed over the subjects stomach to track the amount of radioactivity that decreases
in the stomach. Gastric emptying studies use radioactive elements by using radioactive material.
What is a radioactive tracer? Another good question. That "is

Plutonium-238
Isotopes are essential to the universe in a chemical and even a social aspect, standing as a variation
of an element portrayed as unique. Important questions surround isotopes, how are they distinctive
and ultimately what is an isotope? To answer that question, isotopes are a form of an element that
differs in the number of neutrons in the nucleus but does not differ in protons of that element. An
isotope in particular that contributed to society is Plutonium–238, which is understood to be a
radioactive isotope. Understanding the basic structure according to the periodic table. Pu–238 has an
atomic number of 94. This is what classifies it as plutonium due to its number of protons. The
atomic mass, which is the sum of protons and neutrons ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Neptunium–238 undergoes beta decay which is when a proton is converted into a neutron and a
proton. The final product is plutonium–238. While plutonium–238 decays, it releases .5 watts of
energy per gram. Due to this release of energy which can be used as a viable fuel source,
plutonium–238 is used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, early pacemaker batteries, as well
as space satellites and vehicles. Though the source is widely used by NASA, the production has run
flat as well as the amount of material running dangerously low. For continued and future usage of
plutonium–238, the U.S. is establishing plans in order to run a plant that creates the isotope.
Currently, Russia is the lead supplier of plutonium–238. The hope is, by 2019, the isotopes
production will run at full

Lab Analysis : Acoustic Mismatch
1. * Ultrasound techniques are used to detect structure inside the body. A gel is used when a 1MHz
transducer is placed on the skin to avoid acoustic mismatch at the skin–transducer interface. (a)
Define acoustic mismatch (in this particular case). Acoustic mismatch, by definition, is the
discrepancy between the acoustic impedances of two or more mediums (MacLennan, 2006). This
occurs when a propagated soundwave, passing through one medium, travels into another medium of
unequal impedance. In the context of ultrasounds, the soundwaves emitted by the transducer are
affected by changes in acoustic impedance, this is acoustic mismatch. Much like any other forms of
mechanical waves, a reflection of these waves occurs at interfaces and boundaries between mediums
(most likely skin/muscle or organ/fluid in this case). In cases of high acoustic mismatch, reflections
are so severe that a readable ultrasound is improbable. (b) Describe what would happen if air was
between the transducer and the skin. Acoustic impedance is the resistance a substance's molecules
have to a change in their state of mechanical vibration. A material with a high acoustic impedance,
such as bone, will be much more resistant to a change in vibration than a material with a low
acoustic impedance, such as air or water. Air, having an acoustic impedance much lower than an (c)
If the density of skin was 1010 kg/m3 and the velocity of sound through the skin was 1540 m/s,
calculate the optimum acoustic impedance

The Effects Of Radioactive Decay On The World
Thorium has long been the subject of scientific research ever since its discovery, and now it appears
that this obscure element may be the energy source which could fuel humanity for generations to
come. While thorium has a complicated history, the element remains very important to humanity for
many reasons. Discovered about the same time as uranium in the 19th century, thorium has been
well known to the scientific community for many years (World Nuclear Association). In fact,
famous scientists like Marie Curie and Ernest Rutherford worked with the element in several
experiments when radioactive decay was first being discovered. Since that time, however, thorium
has largely been thrown by the wayside for use in practical applications such as energy production
in favor of neighboring elements uranium and plutonium. Things are starting to turn around for
thorium though, as people are beginning to realize that thorium power offers cleaner, more
powerful, and safer energy than anything humanity has ever known before, and they are beginning
to take action to make thorium more widely known as an important prospective energy source. Fig.
1. Thorium Element. Digital image. Periodictable.com. Periodictable.com. Web. 15 May 2016 Fig.
2. Karolewski, Lucasz. Thorium Lantern Mantle. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 28 Jan.
2014. Web. 15 May 2016 Thorium is a silvery radioactive metal which was discovered in 1828 and
is relatively common in nature (see fig. 1) (World Nuclear

Nuclear Medicine And Its Effects
Nuclear medicine refers to the use of radioactivity to diagnose and treat diseases. Nuclear medicine
is a rapidly expanding branch of chemistry that uses short–lived radioisotopes to seek out specific
organs. Nuclear medicine can detect radiation coming from inside a patient's body and as a result
nuclear medicine can determine the cause of the medical problems based on organ's function. The
use of nuclear medicine techniques have increased due to its' use of biological chemistry to target
specific cells more precisely than traditional radiation. Traditional radiation applies radiation from
an external source to kill target cells, but can also kill non–targeted cells in the process.
Nuclear medicine tests primarily focus on organ–specific illnesses, as opposed to traditional
radiology, in which particular segments of the body are the focal point. A nuclear medicine that is
attached to a small amount of radioactive material, or radioisotope, is called a pharmaceutical.
Together, a radioisotope and pharmaceutical create a radiopharmaceutical. A small quantity of the
radiopharmaceutical is administered into the body by means of indigestion, injection, or inhalation.
The pharmaceutical part of the radiopharmaceutical localizes in the area in which the disease or
abnormality might be. The body tissues affected by certain diseases may absorb more of the tracer
than other tissues. The radioactive part of the radiopharmaceutical begins to decay and as a result, it
gives off energy.

How Does Cesium 137 Change In The Environment
Chemical elements can exist in different types which are called isotopes. Isotopes have protons,
electrons and neutrons. Isotopes have the same number of protons and neutrons but different number
of neutrons. There are many forms of isotopes such as radioactive isotopes. A radioactive isotope
can be artificially created and naturally created, radioactive isotopes are chemical elements having
an unstable nucleus which decays. Alpha, beta or gamma rays are emitted until the isotope is stable.
Stable form of an isotope is nonradioactive. In the 1930s Glenn T.Seaborg and his coworker original
discovered the radioactive isotope Cesium 137. Isotopes may or may not be radioactive, Cesium 137
is a radioactive isotope, only elements with an unstable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Devices containing Cesium 137 can sometimes be sold for scrap metal, if this scrap metal finds it
way to a steel or metal mill and is melted the metal can have a major im[act on the environment,
these device should be considered with care and be seen as a dangerous object. How does Cesium
137 change in the environment? When Cesium 137 comes in contact with the environment it will
decay with division of beta particles and strong gamma radiation. When Cesium 137 decays it will
go to Barium 137 which is a shot lived product which in turn decays to become a nonradioactive
isotope called barium. Cesium moves easily through the environment which makes the clean up of
Cesium 137 very difficult. What happens to it in the body? When Cesium is taken into the body of a
human, it is either done by eating food, drinking water or breathing air. As soon as the Cesium is
ingested into the body it has a similar attribute as potassium, it will distribute through the body at a
rapid rate. When the stomach and intestines absorb water and food is the primary source of
distribution of Cesium, which means all Cesium that is ingested within the body does find its way
into the blood stream, mainly done through the

Half Life Lab Report
Abstract
Radioactivity is the process that an atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation to form a more
stable atom, and time for radioactive material decay to half of the isotope is defined Half–life.
Radon–220 observed in the experiment theoretically has a half–life with 54.5s. Two methods
derived from the definition of Half–life and Radioactive Decay Law used to demonstrate half–life of
Radon–220 under 400V and the closest result from the whole experiment is 55.90s with 2.57%
error. The relationship of remaining atoms of Radon (1/∆T) and total elapsed time (t) is the main
idea to find out Half–life in the experiment.
Introduction
Beginning in 1896, radioactivity was the first time that mentioned in new science, the discovery of
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Radon gas injected into the chamber distributed over the volume of the chamber, and some of them
would stay at the bottom all the time and do not take part in the experiment; but only the radon das
ejected at the beginning of the each trial that is counted. A correction for the fraction of the radon
volume at the beginning of each trial relative to the total system volume must be made in the
experiment. The third factor must be taken into account is a small fraction of 220Rn escaped from
the chamber during the experiment. The total number of atoms of radon and the remaining atoms of
radon would have a huge difference at the end.
The forth factor which would affect the result of the experiment is objective. The leaf observed from
the electroscope is not clear, during the experiment, only the outline of the leaf can be seen, which
means the interval time for leaf from Mark 4 to Mark 3 is not correct because the leaf is not exactly
right on the positions of these two marks. So the results could be improved by observing the leaf
through leaf electroscope within the minimum error possible and for the skills for colleting data
using specific apparatus also need to be improved and to be more familiar with the process of the

Nuclear Battery
ABSTRACT
The short and unpredictable nature of the conventional chemical batteries, along with the frequent
replacements that they require, has created an acute need for a reliable, longer–lasting and rugged
source of energy. Moreover Radars, spacecrafts, interstellar probes and other advanced
communication devices require much larger power than that can be met by conventional energy
sources.
The solution to long term energy source is the nuclear powered batteries which have a life span of
few decades and can pack in energy densities thousands of time greater than conventional battery
sources. Hence, there is an urgent need to harvest enormous amount of energy released naturally by
the tiny bits of radioactive material.
Unlike ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Technology Energy Density (milliwatt–hour /milligram)
Lithium ion in a chemical battery 0.3
Methanol in a fuel cell 3
Tritium in a nuclear battery 850
Polonium–210 in a nuclear battery 57 000 Energy Content in Different Type of Batteries
"IT IS A STAGGERINGLY SMALL WORLD THAT IS BELOW,"
Said physicist Richard P. Feynman in his visionary talk to the American Physical Society, when he
envisioned the fabrication of micro– and nano devices and declared that one day the entire
Encyclopaedia Britannica could be written on the head of a pin. Feynman's vision has finally begun
to manifest, thanks to ever more sophisticated microelectronics. Micro and nano scale machines are
ushering a multibillion–dollar market as they are being incorporated in virtually every electronic
devices.
Among the trendsetting applications in this development are ultra dense memories capable of
storing hundreds of gigabytes in a fingernail–size device, micromirrors for enhanced display and
optical communications equipment, and highly selective RF filters to reduce cell phones size and
improve the quality of calls.But, again, at very small scales, chemical batteries can't provide enough
power for these micro machines. As the size of such a battery is reduced, the amount of stored
energy goes down exponentially. Reduction in each side of a cubic battery by a factor of 10 as the
volume is

Ap Biology Lab Report
Table of Contents
Aim 0
Hypothesis 0
Materials 0
Procedure 0
Results 1
Discussion 2
Conclusion 3
References 3
AIM
To model radioactive decay and half–life
HYPOTHESIS
The trend will mimic the pattern of the half–life of a radioactive material, with the same
approximate curve, because the M&Ms with m showing will be approximately half of the total
M&Ms at every half–life, which is the same as decaying radioisotopes, with half the atoms
disappearing every half–life.
MATERIALS
A packet of M&Ms
A clean sheet of paper (A4)
A clean jar/cupcake cup
PROCEDURE
1. Copy the table from the criteria sheet into your workbook
2. Count the total number of M&Ms in the container
3. Shake up the container to mix the M&Ms around
4. Pour the container onto the clean sheet of paper
5. Count how many M&Ms show the letter 'm' facing upwards
6. Record this number in the table
7. Place only the M&Ms showing the letter 'm' back into the jar and dispose of the other M&Ms
appropriately
8. Repeat steps 3–7 until there are no M&Ms left
DISCUSSION ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of these is curium–243, with a half–life of 29.1 years, with a graph pattern almost identical to
this experiment's. This experiment models what happens inside a radioisotope when the atoms begin
to decay, whether that be alpha, beta or gamma, (alpha being a releasing of a helium atom, beta

being an electron and gamma being the release of energy at the speed of life known as gamma rays).
In this experiment, the M&Ms without m represent the decaying atoms, which are launching
themselves out to become more stable, and the repeats are the half–lives, the M&Ms showing m are
the atoms that are still in the element. Every period of time, 29.1 years, ½ the atoms decay, and so
on until the element is completely split

The Harsh Reality of Keeping Away From Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a looming threat that many people do not seem to know about. Ever since the
Fukushima disaster in Japan, the internet has been swarming with reports about how the radiation
can reach the West Coast and harm Californians. This has been confirmed by experts; radioactivity
was expected to show up in April and has already been found in kelp along the sea. Radioactivity is
a serious threat to humans, and people should be more aware of the risks related to it, especially
now, when there are signs of radioactivity in the West Coast. The main argument that people use to
keep themselves from accepting the harsh reality of radioactive poisoning is that since there have
been no radioactive leaks in the United States recently, we are not at risk. This also is untrue; back in
April, there was a radioactive leak in New Mexico. So far, doses of radiation to the surrounding
population are low, but even those low levels of radioactivity can have harmful effects on the body
in the long term. So what are these harmful effects? To answer this question, we need to understand
how radioactive isotopes decay. There are many different elements, and each has its own radioactive
isotopes. For example, one of the common plutonium isotopes produced by man is plutonium–239.
When this radioactive isotope decays, it produces energy. This energy is radioactivity. When the
isotope decays, it produces alpha, beta, and gamma particles. These particles are also a part of a
general class of

The Chemical Element Of Uranium
Background
Uranium (U) is a chemical element; it is a silvery–white metal. It is one of the heaviest of all the
naturally – occurring elements. It was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, it was named after the
planet Uranus, which was discovered eight years earlier. Uranium can be found naturally in small
amounts in rocks, air, soil and water.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Atomic number 92
Atomic mass 238.03 g.mol –1
Density 18.95 g.cm–3 at 20°C
Boiling point 3818 °C
Melting point 1132 °C
Isotopes 11
Electro–Negativity according to Pauling 1.7
Uranium is hard, malleable and ductile. Uranium metal has a very high density. It is very reactive so
cannot be found in the environment in its elemental form. When finely divided, it can react with
cold water. In air it is coated by uranium oxide, tarnishing rapidly. It is attacked by steam and acids.
It has the ability to form solid solutions and inter– metallic compounds with many metals. While
Uranium is not hazardous by itself, some of its by–products and decay products pose a huge threat
upon build–up.
Uranium is weakly radioactive due to its unstable isotopes; again it has gained importance in the
generation of Nuclear energy. It is of great demand in the production of bullets, missiles and bombs.
It is also used to fuel power plants by enriching it with the uranium–235 isotope. The isotope
uranium 238 is used to estimate the age of rocks and also used for radiometric dating. Other

Radioactivity Lab Report
Objective
Radioactivity is present all throughout the environments on earth, which relates to the unstable
atomic nuclei. Going into detail, radioactivity occurs in unstable atomic nuclei and is caused by the
spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. Radiation is used in numerous ways that are used in
experiments and medical procedures. In this article, radioactivity will be defined, the three types of
radioactivity will be explained, and the different methods of radiation will be illustrated.
Introduction Nuclei are formed with a higher stability after unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously
decompose, and this process is called radioactivity. Therefore, radioactivity refers to the particles
that are released from nuclei due to nuclear ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The alpha particles have an atomic mass of 4 and a charge of +2. When an alpha particle is released
from the nucleus, the mass number of the particle decreases by four units and the atomic number
decreases by two units. An example of this would be where the helium nucleus is the alpha particle.
The energy is a collection of stable nucleons, and those heavier nuclei that can be perceived as
collections of alpha particles, such as carbon–12.01 or oxygen–16.00 are also stable. Beta radiation
is a stream of electrons that are called beta particles. When the beta particle is released, a neutron is
transformed to a proton in the nucleus, thus maintaining the mass number of the nucleus. Although,
the atomic number increases by one unit. An example of this occurring is when the electron is the
beta particle. Pursuing this further, gamma rays are high–energy photons with a very short
wavelength of 0.0005 to 0.1 nm. The emission of gamma radiation results from an energy change
within the atomic nucleus. Gamma emission changes neither the atomic number nor the atomic
mass. Alpha and beta emission are often accompanied by gamma emission, as an excited nucleus
drops to a lower and more stable energy

Nuclear Chemistry Essay
Types of Radiation: List the three types of Radiation and describe conditions under which each case
occurs. Alpha, Beta, Gamma. Alpha radiation/emission – Alpha particles are the nuclei of a Helium
atom 42He. Consisting of two protons and two neutrons, positively charged. The nuclei are ejected
from heavy, unstable nuclei so as to remove excess protons and neutrons. However, the formed
nuclei may still be radioactive in which even further decay will occur. Alpha emissions occur in
nuclei with atomic numbers greater than 83. E.g 23892U  42He + 23490Th (both mass and No. of
protons are conserved during the reaction) Beta radiation/emission – Beta particles are electrons (0–
1e) that have been released from the nucleus of a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Transuranic Elements – are elements that have been artificially synthesised, and have atomic
numbers greater than 92 Neutron Bombardment: Neptunium (Z = 93) can be made in nuclear
reactors by neutron bombardment of uranium–238, achieved in 1940 by Glenn Seaborg. 23892U +
10n  23992U  23993NP + 0–1e Alpha Bombardment – Alpha particles are able to produce
transuranic elements. E.g. when plutonium–239 is bombarded with alpha particles an isotope of
Curium (Z = 96) is formed. 23994Pu + 42H  24296Cm +10n Ion accelerators – To produce
elements with higher atomic numbers, the approach of firing accelerated particles into a target is
used. The accelerated particles, usually ions produced in a linear accelerator, are fired towards the
target element at velocities near the speed of light. Nuclear reactions occur in the target elements
nuclei and are then analysed, velocity filters using electrical and magnetic fields separate the
products of the reaction and determines their mass. E.g Roentgenium (Rg, Z = 111) was synthesised
in 1944 as nickel–64 ions were accelerated towards bismuth–209, Rg was formed and rapidly
decayed. 6428Ni + 20983Bi  272111Rg + 10n Commercial Radioactive Isotopes: What are
commercial radioisotopes and explain how they are produced Commercial radioactive isotopes
(radioisotopes) are radioisotopes used for commercial/industrial use such as medicine, e.g.

Analysis Of Xenon In Violation Of The Nuclear Agreement
Summary:
Tehran is comprised of a various number of research centers where they perform different
experiments using different natural radioisotopes. Based on the data found in the research the
agency in charge of nuclear energy use decided to check for themselves to see whether or not Tehran
was in violation of the Nuclear Agreement. To determine whether or not Tehran was in violation of
the Nuclear Agreement, investigators calculated the decay series of their allowable radioisotopes
and the radioisotopes in violations . Using the final products to compare to the isotopes found at the
site. After the decay series of Xenon–133 the isotope Cesium–133 is formed which was one of the
isotopes found at the site, because this was an allowable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[7] In late 2003, the Agency took samples from both the solution containing the plutonium and the
shielded boxes used in the experiments. However, inconsistencies in the isotopic composition of the
samples brought up questions about the origin of the material.("Tehran Nuclear Research Center"2 )
The research center started conducting an experiment with their Tehran Water Reactor starting in
1968. They applied the elects of uranium and plutonium by manipulating the structure of the
element. First they decided to separate the plutonium from the UO2 and then they moved to convert
and enrich the uranium. Regardless, these experiments were allowed and approved because they
were funded by world superpowers(The US and Japan and China).
Findings:
According to the technical data information, the allowable radioisotopes in Tehran were Uranium–
238 and Xenon–133. While the restricted radioisotopes that were in violation were Plutonium–239
and Polonium–208. The two Isotopes discovered at the site were Lead–204 and Cesium–133. The
first allowable radioisotope, Uranium–238 has a half–life of 4.5 billion years, decaying 14 times in
order to be in a more stable isotope Lead–206. The second acceptable radioisotope, Xenon–133 has
a half–life of 5.5 years, decaying once and releasing a gamma ray. After this decay series, Xenon–
133 becomes a more stable Cesium–133 which was one of the radioisotopes discovered at the site
which means Cesium–133 isn't in

Types Of Radiation : Gamma And Gamma
Physics Essay There are three types of radiation – Alpha, Beta and Gamma. Alpha is 2 protons and 2
neutrons is the most ionising but the least penetrating. It is the most dangerous but is stopped by a
few cm of air or a piece of paper. Beta is a high speed electron from the nucleus. It is moderately
ionising and stopped by a few cm of aluminium. Gamma is a high frequency electromagnetic wave
and is the least ionising but the most penetrating. It is the least dangerous but is only stopped by a
few cm of lead or several cm of concrete. Radiation is used in smoke detectors, metal detectors, to
test the thickness of paper or plastic, to sterilise medical equipment, to preserve food, as a medical
tracer for imaging, as a treatment for cancer ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The radioactive isotopes must decay into something that is not radioactive or toxic. They use a
radiation detector to follow the radioactivity around the body. Radioactive iodine–131 can be used
to see if the thyroid gland in the neck is working properly. Iodine is present in small amounts in the
body and up to ¼ of the total amount of iodine can be stored in the thyroid gland. The amount of
iodine entering the gland can be seen by detecting the radioactivity emitted from the radioactive
iodine. Radiation can also be used as to test the thickness of paper and plastic. They need to use
different forms of radiation when testing different object e.g. using gamma to test the thickness of
metal or beta to test the thickness of plastic. The thicker the material, the more radiation is absorbed
and the less radiation reaches the detector. It then sends signals to the equipment that adjusts the
thickness of the material so that the right amount of radiation goes through. Anyone who works
there must be protected by a lead or concrete shield to protect them against the radiation. Another
use for radiation is in smoke detectors. One sort of smoke detector uses American–241 which emits
alpha radiation. The alpha particles pass between two charged metal plates, causing air particles to
split into positively and negatively charged ions (which means they ionise). The ions

Chemistry: A Synthesis Essay
In order to study the radioactivity of thorium, Soddy and Rutherford preformed an experiment in
which ammonia was added to a solution of thorium and thorium hydroxide was precipitated out.
This observation eventually led to the discovery of the radioactive properties found within the
remaining solution. Both scientists then concluded that this was an outcome of a highly radioactive
compound known as thorium–X. Using these experimental observations, a series of detailed testing
was preformed regarding the radioactive behavior of the precipitate and remaining solution. Over
the course of a few weeks, it became evident that radioactive decay is an effect of a variety of
chemical reactions occurring inside the atom. Additional evidence that supported ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The theory states that radioactivity is an atomic phenomenon, which occurs due to chemical changes
within the atom. During this spontaneous decay, a new element, known as the daughter element, is
formed with different properties from the original or parent substance. In addition to this formation,
alpha and beta particles are emitted from the nucleus of the parental compound. Respectively,
Rutherford and Soddy each received a Noble prize in the field of nuclear chemistry due to their
outstanding scientific findings. In 1908, Rutherford was awarded the Noble prize for his
investigations concerning the decay of elements and the chemistry of radioactive compounds.
Following this, Fredrick Soddy then received his prize in the year 1921 for his contributions to the
theory of the disintegration of radioactive substances and his research concerning isotopes. Through
their numerous experiments and efforts, Rutherford and Soddy had created a great advancement in
the scientific community. This theory was well adapted to society in which several advantageous
changes were made to benefit

Radiation Quantity And Units Essay
Radiation quantity and units Most scientists in the international community measure radiation using
the System International (SI), a uniform system of weights and measures that evolved from the
metric system. In the United States, however, the conventional system of measurement is still
widely used.
2.2.1) Units of Radioactivity:
The original unit for measuring the amount of radioactivity was the curie (Ci)–first defined to
correspond to one gram of radium–226 and more recently defined as: 1 curie = 3.7x1010 radioactive
decays per second. In the International System of Units (SI) the curie has been replaced by the
Becquerel (Bq), where One Ci is equal to 37 billion (37 X 109) Bq.
Ci or Bq may be used to refer to the amount of radioactive materials released into the environment.
2.2.2) Radiation exposure unit:
The exposure rate defined as the exposure per unit time. The special unit of exposure is the roentgen
(R) defined as the amount of gamma ray and X– ray radiation that produced a charge of 1
electrostatic unit (esu) of charge per 0.001293 g (1cm3) of dry air at standard temperature and
pressure (IAEA, 1989). The SI (stander international) units of exposure are coulomb/Kg of dry air.
1R = 2.58 × 10–4 C/Kg in air
2.2.3) Absorbed dose unit:
Sometimes also known as the physical dose, defined by the amount of energy deposited in a unit
mass in human tissue or other media. The original unit is the rad [100 erg/g]; it is now being widely

Nuclear Radiation Iodine-131 And Graves Disease
Case Study 1C Nuclear Radiation: Iodine–131 and Graves' Disease Jon Garrett Michele Healy Paul
Sowers Donale Whitney Case Study 1C Nuclear Radiation: Iodine–131 and Graves' Disease A
patient is diagnosed with Graves' disease. The physician determines that the best course of action is
to administer iodine–131... Iodine–131 is the radioactive isotope of iodine. It was discovered in
1938 by Glenn T. Seaborg and John Livingood at the University of California – Berkeley. This
radioisotope has an atomic number of 53 and an atomic mass of 131. It is produced when uranium
undergoes fission in nuclear reactors and when uranium or plutonium is used in the detonation of
nuclear weapons. Iodine–131 emits beta radiation which results in the creation of the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2012, July 26). Retrieved September 8, 2014, from
http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/halflife.html Hyperthyroidism and Graves' Disease. (n.d.).
Retrieved September 8, 2014, from http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/endocrine/graves/Answer.asp?
QuestionID=33 Iodine. (2012, March 6). Retrieved September 8, 2014, from
http://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclides/iodine.html Patton, K., & Thibodeau, G. (2012).
Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology (p. 572). St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby. Radioactive iodine (I–
131) Therapy for Thyroid Cancer. (2011, December 12). Retrieved September 9, 2014, from
http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=726&id=9630 Radioactive Iodine. (2012, June 4).
Retrieved September 11, 2014, from http://www.thyroid.org/radioactive–iodine/ Sodium Iodide I
131 (Oral Route). (2014, August 1). Retrieved September 11, 2014, from
http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs–supplements/sodium–iodide–i–131–oral–route/precautions/drg–
20066049 Thyroid Hormone Production and Function – Hormones. (2012, August 7). Retrieved
September 9, 2014, from

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Radioactive Elements Research Paper