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Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Monocots
(unranked): Commelinids
Order: Commelinales
Family: Pontederiaceae
Genus: Eichhornia
Species: E. crassipes
Binomial name
Eichhornia crassipes
(Mart.) Solms
Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as (common) water hyacinth, is an aquatic plant
native to the Amazon basin, and is often considered a highly problematic invasive species
outside its native range.
Description
Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or hydrophyte) native to tropical and
sub-tropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise
above the surface of the water as much as 1 meter in height. The leaves are 10–20 cm across,
and float above the water surface. They have long, spongy and bulbous stalks. The feathery,
freely hanging roots are purple-black. An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8-15
conspicuously attractive flowers, mostly lavender to pink in colour with six petals. When not in
bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frog's-bit (Limnobium spongia).
One of the fastest growing plants known, water hyacinth reproduces primarily by way of
runners or stolons, which eventually form daughter plants. Each plant can produce thousands of
seeds each year, and these seeds can remain viable for more than 28 years.[1]
Some water
hyacinths were found to grow up to 2 to 5 metres a day in some sites in Southeast Asia.[2]
The
common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) are vigorous growers known to double their
population in two weeks.
In their native range these flowers are pollinated by long tongued bees and they can reproduce
both sexually and clonally. The invasiveness of the hyacinth is related to its ability to clone
itself and large patches are likely to all be part of the same genetic form. There are three
morphs of water hyacinth, long medium and short. However, the short morph is restricted to the
native range due to founder events during its distribution.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-37-2048.jpg)
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Habitat and ecology
Its habitat ranges from tropical desert to subtropical or warm temperate desert to rainforest
zones. The temperature tolerance of the water hyacinth is the following; its minimum growth
temperature is 12 °C (54 °F); its optimum growth temperature is 25-30 °C (77-86 °F); its
maximum growth temperature is 33-35 °C (92-95 °F), and its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0
to 7.5. It does not tolerate water temperatures >35 °C. Leaves are killed by frost and salt water,
the latter trait being used to kill some of it by floating rafts of the cut weed to the sea. Water
hyacinths do not grow when the average salinity is greater than 15% that of sea water. In
brackish water, its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis, and eventually die.[3]
Because of E. crassipes invasiveness, several biological control agents have been released to
control it, including two weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Neochetina bruchi Hustache and
Neochetina eichhorniae Warner, and the moth Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren) (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae).[4]
Neochetina eichhorniae causes "a substantial reduction in water hyacinth
production" (in Louisiana); it reduces plant height, weight, root length, and makes the plant
produce fewer daughter plants. N. eichhorniae was introduced from Argentina to Florida in
1972.[5]
Azotobacter chroococcum, an N-fixing bacteria, is probably concentrated around the bases of
the petioles. But the bacteria do not fix nitrogen unless the plant is suffering extreme N-
deficiency.[6]
Fresh plants contain prickly crystals.[3]
This plant is reported to contain HCN, alkaloid, and
triterpenoid, and may induce itching.[7]
Plants sprayed with 2,4-D may accumulate lethal doses
of nitrates,[8]
as well as various other nocive elements in polluted environments. See further
down.
Invasive species
Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa
and New Zealand.[9]
In many areas it is has become an important and pernicious invasive
species. In New Zealand it is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord which prevents it from
being propagated, distributed or sold. In large water areas such as Louisiana, the Kerala
Backwaters in India, Tonlé Sap in Cambodia and Lake Victoria it has become a serious pest.
When not controlled, water hyacinth will cover lakes and ponds entirely; this dramatically
impacts water flow, blocks sunlight from reaching native aquatic plants, and starves the water
of oxygen, often killing fish (or turtles). The plants also create a prime habitat for
mosquitos[citation needed]
, the classic vectors of disease, and a species of snail known to host a
parasitic flatworm which causes schistosomiasis (snail fever).[10]
Directly blamed for starving
subsistence farmers in Papua New Guinea[citation needed]
, water hyacinth remains a major problem
where effective control programs are not in place. Water hyacinth is often problematic in man-
made ponds if uncontrolled, but can also provide a food source for goldfish, keep water clean
[11] [12]
and help to provide oxygen[citation needed]
to man-made ponds.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-38-2048.jpg)
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Water hyacinth often invades bodies of water that have been impacted by human
activities[citation needed]
. For example, the plants can unbalance natural lifecycles in artificial
reservoirs or in eutrophied lakes that receive large amounts of nutrients.
Eichhornia crassipes, the Common water hyacinth, has become an invasive plant species on
Lake Victoria in Africa after it was introduced into the area in the 1980s[citation needed]
.
Africa
See also: Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria
Water hyacinth at Kisumu Port
The plant was introduced by Belgian colonists to Rwanda to beautify their holdings and then
advanced by natural means to Lake Victoria where it was first sighted in 1988.[17]
There,
without any natural enemies, it has become an ecological plague, suffocating the lake,
diminishing the fish reservoir, and hurting the local economies. It impedes access to Kisumu
and other harbors.
The water hyacinth has also appeared to the north in Ethiopia, where it was first reported in
1965 at the Koka Reservoir and in the Awash River, where the Ethiopian Electric Light and
Power Authority has managed to bring it under moderate control at the considerable cost of
human labor. Other infestations in Ethiopia include many bodies of water in the Gambela
Region, the Blue Nile from just below Lake Tana into Sudan, and Lake Ellen near Alem
Tena.[18]
The water hyacinth is also present on the Shire River in the Liwonde National Park in Malawi.
Muhammad Ali of Egypt's era was when Egypt's Nile contracted the plant.[19]
Control
The three commonly used control methods against water hyacinth infestations are physical,
chemical, and biological controls. No one control method is generally better than the others,
because each has its advantages and disadvantages. The optimum control depends on the
specific conditions of each affected location such as the extent of water hyacinth infestation,
regional climate, and proximity to human and wildlife.[21]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-39-2048.jpg)
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Chemical control
Chemical control is the least used out of the three controls of water hyacinth, because of its
long-term effects on the environment and human health. The use of herbicides requires strict
approval from governmental protection agencies of skilled technician to handle and spray the
affected areas. The use of chemical herbicides is only used in case of severe infiltration of
water hyacinth.[22]
However, the most successful use of herbicides is when it is used for smaller
areas of infestation of water hyacinth. This is because in larger areas, more mats of water
hyacinths are likely to survive the herbicides and can fragment to further propagate a large area
of water hyacinth mats. In addition, it is more cost-effective and less laborious than mechanical
control. Yet, it can lead to environmental effects as it can penetrate into the ground water
system and can affect not only the hydrological cycle within an ecosystem but also negatively
affect the local water system and human health. It is also notable that the use of herbicides is
not strictly selective of water hyacinths; keystone species and vital organisms such microalgae
can perish from the toxins and can disrupt fragile food webs.[21]
The chemical regulation of
water hyacinths can be done using common herbicides such as 2,4-D, glyphosate, and diquat.
The herbicides are sprayed on the water hyacinth leaves and leads to direct changes to the
physiology of the plant.[23]
The use of the herbicide known as 2,4-D leads to the death of water
hyacinth through inhibition of cell growth of new tissue and cellular apoptosis (Jimenez, 2005).
It can take almost a two-week period before mats of water hyacinth are destroyed with 2,4-D. It
has been found that up to 150,000 acres of water hyacinth are treated annually in Louisiana.[24]
The herbicide known as diquat is a liquid bromide salt that can rapidly penetrate the leaves of
the water hyacinth and lead to immediate inactivity of plant cells and cellular processes. For the
herbicide glyphosate, it has a low toxicity than the other herbicides; therefore, it takes longer
for the water hyacinth mats to be destroyed (about three weeks). The symptoms include steady
wilting of the plants and a yellow discoloration of the plant leaves that eventually leads to plant
decay.[22]
Physical control
Physical control is performed by land based machines such as bucket cranes, draglines, or
boorm or by water based machinery such as aquatic weed harvester,[25]
dredges, or vegetation
shredder.[26]
Mechanical removal is seen as the best short-term solution to the proliferation of
the plant. A project on Lake Victoria in Africa used various pieces of equipment to chop,
collect, and dispose of 1500 hectares of water hyacinth in a 12-month period. It is, however,
costly and requires the use of both land and water vehicles, but it took many years for the lake
to become in poor condition and reclamation will be a continual process. It can have an annual
cost from $6 million to $20 million and is only considered a short-term solution to a long-term
problem. Another disadvantage with mechanical harvesting is that it can lead to further
fragmentation of water hyacinths when the plants are broken up by spinning cutters of the
plant-harvesting machinery. The fragments of water hyacinth that are left behind in the water
can easily reproduce asexually and cause another infestation.[23]
However, transportation and
disposal of the harvested water hyacinth is a challenge because the vegetation is heavy in
weight.The harvested water hyacinth can pose a health risk to humans because of the plant’s
propensity for absorbing contaminants, and it be considered toxic to humans. However, the
practice of mechanical harvesting is not effective in large-scale infestations of the water](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-40-2048.jpg)
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hyacinth, because this aquatic invasive species grows much more rapidly than it can be
eliminated. In addition, only one or two acres of water hyacinth can mechanically harvested
daily because of the vast amounts of water hyacinths in the environment. Therefore, the process
is very time-intensive.[27]
Biological control
In 2010 the insect Megamelus scutellaris was released by the Agricultural Research Service as
a biological control for Water hyacinth.[28]
As chemical and mechanical removal is often too expensive and ineffective, researchers have
turned to biological control agents to deal with water hyacinth. The effort began in the 1970s
when USDA researchers released three species of weevil known to feed on water hyacinth into
the United States, Neochetina bruchi, N. eichhorniae, and the water hyacinth borer Sameodes
albiguttalis. The weevil species were introduced into the Gulf Coast states, such as Louisiana,
Texas, and Florida, where there was thousands of acres of infestation from water hyacinth. It
was found that a decade later in the 1980s that there was a decrease in water hyacinth mats by
as much as 33%. However, because the life cycle of the weevils is only ninety days, it puts a
limitation on the use of biological predation to efficiently suppress water hyacinth growth.[24]
These organisms regulate water hyacinth by limiting water hyacinth size, its vegetative
propagation, and seed production. They also carry microorganisms that can be pathological to
the water hyacinth. These weevils eat stem tissue, which results in a loss of buoyancy for the
plant, which will eventually sink.[23]
Although meeting with limited success, the weevils have
since been released in more than 20 other countries. However, the most effective control
method remains the control of excessive nutrients and prevention of the spread of this species.
May 2010 the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service released Megamelus scutellaris as a
biological control insect for the invasive waterhyacinth species. Megamelus scutellaris is a
small planthopper insect native to Argentina. Researchers have been studying the effects of the
biological control agent in extensive host-range studies since 2006 and concluded that the
insect is highly host-specific and will not pose a threat to any other plant population other than
the targeted water hyacinth. Researchers also hope that the biological control will be more
resilient than existing biological controls to the herbicides that are already in place to combat
the invasive water hyacinth.[29]
Another insect being considered as a biological control agent is the semi-aquatic grasshopper
Cornops aquaticum. This insect is specific to the water hyacinth and its family, and besides](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-41-2048.jpg)
![41
feeding on the plant, it introduces a secondary pathogenic infestation. This grasshopper has
been introduced into South Africa in controlled trials.[30]
Uses
Bioenergy
Because of its extremely high rate of development, Eichhornia crassipes is an excellent source
of biomass. One hectare of standing crop thus produce more than 70,000 m3
of biogas.[31]
According to Curtis and Duke, one kg of dry matter can yield 370 liters of biogas, giving a
heating value of 22,000 kJ/m3
(580 Btu/ft3
) compared to pure methane (895 Btu/ft3
)[32]
Wolverton and McDonald report only 0.2 m3
methane per kg, indicating requirements of 6000
MT biomass/ha to attain the 70,000 m3
yield projected by the National Academy of Sciences
(Washington).[33]
Ueki and Kobayashi mention more than 200 MT/ha/yr.[34]
Reddy and Tucker
found an experimental maximum of more than a half ton per day.[35]
Bengali farmers collect
and pile up these plants to dry at the onset of the cold season; they then use the dry water
hyacinths as fuel. They then use the ashes as fertilizer. In India, a ton of dried water hyacinth
yield circa 50 liters ethanol and 200 kg residual fiber (7,700 Btu). Bacterial fermentation of one
ton yields 26,500 cu ft gas (600 Btu) with 51.6% methane, 25.4% hydrogen, 22.1% CO2, and
1.2% oxygen. Gasification of one ton dry matter by air and steam at high temperatures (800°)
gives circa 40,000 ft3
(circa 1,100 m3
) natural gas (143 Btu/cu ft) containing 16.6% hydrogen,
4.8% methane, 21.7% CO, 4.1% CO2, and 52.8% N. The high moisture content of water
hyacinth, adding so much to handling costs, tends to limit commercial ventures.,[33][36]
A
continuous, hydraulic production system could be designed, which would provide a better
utilization of capital investments than in conventional agriculture, which is essentially a batch
operation.,[3][37]
The labour involved in harvesting water hyacinth can be greatly reduced by locating collection
sites and processors on impoundments that take advantage of prevailing winds. Wastewater
treatment systems could also favourably be added to this operation. The harvested biomass
would then be converted to ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen and/or gaseous nitrogen, and
fertilizer. The resulting byproducts of water and fertilizer can both be used to irrigate nearby
cropland.[3]
Phytoremediation, waste water treatment
The roots of Eichhornia crassipes naturally absorb pollutants, including lead, mercury, and
strontium-90, as well as some organic compounds believed to be carcinogenic, in
concentrations 10,000 times that in the surrounding water.[38]
Water hyacinths can be cultivated
for waste water treatment.[3]
Water hyacinth is reported for its efficiency to remove about 60–80 % nitrogen (Fox et al.
2008) and about 69% of potassium from water (Zhou et al. 2007). The roots of water hyacinth
were found to remove particulate matter and nitrogen in a natural shallow eutrophicated
wetland (Billore et al. 1998).[39]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-42-2048.jpg)
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Edibility
The plant is used as a carotene-rich table vegetable in Taiwan. Javanese sometimes cook and
eat the green parts and inflorescence.[3]
Medicinal use
In Kedah (Malaysia), the flowers are used for medicating the skin of horses.[3]
The species is a
"tonic.",[40][41]
Potential as bioherbicidal agent
Water hyacinth leaf extract has been shown to exhibit phytotoxicity against another invasive
weed Mimosa pigra. The extract inhibited the germination of Mimosa pigra seeds in addition to
suppressing the root growth of the seedlings. Biochemical data suggested that the inhibitiory
effects may be mediated by enhanced hydrogen peroxide production, inhibition of soluble
peroxidase activity, and stimulation of cell wall-bound peroxidase activity in the root tissues of
Mimosa pigra.[42]
Other uses
In East Africa, water hyacinths from Lake Victoria are used to make furniture, handbags and
rope.[43]
The plant is also used as animal feed and organic fertilizer although there is
controversy stemming from the high alkaline pH value of the fertilizer.[44]
Though a study
found water hyacinths of very limited use for paper production,[45]
they are nonetheless being
used for paper production on a small scale.
American-Nigerian Achenyo Idachaba has won an award for showing how this plant can be
exploited for profit in Nigeria.[46]
In places where water hyacinth is invasive, overabundant, and in need of clearing away, these
traits make it free for the harvesting, which makes it very useful as a source of organic matter
for composting in organic farming in those locales, provided that the composting method
properly handles it. As an aquatic plant, it requires most of the same composting principles as
the seaweed that is composted close to sea coasts.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/7a88b2b9-04ae-4d41-b279-90f58572a10c-170116110224/75/Repot-on-Sudy-Tour-December-2016-43-2048.jpg)
Uploaded byAlmaz Demessie
Repot on Sudy Tour December 2016
1. The document summarizes an overseas study tour organized by Ethiopia's National Disaster Risk Management Commission and UNDP to Kenya from December 4-16, 2016. The tour aimed to improve skills and knowledge on early warning systems and disaster risk management. 2. The tour involved visits to organizations that generate climate information as well as those that utilize it for disaster risk management. They visited monitoring institutions, government disaster management agencies, international NGOs, and community-based risk management groups. 3. The goal was to learn best practices for establishing an effective early warning system in Ethiopia and to understand how to collect, process, and disseminate early warning information to end users and support climate-resil
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Repot on Sudy Tour December 2016
- 1. 0 Report on theOverseas Study Tour Organized by the National Disaster Risk Management Commission and UNDP CO in collaboration with the Kenya Meteorological Society and the University of Nairobi Prepared by Almaz Demessie and Dr. Gilbert Ouma (with the help of all Study Tour crew) Funded by UNDP/GEF LDCF project in titled with “Strengthening Climate Information and Early Warning System in Africa for Climate Resilient Development and Adaptation to Climate Change – Ethiopia” held from 4 – 16 DECEMBER 2016, Nairobi, Kenya
- 2. 1 Table of contentpage I. Background and Context ....................................................................................... 3 II. Rationale III. Objective IV. Detail description about the Study Tour under consideration V. Organizations of interest that were visited by the NDRMC team ........................ 5 VI. Major Activities Session 1 .................................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Opening of study tour 1.2 Perspectives and outcome mapping for the Study Tour 1.3 Topics covered under Concepts of Risk 1.4 Differences between Hazards and Disasters Session 2 ................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Visit to RCMRD 2.2 Visit to the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) Session 3 .................................................................................................................... 11 3.1 Visit to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) 3.2 Visit to FEWSNET, Kenya Session 4 .................................................................................................................... 15 4.1 Visit to the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) 4.2 Visit to National Disaster Operation Centre Session 5 .................................................................................................................... 18 5.1 Visit to CARE Kenya 5.2 Mission and Vision Session 6 .................................................................................................................... 18 6.1 Visit to OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria) 6.2 Purpose of the Institution 6.3 Ethiopian Experience Session 7 .................................................................................................................... 22 7.1 Visit to the Dominion Millennium Goals and climate change adaptation farm at Yala Swamp and Mama Sarah Obama Foundation 7.1.1 Visit to Dominion Farm in Yala Swamp 7.1.2 Visit to Mama Sarah Obama Foundation Session 8 .................................................................................................................... 26 8.1 Visit to Nganyi Community-Based Early Warning System and Maseno Equator 8.1.1 Maseno Equator Crossing 8.1.2 Nganyi Community Based Early Warning System 8.1.3 Modern meteorological systems at the resource centre 8.1.4 Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Systems at the Resource Centre
- 3. 2 8.2 Integration ofIK and Modern Meteorological Systems at the Resource Centre 8.2.1 Dissemination and feedback with local communities Session 9 ................................................................................................................. 29 9.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9.1.1 The monitoring institutions (KMD, RCMRD and ICPAC) 9.1.2 Government disaster risk management organizations (NDMA and NDOC) .. 9.1.3 International non-governmental disaster risk management (FEWSNET and CARE) 9.1.4 Community-based risk management (OSIENALO, Dominion farm and Nganyi) 9.2 Evaluation VII. At NDRMC (Ethiopia) ..................................................................................... 32 1. Discussion with the Director of Early Warming and Emergency Director Appendix 1 - 3 ........................................................................................................ 34 - 42
- 4. 3 I. Background andContext Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to disasters which are caused by many hazards such as drought, flood, conflict, human and livestock diseases, pests, wildfire and landslide. Despite the fact that climate change is also increased risk of potential climate related hazards and increased frequency, area coverage and number of people affected by the disasters. Ethiopia has got a 30 years experience of working on monitoring and warning of natural disaster. However, the available evidence seems to suggest that this early warning experience should be supported and further strengthened by skills, knowledge that goes with the dynamics in the prevailing climate change calamities so that effective early warning system could be established , which entirely dependent on how information could be collected, processed and disseminated to the end users. II. Rationale Adaptation to climate change would be very difficult without timely and reliable information. Thus senior experts and decision makers need information for policy formulation and immediate action. Likewise, on these grounds, we can agree that these parties play on the weather/climate information for an effective Early warning system. Information is also important to climate change adaptation because farmers will need to be sufficiently informed in order to participate in the government decision-making process to ensure that it does not affect their lives and livelihood. In addition, national governments are in charged with the provision of public goods such as ensuring the economic and social well – being, safety and security of their citizens from disaster. III. Objective To improve Skills and knowledge of the senior experts and decision makers on Early Warning information management, improve the capacity of responding weather/climate related disasters on the basis of the early warning information and make them exposed with the international experience of effective Disaster Risk Management system at large. IV. Detail description about the Study Tour under consideration As the Overseas Study Tour is one of the mechanisms(Action 2.4.5) to strengthening EWS through knowledge transfer and experiences sharing, which is designed by the UNDP/GEF LDCF project in titled “Strengthening climate information and early warning systems in Africa for climate resilient
- 5. 4 development and adaptationto climate change, Ethiopia” the senior early warning experts and decision makers of the National Disaster Risk Management Commission (NDRMC) together with the representatives from Regional bureau of DRM(Afar, Somali, Tigray, Amara, Oromiya and SNNPR) have performed the study tour in Kenya from December 4 - 16, 2016 based on the study tour visit areas check least designed by NDRMC as follows:- 1. Kenya Met Office on the subject of communicating their user particularly Kenya Disaster Management Offices at the time of disaster and at regular basis as well 2. Kenya Disaster Risk Management Office how they are using weather/climate information for risk mapping how the DRM office working with sector offices such as Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Water Resource, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Defense and Research Institute including UN agencies, NGOs and CBOs. How they are communicating with rural communities at time of disaster and at regular basis as well Their Early Warning System (EW products, Methods and Tools for EW activities) Methods and tools for their response mechanism. 3. Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture and their experiences at the time of disaster. 4. Office for fire protection about their practices at the time fire hazed. 5. RCMD about risk mapping for different hazards. 6. ICPAC about seasonal forecast and DRM activities at Regional level. 7. Two sample rural communities about their DRM experience (field visit). The study tour was hosted by the Kenya Meteorological Society (KMS) in collaboration with the Institute of Meteorological Training and Research (IMTR) and the Institute for Climate Change and Adaptation, University of Nairobi. The event took place between 4th and 16th December 2016. The experts coordinating the event were drawn from the Institute for Climate Change and Adaptation (ICCA), the Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi, Kenya Meteorological Society (KMS), Institute of Meteorological Training and Research (IMTR), and Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University, Bondo, among other institutions. As per the above mentioned check list the overseas study tour involved visiting institutions that generate climate information as well as those that utilize these information so as to understand the importance of weather/climate information for effective disaster risk management. In addition there were some country representations on disaster risk management and the best practices towards effective DRM. The participants were to be acquainted with the existing knowledge, skill of information management and to get the knowledge and capacity of decision making on responding to climate related hazards. In addition, the participants were exposed to multi-agency network system to support the development of standard operation system and
- 6. 5 ways of jointresponse to climate related emergency. Lastly, the participants visited local communities to be exposed to some lessons and experiences on community based early warning systems in Kenya. V. Organizations of interest that were visited by the NDRMC team These included among others:- Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD) Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) Famine Early Warning Network-Kenya (FEWSNET-Kenya) National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC) CARE-Kenya (International) OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria -Kisumu) Dominion Millennium Goals Development demonstration Farm (Yala) Community resilience development efforts around Mama Sara Obama foundation Nganyi community-based early warning system with integrated Indigenous Knowledge and modern Disaster Management systems Maseno Equator, to demonstrate the changing nature of fluid motions (air and water) on crossing the equator latitude VI. Major Activities Session 1 The first session was held on Monday 5th December 2016. It included registration of participants, formal opening of the event, outcome mapping on perspectives of the study tour, presentation of the principles of disaster risk management, and discussion and agreement on study tour programme. 1.1 Opening of study tour A forum to formally open the study tour was held at Mash Park Hotel on Monday 5th December. The forum was opened by Ms Stella Aura, the principle of IMTR and Chair of KMS, the host to the study tour. Brief statements were also made by Dr. Ouma , the Coordinator of the study Visit –
- 7. 6 Ms AlmazW.D , the Study Tour Team Leader Participants during the Opening Ceremony Group photo taken after Opening Ceremony 1.2 Perspectives and outcome mapping for the Study Tour The first session was devoted to the planning of the programme of the study tour. The items addressed in the session included: Perspectives of the Study Tour Presentation of the Objectives of the study tour Discussion and Adoption of the two weeks programme Outcome Mapping that included addressing: Why are we here? What are we aspiring to achieve by the end of the study visit?; Mapping the objectives and means of achievement, addressing participants expectations Review of the logistical matters, etc. 1.3 Topics covered under Concepts of Risk In order to ensure that all participants were equipped with basic fundamentals of disaster risk management principles, some lectures were provided to the participants that addressed among others: Key Terminologies, Concept of risk (Hazard , Vulnerability, Capacity, and Exposure ) Concepts risk management / reduction; Introduction to Climate Risks: Managing Risks Concepts of Resilience Hazard identification and Mapping Linking Weather/Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
- 8. 7 Climate andSustainable Development; Use of Satellite and Remote Sensing information in EW Preparedness: Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of disasters, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location. Early warning: Timely, usable and effective information that can allow individuals at risk of a disaster, to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response Discussions (Participants led the discussions for Ethiopia, specific areas and sectors) Highlights on the differences between hazards and disasters were also addressed with specific reference to capacity, vulnerability, exposure, climate variability and change, as well as resilience. Some briefs of these are given in the next section. 1.4 Differences between Hazards and Disasters Hazard is a threat that may cause injury, property damage, and disruption of normal activity or even death. The UN defines a disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental impacts that exceeds the ability to cope using its usual systems. Hazards turn to disasters only if there is no capacity to control the impacts of hazards. Do we then have any natural disasters? In principle NO if you can effectively handle all hazards impacts. BUT some natural hazards are gigantic and difficult to control even by wealthy nations. In many developing nations all hazards turn to disasters.
- 9. 8 CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS(participants to undertake exercise) DISASTER TYPE EXAMPLES NATURAL Cannot be controlled by human Seismic / Geological Earthquakes, Tsunamis; Volcanic activity and emissions; landslides, rockslides, etc Hydrometeorological Hazards Floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges, hailstorms, wind storms, thunder, lightning ,Droughts, desertification, wildfires, heat waves, sand / dust storms, etc Biological Hazards Outbreaks of epidemic diseases HUMAN INDUCCED (ANTHROPOGENIC) - Are human based thus can be stopped Technological or industrial accidents, urban, Infrastructure failures, Industrial pollution, Nuclear accidents and Radioactivity, Toxic wastes , Dam failures, Transport accidents MIXED / HYBRID TYPES Including environmental Land degradation, Deforestation Desertification, Climate Change, Ozone depletion Session 2 Session 2 included all activities that were undertaken during the second day, Tuesday 6th December 2016 2.1 Visit to RCMRD New generations in science, technology and innovations for addressing all components of disaster risk management challenges are now focused mainly on remote sensing technology. The major institution in the region for development and application of remote sensing technology is the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD). The Centre was established in Nairobi Kenya in 1975 under the auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the then Organization of African Unity (OAU). The founder members are Kenya, Uganda, Somalia, Tanzania and Malawi and the Government of the Republic of Kenya. RCMRD currently has 20 Contracting Member States in the Eastern and Southern Africa Regions; Botswana, Burundi, Comoros, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somali, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
- 10. 9 The objectives ofthe Centre are to: Provide services in the fields of surveying and mapping including aerial photography, photogrammetry, photo-interpretation, first order geodesy, remote sensing, calibration and maintenance of surveying and mapping equipment; Provide training for nationals of contracting parties in surveying, mapping and remote sensing, and; To provide advisory services upon request on problems relating to surveying and mapping to the governments of member States. Since its establishment, the Center has been very instrumental in capacity building in resource survey, mapping, remote sensing, GIS and natural resources assessment and management in Africa. The Centre has been instrumental in helping different countries establish their National Mapping Agencies. The Centre trains more technical officers from its member States and other African countries in the fields of surveying and mapping, remote sensing, GIS and natural resources assessment and Management. The Mission of the Centre is to promote sustainable development in the member States through generation, application and dissemination of geo- information and allied ICT technologies, products and services with a Vision of becoming a premier Centre of excellence in the provision of geo-information for sustainable development in the member States and beyond. The group was received and taken round by Mr. Byron Anangwe and Mr. Dennis Macharia. They were given highlights of the SERVIR-ESA project implementation. The Program is a partnership between RCMRD, NASA and USAID to improve environmental Management and resilience to climate change by building capacity of institutions in the member states to integrate Earth Observation and Geospatial technology in environmental decision making. Participants at the RCMRD Satellite Receiver Station Having a briefing at RCMRD The team also visited various technology devices and tools used to process RCMRD products. These included
- 11. 10 Satellite receiving Antennas Analysisof maps for water quality level and ecosystem degradation/erosion Modeling for flood Early Warning and alerting. Maps showing hydrological model(CREST) and data for near-real time flood monitoring in Africa basins Hazard and Vulnerability Maps Ecosystems and Land use, Land cover Mapping for development of Green Houses Gas Inventories in East and South Africa. RCMRD is also applying best available science for decision making by using data products and tools through small grants and capacity 2.2 Visit to the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) Most of the hazards and disasters in Ethiopia, like other countries of the Greater Horn of Africa, are linked to weather and climate extremes. Weather and cliamete extremes are observed, monitored, predicted, and early warning provided by NMHSs under coordination of WMO. The team visited KMD for comparision with activities and services being provided by Ethiopia National Meteorological Agency. Some briefs from KMD visit are presented in the section below. The group was informed that the responsibility of KMD includes provision of accurate and timely weather and climate information to support economic growth in key weather sensitive sectors; promotion of the safety of life and protection of property; conservation of the natural environment; and to provide education and training in meteorology. The group was also informed that the data and information it provides is used run the National Flood Forecasting and Early Warning System for Nzoia, Tana and Nyando Basins, and the National Earthquake & Tsunami Warning Centre, both of which are domiciled in the Department. KMD also has a Malaria Early Warning Model and runs a Severe Weather Forecasting and Warning that deals with Frost, Fog, Wind, Lightning, Temperatures, heavy rainfall, among others. To enhance monitoring, the Department also uses satellite and remote sensing information. For flood forecasting, the group was informed that the data received from the river-gauging stations are spatially analyzed and displayed. KMD runs flow forecasting models to give the forecasts. The information is the provided through and early warning bulletin (flood watch) and colour codes are used for the local communities with green indicating no risk, amber indicating medium risk and red indication high risk.
- 12. 11 The major beneficiariesof the information from KMD include organizations such as the National Drought Monitoring Centre (NDMA), the National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC), the Kenya Red Cross, Disaster Committees, NGOs and the Communities at Risk, among others. The group was informed that the information is disseminated to the users through community radios, email and website. Examples of the organizations in the email list include the Office of the President, the National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC), Kenya Red Cross, Medical/Health Schools, Religious Organizations, NGOs, county governments and individual users within the communities. Group photo infront of KMD headquarters Almaz presenting weather in KMD studios Session 3 Session 3 was devoted to the activities of the 3rd day Wednesday 7th December 2016 that included visit to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC), and FEWSNET, Kenya 3.1 Visit to IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) Global and regional scale Climate prediction and early warning are coordinated by WMO global and regional climate centres that provide critical products to the NMHSs. In the greater Horn of Africa regional climate products and services are provided by IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC). ICPAC is a specialized institution of IGAD responsible for eleven member countries namely: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania. The Vision ICPAC is To become a viable regional centre of excellence in climate prediction and applications for climate risk management, environmental management, and sustainable development while its Mission is the provision of timely climate early warning information and supporting specific sector applications to enable the region cope with various risks associated with extreme climate
- 13. 12 variability and changefor poverty alleviation, environment management and sustainable development of the member countries. The objectives of the Centre are: To provide timely climate early warning information and support specific sector applications for the mitigation of the impacts of climate variability and change for poverty alleviation, management of environment and sustainable development; To improve the technical capacity of producers and users of climatic information, in order to enhance the use of climate monitoring and forecasting products in climate risk management and environment management; To develop an improved, proactive, timely, broad-based system of information/product dissemination and feedback, at both sub-regional and national scales through national partners; To expand climate knowledge base and applications within the sub-region in order to facilitate informed decision making on climate risk related issues; and To maintain quality controlled databases and information systems required for risk/vulnerability assessment, mapping and general support to the national/ regional climate risk reduction strategies. The functions of the ICPAC include: Acquisition of climate and remotely sensed data; Develop and archive national and regional climate databanks including calibration of remote sensing records; Process data and develop basic climatological statistics required for baseline risk scenarios and other applications; Monitor, predict and provide early warning information of the space-time evolutions of weather and climate extremes over the sub-region; Hazards and climate risk mapping of the extreme climate events thresholds; Networking with WMO, the National Meteorological and Hydrological institutions as well as regional and international centres for data and information exchange; Capacity building in the generation and applications of climate information and products; Applications of climate tools for specific climate sensitive sector risk reduction, environment management, and sustainable development, including integration of indigenous knowledge; Monitor, assess, detect and attribute climate change and associated impacts, vulnerability, adaptation and mitigation options;
- 14. 13 Develop relevant toolsrequired to address the regional climate challenges through research and applications in all climate sensitive socio-economic sectors including addressing linkages with other natural and man-made disasters; and Networking and exchange of information regarding disasters in the sub-region The products of the Centre includes the following: Ten day, Monthly and Seasonal climate/weather bulletins Climate Watch/El Niño updates Annual climate summaries Some of the Centers major achievements include the following: Enhanced regional capacity enhancement for both climate scientists and users , including the use of regional climate outlook forums (COFs), and associated workshops. Timely production and dissemination of climate early warning information. Improvement of knowledge of processes and new empirical models for seasonal forecasts. Enhanced networking and collaboration between ICPAC, NMHSs and advanced regional diagnostics Centres. Establishment of a continuously updated data bank for development of baseline statistics and hazards maps. Successful networking with users of climate information, climate scientists, as well as gender and media groups in dissemination of weather information and products. Several recognitions and awards at regional and global levels, including contribution to UNFCCC, UNCCD, ISDR, IPCC among others. Enhanced collaborations with sector specific users through pilot application projects for development of new application tools Agriculture and Food Security, Livestock, Health, Water Resources, Conflict Early Warning, Hydropower risk management, Environment Management, etc Improved equipment including computing and Geographical Information System (GIS); and human resource capacity in regional climate modelling; prediction and applications. Improved research collaboration including PhD and MSc student attachments that have led to new tools and applications. The participants were introduced to all ICPAC activities. Several Ethiopian experts also work at ICPAC including Mr. Abebe Tadege (in charge of climate change); Dr Segele Zewdu (Climate modeling), Hussen Endris (Climate modeling), Dr Ahmed Amdihun (GIS), and Birhanu (Procurement).
- 15. 14 Presentation in ICPAClab 3.2 Visit to FEWSNET, Kenya FEWSNET - the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, is a leading provider of early warning and analysis on acute food insecurity. Created in 1985 by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) after devastating famines in East and West Africa, FEWS NET provides objective, evidence-based analysis to help government decision-makers and relief agencies plan for and respond to humanitarian crises. FEWS NET delivers early warnings of hazard, food insecurity, vulnerability to food insecurity, and famine. Funded by USAID and administered by Chemonics, FEWS NET increases and improves the quality and quantity of information used to monitor food security, needs assessments, preparedness, and response planning. The program develops national and regional emergency early warning and food monitoring and assessment capabilities. FEWNET has analysts in 20 field offices, work with US government science agencies, national government ministries, international agencies, and NGOs to produce forward-looking reports on more than 35 of the world's most food-insecure countries, The participants were exposed to the FEWSNET, Kenya and were informed on how the organization links with government agencies in monitoring and providing food security early warning. They focus on livelihoods and monitor the impacts of climate on the livelihoods. They also use seasonal forecasts from ICPAC and KMD to project food security status of the country for the coming season.
- 16. 15 Participants being briefedat a meeting in FEWSNET Offices Session 4 Session 4 was devoted to the activities of the 4th day, Thursday 8th December 2016 that included visits to National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) and National Disaster Operation Centre (NDOC). 4.1 Visit to the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) The National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) was established by the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) Act of 2016. The Act gives NDMA the mandate to exercise overall coordination over all matters relating to drought management including implementation of policies and programmes relating to drought management. The NDMA provides a platform for long-term planning and action, as well as a mechanism for solid coordination across Government and with all other stakeholders. The Authority has established offices in 23 ASAL counties considered vulnerable to drought and is committed to Ending Drought Emergencies. NDMA is an agency of the Government of Kenya mandated to establish mechanisms which ensure that drought does not result in emergencies and that the impacts of climate change are sufficiently mitigated. The Vision is to be a world-class authority in drought management and climate change adaptation for sustainable livelihoods while its Mission is to provide leadership and coordination of Kenya’s effort in the management of drought risks and enhancing adaptation to climate change. The Technical services Department of NDMA comprises of three (3) divisions namely:-
- 17. 16 4.1.1 Drought Information: Developingand maintaining drought information systems Coordinating national and county food security assessments 4.1.2 Drought Resilience Coordination of drought risk reduction and building of long-term resilience to drought Promoting capacity building of community planning units in participatory disaster risk assessments Facilitate formulation, implementation, M&E of strategic risk reduction programmes, projects and initiatives 4.1.3 Drought Contingency Planning and response Develop strategies and oversee coordination and implementation of drought response programmes and projects based drought management cycle and contingency planning Consolidation of county plans into national drought contingency plans Establishment and maintenance of a national drought response capacity database Drought management is not a single-sector issue. It is a cross-cutting issue that requires collaborative action by a range of public and private sector agencies at different levels (national, county, and community). The Authority is responsible for the establishment, institutionalization and coordination of structures for drought management. The Authority: Coordinates action across sectors and across agencies at all stages of the drought cycle at both national and county levels Reviews existing coordination structures to ensure their relevance in Kenya's governance structures Promotes networking and learning between stakeholders The following coordination structures already exist at national, county, and community level: 4.1.4 Kenya Food Security Meeting (KFSM) The KFSM is an open forum with high-level representation by government, UN agencies, development partners and NGOs interested in food security and drought management. The KFSM facilitates information exchange and actions to address emerging issues, referring these to the relevant government bodies or other actors for implementation.
- 18. 17 4.1.5 Kenya FoodSecurity Steering Group (KFSSG) The KFSSG is a technical sub-committee of the KFSM. It is a think-tank and advisory body for all stakeholders. Membership is limited to organisations with technical or administrative capability. KFSSG meets monthly. 4.1.6 County Steering Groups These are the equivalent of the KFSM at county level and include representatives from relevant line ministries and agencies. There is currently a CSG in each of the 23 counties. The meetings are held frequently, as need arises, and are chaired by the Governor or County Commissioner. The NDMA’s County Drought Coordinator provides the Secretariat. 4.1.7 Community-level drought management structures These are Community Managed Disaster Risk Reduction (CMDRR) committees and other community committees established to coordinate drought risk interventions. 4.2 Visit to National Disaster Operation Centre During the visit, the group was informed that Kenya’s disaster profile is dominated by droughts, fires, floods, technological accidents, diseases and epidemics that disrupt people’s livelihoods, destroy the infrastructure, divert planned use of resources, interrupt economic activities and retard development. The National Disaster Operations Centre (NDOC) of Kenya was established in January 1998 after the adverse effects of El Nino by an act of Parliament to act as the focal point for co-coordinating response to emergencies and disasters in Kenya. Its mandate is to monitor, co-ordinate, mobilize national resources to respond to disaster incidents in the country. Its reporting centre runs 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, from which emergency operations, activities and events are recorded and communicated for action. The functions of the Centre include to: Co-ordinate and control of disaster response efforts, Act as the command centre for all communications and information relating to response operations, and Liaise with responsible ministries on national response efforts The sources of early warning information for the Centre include KMD, NDMA, RCMRD and the Department of Remote Sensing and Resource Surveys (DRSRS). He group was further informed the group that the Centre faces several challenges. It has limited funding to support
- 19. 18 mitigation, preparedness andresponse; capacity building activities to support response; and human resources. The Director of the Centre also indicated that there is no institutional framework to guide the activities. Session 5 Session 5 was devoted to the activities of the 5th day, Thursday 9th December 2016 and this was a visit to CARE Kenya 5.1 Visit to CARE Kenya The roles of Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), in community based early warning systems are complementary at many locations in Africa. Example and lessons on the community based early warning systems in Kenya were provided by CARE Kenya. 5.2 Mission and Vision CARE stands for "Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere, Inc." The CARE-Kenya mission is to serve individuals and families in the poorest communities in the world. Drawing strength from their global diversity, resources and experience, we promote innovative solutions and are advocates for global responsibility. We facilitate lasting change by Strengthening capacity for self-help, providing economic opportunities, delivering relief in emergencies, influencing policy decisions at all levels and addressing discrimination in all its forms. CARE-Kenya seeks a world of hope, tolerance and social justice where poverty has been overcome and people live in dignity and security. CARE will be a global force and partner of choice within a worldwide movement dedicated to ending poverty. We will be known everywhere for our unshakeable commitment to the dignity of people. CARE International traces its roots back to 1945. It is a global confederation of 13 National Members and one Affiliate Member with the common goal of fighting global poverty. Each CARE Member is an autonomous non-governmental organization and implements program, advocacy, fundraising and communications activities in its own country and in developing countries where CARE has programs. Session 6 The second week of the visit was largely concentrated around Lake Victoria for hands on experiences with the institution and community systems involved in practical community based
- 20. 19 early warning systems.Session 6, that was held at Vittoria Suites Hotel on Monday morning, 12th December 2016, not only evaluated the progress of the first week activities but also discussed and agreed on the programme for the visit to the communities and relevant institutions in the Lake Victoria basin that included OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria), Dominion Millennium Goal and climate adaptation national demonstration farm, and the Nganyi IK integrated early warning system. 6.1 Visit to OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria) Despite the efforts made and long year experience in making sustainable development and disaster risk reduction on the vast Lake Victoria catchment of four member African countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi and Uganda), a lot has to be done for the future taking in to account climate change adaptation and mitigation measures. As a result of climate change impacts, the Lake Victoria is facing complex disasters that restricts sustainable development and climate resilience adoption. High winds and water storms, an aquatic invasive weed, siltation as result of catchments run off, fertilizer pollution and algae are among many other disasters in lake Victoria. OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria) was established in 1992 as a national NGO with its head office in Kisumu City in Western Kenya. It has created awareness locally and internationally about the problems facing Lake Victoria while at the same time creating structures that would support local communities to become responsible custodian of their environment and the lake. It endeavors to strengthen capacities within the communities for sound management, optimization of resource utilization and improvement of the social and economic status in the region OSIENALA is a regional NGO working to promote sustainable development in the Lake Victoria basin covering countries like Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi. It also work with private investors like OSRAM Germany to provide off-grid solar power to fishers of Lake Victoria and Green Forest Social Investment Trust to grow and process bio-diesel, Aloe Vera, honey and non-timber products. The organization has a FM 92.1 Radio station, Radio Lake Victoria (RLV) reaching 3 million listeners in Lake Victoria basin region and Micro-finance for the communities in the Lake Victoria basin, Kenya. OSIENALA has created awareness locally and internationally about the problems facing Lake Victoria while at the same time creating structures that would support local communities to become responsible custodian of their environment and the lake. It endeavors to strengthen capacities within the communities for sound management, optimization of resource utilization and improvement of the social and economic status in the region.
- 21. 20 Vision: A soundLake Victoria's environment that sustains equitable livelihood of communities. Mission: To empower Lake Victoria communities to become key participants in the management and equitable utilization of resources for sustainable livelihoods through capacity building, research, policy advocacy, education, information dissemination and networking. OSIENALA's collaboration with worldwide renowned partners in environment and development issues such as Global Nature Fund (GNF), Living Lakes Network, OSRAM in Germany and the International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC) in Japan have further strengthened its role in the region. The Environmental Education Department aims at reaching out to people to address the issues facing our environment such as Global warming, climate change and increased pollution as a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization in the region. It currently has a total of 21 staff among which 10 are PHD and 10 Master’s degree holders. Participants were briefed on the lake hazards, risks and disasters, as well as local programmes for building community resilience. The participants were given a ride around the lake for practical experience regarding the lake hazards and severe degradation of the environment. 6.2 Purpose of the Institution To develop institutional capacity and take action on environment recovery measures and see the future development of Lake Victoria. 6.2.1 Findings Media serves as a profound means of disseminating timely early warning information to the community. In this connection, Radio Lake Victoria was set up and is in charge to communicating to the community early warning information in a timely manner. Unfortunately, there are no currently available mobile phone for disaster communication. 6.2.1.1 High wind and water storm High wind and water storm affects by disrupting navigation process to cause damage/physiological disorder to people traveling in the boats and submersion of people and property loss, though boats are available /ready to rescue people. On top of this, it lays a problem in fish hunting process making economic loss to cooperatives that would have been gained in the absence of High wind and water waves.
- 22. 21 6.2.1.2 Aquatic invasiveweed (Water hyacinth) An aquatic invasive weed known as water hyacinth was introduced from abroad also found to be a disaster expanding its invasion area from time to time, has limited/insignificant economic value even to use as animal feed which its biomass very minimal except excess water content. Despite the efforts made to tackle the problem, introducing from abroad a beetle that consumes floral part of this aquatic weed, realized as a biological control means to minimize the seed bank has ended up without success, as the agent could not survive the ecology at lake Victoria. so this aquatic weed has remained with no solution so far except being a potential danger for the future. The invasive weed and presence of algae in the lake also tackles boat water transportation process and oxygen circulation in the lake resulting fishes deoxygenated to death. 6.2.1.3 Flood and Drought in Lake Victoria In times, Lake Victoria extends to cover wider area where the community is dwelling around due to flood water flow from the vast catchments. On the other hand, the lake reversely dries to exhibit its negative impact on the community. For instance four years ago the lake has been dried to result displacement and migration of the community to Tanzania. 6.2.1.4 Siltation Siltation of the lake is also another problem as water shade management practice not run as desired as expected in minimizing the rain drop and run off impact from the catchments, though aloe Vera is widely used as biophysical measure. 6.2.1.5 Fertilizer pollution Pollution of the lake is accelerated by the washed away fertilizers from farm lands transported to the lake. This may have a negative effect in diminishing the fish population which in turn affects the livelihood of the community engaged in fishery.
- 23. 22 Presentation session bythe Director of OSIENALA The boat ride with water hyacinth in the background 6.3 Ethiopian Experience According to the group’s experiences from Lake Tana, where this similar weed is prevalent, several fish trapped in these weeds are likely to have sour tastes when consumed resulting in deteriorated quality fish that further exhibit less price in local markets. Besides, accumulation of fertilizers in the lake under pins the growth and development of this weed to be vigorous as a result of tap rooted and root hair branches interwoven to conjugating silt trapped with fertilizer favoring again the weed to be vigorous. Apart from its negative impact, using the weed as fertilizer green manure is in practice among the community, this seems a good practice. Session 7: 8.1 Visit to the Dominion Millennium Goals and climate change adaptation farm at Yala Swamp and Mama Sarah Obama Foundation 7.1.1 Visit to Dominion Farm in Yala Swamp The Dominion farm was initiated as a demonstration pilot arm on Millennium Goals and climate change adaptation. The farm is situated in western Kenya in the delta of the Yala River where the equator crosses Lake Victoria. It is in Nyanza Province – forty miles northwest of the provincial capital of Kisumu. River Yala provides high volumes of irrigation water throughout the year. The area is densely populated with an estimated 700,000 persons within a ten-mile
- 24. 23 radius of thefarm’s perimeter. Most live in family enclaves of only a few acres, from which they subsist on vegetable gardening and livestock tending. When Dominion arrived in 2002, a few hundred acres of the swamp were above the flood plain and were used for cattle grazing and intermittent grain production. Otherwise, the Yala Swamp consisted of over 50,000 acres of papyrus with little contribution to the welfare of local residents. When Calvin Burgess first visited the Yala Swamp in 2002, it was accessible only via all- terrain vehicle. As there was no commerce in the area, neither were there jobs, currency in circulation nor hope for improvement. But the residents were determined to break out of the cycle of poverty associated with their tiny acreages and limited access to markets. Dominion’s local payroll has done wonders for the health, wealth and attitude of hundreds of employees and thousands who benefit indirectly from the circulation of hard currency. And the farm has provided an example for smaller farmers to emulate in order to render their operations more productive and profitable. The area around the farm allows for an ideal farming environment. Water is plentiful, the climate is cool and the fields produce at least two crops per annum. Add the components of cost-effective labor and regional food deficiencies and the area offers an exceptional farming scenario. The impact of two crops per annum cannot be overstated in a large-scale application. It is the financial equivalent of doubling the size of an efficient commercial farm at zero added cost. For a nation that imports more than 200,000 tons of rice annually from India, Pakistan and Southeast Asia, the continuous planting and harvesting of rice on a commercial scale is a welcome activity. Today Dominion Farms is a celebrated example of technology-based, irrigated agriculture in western Kenya. It is a model for long-range planners who seek to develop the water resources and expand the land under cultivation that is needed to sustain the fast-growing Kenyan population. It also illustrates the synergies of using agricultural by-products to lower operating costs through reduced reliance on the use of chemicals and imported fuels.
- 25. 24 A briefing beforethe tour The group at the weir controlling irrigation A group photo of the participants at the Dominion Farm The Rice Miller in Dominion Farm 7.1.2 Visit to Mama Sarah Obama Foundation The team visited a community self-based resilience building effort under leadership of a community champion Mama Sarah Obama, the grandmother of USA President Barack Obama. Several demonstration projects are undertaken that enable the neighbourhood communities work in partnerships to enhance their resilience capacity The Mama Sarah Obama Foundation is the realization of a long-term dream. The foundation was founded after years of hard work helping orphans and poverty-stricken families feed and educate their children. With the AIDS epidemic ravaging Sub-Saharan Africa in the last three decades and leaving many children without parents, Mama Sarah turned her attention to addressing the educational and welfare needs of orphans in Kogelo village, as well as demonstration on resilience building practices relevant to local community. Mama Sarah has relentlessly worked with community leaders to meet the dire needs of the local community, and participatory involvement of the local for providing solution to local
- 26. 25 environment and developmentchallenges. With the election of her grandson to the presidency of the United States of America, her phenomenal work has come to light well beyond the boundaries of Kogelo village. In 2009, the Mama Sarah Obama Foundation (MSOF) was formed to coordinate support to local community. Participants with Mama Sarah Obama Participants outside Mama Sarah Obama’s Home
- 27. 26 Session 8: 8.1 Visitto Nganyi Community-Based Early Warning System and Maseno Equator Session 9 was dedicated to visit a local community to understand how they get receive and integrate early warning information in their local decision making. On the way to the community, the group stopped at the equator crossing at Maseno. 8.1.1 Maseno Equator Crossing At the Equator crossing in Maseno, demonstrations were made to show how air and water change direction on crossing the estuarial latitude. These have implications on pollution transport, and extremes air/water circulations. Group photo at the equator 8.1.2 Nganyi Community Based Early Warning System The peak of the study visit was at Nganyi community resource centre with integrated Indigenous Knowledge and modern Disaster Management systems with the resultant information disseminated through a local FM Radio using local language. The Nganyi community is a sub-clan of the larger Abasiekwe clan of Bunyore. They are found largely in
- 28. 27 West Bunyore Locationof western Kenya with several smaller sub-clans dispersed in other parts of Bunyore and beyond, spreading into the neighbouring Nyanza region. They are renowned for their rare skills, ability and power to monitor, predict and early warn of the impending local climate risks. KMD collaborates with the indigenous knowledge forecasters to produce a blended seasonal forecast that has both the modern-day and indigenous knowledge forecast information for dissemination to the local community. 8.1.3 Modern meteorological systems at the resource centre The resource centre has modern meteorological equipment ran by KMD supporting the forecasting process. The data from the station is sent to the headquarters and used in the forecast development. The forecast is then brought to the resource centre where the blending is done. The observatory with the modern day meteorological instruments at the resource centre 8.1.4 Indigenous Knowledge (IK) Systems at the Resource Centre The Nganyi forest shrines in Esibila village, in Western Kenya has pristine biodiversity that has helped the local Bunyore community predict weather conditions for generations. The small forest has 67 known plant species, and is home reptiles, birds and insects that help in weather forecasting. The forest also has some of the oldest trees in Vihiga County.
- 29. 28 The “monitoring” indigenousknowledge indicators is done in the shrines, not too far away from the resource centre, by dedicated old men of the community. Generally, they observe budding, flowering or shedding of leaves of specific plant species, listen to croaking of frogs, listen to chirping of birds, observe behaviours of local insects and animals to predict climatic and weather conditions. These observations have helped his community prepare for droughts and floods, and determine when to plant their crops. The elders then meet and agree on what they see as the forecast. This consensus forecast is brought to the resource centre where the blending with the KMD forecast is done. The group at one of the shrines Mzee Obedi “monitoring” the indigenous indicators in one the shrines visited 8.2 Integration of IK and Modern Meteorological Systems at the Resource Centre The group was informed that the integration process involves consensus building meetings between the IK practitioners and modern-day climate scientists to compare and merge IK and modern-day science based rainfall forecasts at the resource centre. 8.2.1 Dissemination and feedback with local communities The group was informed that after the integrated IK and modern science based consensus rainfall forecast is agreed on, a local dissemination forum is held with the community in the framework of the local community management systems. Brochures and posters were also published, translated into the local lunyole language and widely distributed to schools, markets and churches within the project area. Dissemination is also done through the local community radio, Anyole Radio, broadcasting from the community centre. The Community Radio is a valuable asset to the community, keeping many people glued to their radio sets listening to different programs, while other access the signal via mobile phones.
- 30. 29 The radio stationhave the duty to give weather information based on the integrated result from the indigenous rainmakers and the KMD every hour and focuses mainly on climate-related issues, market information, agriculture and emerging technologies. The station sometimes invites traditional forecasters at least three times a week for a call-in session, so that listeners can ask questions about the prevailing weather conditions. The station is very important for the survival as smallholder farmers in the area since it provides alerts and warning on the prevailing rainfall conditions for agricultural purposes. Anyole Radio broadcaster at work during the study visit Session 9: 9.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS During the last Session (Session 10), the participants reflected on their experiences during the study tour. They identified several areas of commonalties between the two countries and also areas that they can learn from. 9.1.1 The monitoring institutions (KMD, RCMRD and ICPAC) The participants noted that KMD largely operates in a similar manner as the Ethiopian Meteorological Agency. However, they were impressed by the way KMD communicates with the people at risk and the early warning tools for risk management that they have in place.
- 31. 30 The community engagementwas flagged as worth emulating for effective community risk management. The tools for early warning for floods, earthquakes and tsunami, and malaria epidemics were identified as important and useful for the Ethiopian context. The participants noted that RCMRD and ICPAC are regional governmental organizations with Ethiopia being an active member of both. The framework of disseminating products and information to different institutions (governmental and non-governmental) by these organizations was found to be impressive. The participants were keen to have the results of some of the pilot projects (CREST and GeoFSM flood models) implemented in their country. 9.1.2 Government disaster risk management organizations (NDMA and NDOC) The participants found a lot of similarities between NDMA and NDOC with the corresponding organizations in Ethiopia. However, the early warning system operated by these institutions, especially the communications at grassroots level, was identified as impressive and good learning points. 9.1.3 International non-governmental disaster risk management (FEWSNET and CARE) The participants noted that both FEWSNET and CARE operate in Ethiopia. They however appreciated the work CARE, in collaboration with the government, is doing with the communities in risk management, indicating that it is worth emulating. 9.1.4 Community-based risk management (OSIENALO, Dominion farm and Nganyi) The participants were very excited with the trip to western Kenya and identified several learning points. They appreciated the project on Lake Victoria dealing with environmental issues focusing on Lake Victoria basin covering Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ruanda and Burundi. From the discussions with OSIENALA, the participants noted that weather/ climate change impacts have contributed to complex disasters in Lake Victoria. Tackling these problems requires strong collaboration among the affected countries in building climate change resilience and sustainable development. It was clear that effective use of biological approach to control the invasive aquatic weed needs good knowledge on the biology of the pest that relates to the ecology in which the pest is targeted to be released. Furthermore, strict quarantine measures need to be taken before introducing any foreign seed and plant material. Otherwise, the aquatic weed should be removed manually before it flowers in order to disrupt production of seeds that enhance the seed bank.
- 32. 31 The prudent useof water hyacinth as manure in farms should be scaling-up since this will be beneficial to the farmers as it will reduce the cost of fertilizer farmers and the level of fertilizer pollution in the Lake. Collaborative integrated water shed management program/ project should be enhanced to reduce the consequence of siltation and washed-away fertilizer resulting in pollution in the lake. The participants drew parallels with the problem caused by Water Hyacinth in Ethiopian lakes like Lake Tana and Lake Hawassa, noting that it might cause a serious problem in the future in big dams being developed in Ethiopia. The participants therefore recommend that the Ethiopian Environmental Authority should give attention and carry out a proper study around the lakes and dams in Ethiopia. The community-based climate monitoring services and early warning system supported by FM Radio, seen in the Nganyi Community, was identified as a good way of a national institution reaching local communities with disaster risk information. The active participation of the community in the development and communication of the early warning information was identified as a good sustainable way of ensuring risk reduction of the community. 9.2 Evaluation Participants were requested to take some few minutes to provide feedback that would help improve organization of future study tours. The chart below represents their views on selected indicators. They were required to respond to each of the evaluation questions by giving 1 as the lowest and 5 the highest / most positive rating. It is evident from chart that all the participants were reasonably satisfied with the study tour with almost all the questions receiving either 4 or 5 rating. However, one participant felt that the transport arrangements were average (rating of 3). All the participants indicated that they would recommend a return trip for the group to enable ample time for visits to more communities and other specialized institutions. They would also recommend that other groups in Ethiopia participate in a similar tour.
- 33. 32 VII. At NDRMC(Ethiopia) 1. Discussion with the Director of Early Warming and Emergency Director As per our plan we were discussing the overall situation of the study tour with Ato Muluneh Woldemariam the Director of Early Warning and Emergency Response Directorate. The reflection of the study tour participant was very interesting and the major points which were mentioned in the discussion was: About the visit of Kenya Meteorological Department and its activity particularly in areas of communicating the people at risk at the time of disaster and early warming tools for risk management. About Regional Center for Mapping of Resources for Development(RCMRD) activities and its products and how to disseminate information for different institutions About the activities of National drought Management Authority and National Disaster Operation Center. Besides they have appreciate on Kenyan EWS i.e. the way what they are communicating at grassroots level. About the very interesting Kisumu field trips particularly: - on a pilot project which was established by ICPAC, that is the community- based climate monitoring services and early warning system supported by FM Radio. The activities practiced by Kenya Meteorological Services(KMS) with Nganyi community. - About the visit to OSIENALA (Friends of Lake Victoria) project dealing with environmental issues focusing on Lake Victoria in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ruanda and Burundi dealing with such environmental issues like the Water Hyacinth which is a major invasive plant species in Lake Victoria.
- 34. 33 Moreover the participantsraise the problem caused by Water Hyacinth in Ethiopian lakes like Lake Tana, Lake Hawassa and others. The group has gave more emphasis about the treat of the weed(Hyacinth) i.e. it might be cause a serious problem in our big dams for the future. Thus the study tour participant proposed that the Environmental Authority in Ethiopia should give attention and made proper monitoring and study around the lakes and dams in Ethiopia in order to minimize the effect of the problem that would be cased by the water weed Hyacinth. Finally they have discussed about the importance of the study tour particularly about the knowledge and experience sharing including the future plan on the issue under consideration.
- 35. 34 Appendix 1 Listof participants No Name of the participants Represent 1 WOLDETSADIK/ALMAZ DEMESSIE Focal person for UNDP/GEF/LDCF project and Team Leader for the Study Tour 2 EDRIS/ MOHAMMED HUSEIN From Afar Regional bureau of DRM 3 WELDETSADIK/DEJENE MEBRATU From Federal NDRMC 4 BERISSO/TESFAYEGEBREWOLD From Federal NDRMC 5 BEYENE/DEBEBE ZEWUDIE From Federal NDRMC 6 GIDA/MULATU NEGUMA From Oromiya Regional bureau of DRM 7 TIRFU/HUSSEN AHMED From Amara Regional bureau of DRM 8 HIFAMO /ABERA WILLA From SNNP Regional bureau of DRM 9 LAEKBERHAN/MESFIN WOLDU From Tigray Regional bureau of DRM 10 MAHAMUD/HASSEN BARUD From Somali Regional bureau of DRM Appendix 2 A sample of the Monitoring and Evaluation Form is shown in the section below. Please take a few minutes to provide us with feedback to improve future study tour visits/workshops. Write down one response for each question, with 5 being the highest / most positive and 1 the lowest / most negative rating. Very high High Medium Low Very low 5 4 3 2 1 Overview of the transport for the Study Tour Arrangements. 5 Evaluation of the overall study tour design/structure 5 Evaluation of the different institutions of the Study Visits 5 Evaluation of information provided during various study visits/if any 5 Evaluation of the Study Visit presentations by various personalities 4 Evaluation of interactive sessions with the various organizations 4 Evaluation of the residential hotel facilities and food 4 Which organization/visit did you like most and why? Please write them down in the box provided below
- 36. 35 I liked mostthe two field visits conducted in the two communities that are Nganyi Community(Use of indigenous knowledge as part of an early warning system) because it observed that the integration of university meteorology, local government, communities, traditional forecasters and FM radio station is working together in a very integrated manner to collect early warning data through using various approaches and analysing the data together with rain makers then the final agreed information disseminated to the local community through the local FM radio. The other organization that it had impressed about its work is the fishery programs underway in the area is important due diversifying the livelihoods of the community and making more benefit from it. Were there good lessons you learnt from these visits? Ratings (1 to 5) 5 Were your expectations met? Ratings (1 to 5) 5 Kindly write down your overall views about this Study Tour and provide some suggestions to the organizers for the improvement of future Tour Meetings. The study tour was very good in its organized preparation, facilitation and logistics and I was also teach full for me in every moment of the activity so I gained much more experiences and lessons from this tour. Finally I want to say thank you very much for your kind hospitality, friendly approach and care you gave for us during each and every moment of the tour. So Asante Sana!!!!! Appendix 3 Based on the assignment given by the Director of EWERD Eichhornia crassipes From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other plants known as "water hyacinth", see Eichhornia. Common water hyacinth
- 37. 36 Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked):Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots (unranked): Commelinids Order: Commelinales Family: Pontederiaceae Genus: Eichhornia Species: E. crassipes Binomial name Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as (common) water hyacinth, is an aquatic plant native to the Amazon basin, and is often considered a highly problematic invasive species outside its native range. Description Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or hydrophyte) native to tropical and sub-tropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise above the surface of the water as much as 1 meter in height. The leaves are 10–20 cm across, and float above the water surface. They have long, spongy and bulbous stalks. The feathery, freely hanging roots are purple-black. An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8-15 conspicuously attractive flowers, mostly lavender to pink in colour with six petals. When not in bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frog's-bit (Limnobium spongia). One of the fastest growing plants known, water hyacinth reproduces primarily by way of runners or stolons, which eventually form daughter plants. Each plant can produce thousands of seeds each year, and these seeds can remain viable for more than 28 years.[1] Some water hyacinths were found to grow up to 2 to 5 metres a day in some sites in Southeast Asia.[2] The common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) are vigorous growers known to double their population in two weeks. In their native range these flowers are pollinated by long tongued bees and they can reproduce both sexually and clonally. The invasiveness of the hyacinth is related to its ability to clone itself and large patches are likely to all be part of the same genetic form. There are three morphs of water hyacinth, long medium and short. However, the short morph is restricted to the native range due to founder events during its distribution.
- 38. 37 Habitat and ecology Itshabitat ranges from tropical desert to subtropical or warm temperate desert to rainforest zones. The temperature tolerance of the water hyacinth is the following; its minimum growth temperature is 12 °C (54 °F); its optimum growth temperature is 25-30 °C (77-86 °F); its maximum growth temperature is 33-35 °C (92-95 °F), and its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0 to 7.5. It does not tolerate water temperatures >35 °C. Leaves are killed by frost and salt water, the latter trait being used to kill some of it by floating rafts of the cut weed to the sea. Water hyacinths do not grow when the average salinity is greater than 15% that of sea water. In brackish water, its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis, and eventually die.[3] Because of E. crassipes invasiveness, several biological control agents have been released to control it, including two weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Neochetina bruchi Hustache and Neochetina eichhorniae Warner, and the moth Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).[4] Neochetina eichhorniae causes "a substantial reduction in water hyacinth production" (in Louisiana); it reduces plant height, weight, root length, and makes the plant produce fewer daughter plants. N. eichhorniae was introduced from Argentina to Florida in 1972.[5] Azotobacter chroococcum, an N-fixing bacteria, is probably concentrated around the bases of the petioles. But the bacteria do not fix nitrogen unless the plant is suffering extreme N- deficiency.[6] Fresh plants contain prickly crystals.[3] This plant is reported to contain HCN, alkaloid, and triterpenoid, and may induce itching.[7] Plants sprayed with 2,4-D may accumulate lethal doses of nitrates,[8] as well as various other nocive elements in polluted environments. See further down. Invasive species Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and New Zealand.[9] In many areas it is has become an important and pernicious invasive species. In New Zealand it is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord which prevents it from being propagated, distributed or sold. In large water areas such as Louisiana, the Kerala Backwaters in India, Tonlé Sap in Cambodia and Lake Victoria it has become a serious pest. When not controlled, water hyacinth will cover lakes and ponds entirely; this dramatically impacts water flow, blocks sunlight from reaching native aquatic plants, and starves the water of oxygen, often killing fish (or turtles). The plants also create a prime habitat for mosquitos[citation needed] , the classic vectors of disease, and a species of snail known to host a parasitic flatworm which causes schistosomiasis (snail fever).[10] Directly blamed for starving subsistence farmers in Papua New Guinea[citation needed] , water hyacinth remains a major problem where effective control programs are not in place. Water hyacinth is often problematic in man- made ponds if uncontrolled, but can also provide a food source for goldfish, keep water clean [11] [12] and help to provide oxygen[citation needed] to man-made ponds.
- 39. 38 Water hyacinth ofteninvades bodies of water that have been impacted by human activities[citation needed] . For example, the plants can unbalance natural lifecycles in artificial reservoirs or in eutrophied lakes that receive large amounts of nutrients. Eichhornia crassipes, the Common water hyacinth, has become an invasive plant species on Lake Victoria in Africa after it was introduced into the area in the 1980s[citation needed] . Africa See also: Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria Water hyacinth at Kisumu Port The plant was introduced by Belgian colonists to Rwanda to beautify their holdings and then advanced by natural means to Lake Victoria where it was first sighted in 1988.[17] There, without any natural enemies, it has become an ecological plague, suffocating the lake, diminishing the fish reservoir, and hurting the local economies. It impedes access to Kisumu and other harbors. The water hyacinth has also appeared to the north in Ethiopia, where it was first reported in 1965 at the Koka Reservoir and in the Awash River, where the Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority has managed to bring it under moderate control at the considerable cost of human labor. Other infestations in Ethiopia include many bodies of water in the Gambela Region, the Blue Nile from just below Lake Tana into Sudan, and Lake Ellen near Alem Tena.[18] The water hyacinth is also present on the Shire River in the Liwonde National Park in Malawi. Muhammad Ali of Egypt's era was when Egypt's Nile contracted the plant.[19] Control The three commonly used control methods against water hyacinth infestations are physical, chemical, and biological controls. No one control method is generally better than the others, because each has its advantages and disadvantages. The optimum control depends on the specific conditions of each affected location such as the extent of water hyacinth infestation, regional climate, and proximity to human and wildlife.[21]
- 40. 39 Chemical control Chemical controlis the least used out of the three controls of water hyacinth, because of its long-term effects on the environment and human health. The use of herbicides requires strict approval from governmental protection agencies of skilled technician to handle and spray the affected areas. The use of chemical herbicides is only used in case of severe infiltration of water hyacinth.[22] However, the most successful use of herbicides is when it is used for smaller areas of infestation of water hyacinth. This is because in larger areas, more mats of water hyacinths are likely to survive the herbicides and can fragment to further propagate a large area of water hyacinth mats. In addition, it is more cost-effective and less laborious than mechanical control. Yet, it can lead to environmental effects as it can penetrate into the ground water system and can affect not only the hydrological cycle within an ecosystem but also negatively affect the local water system and human health. It is also notable that the use of herbicides is not strictly selective of water hyacinths; keystone species and vital organisms such microalgae can perish from the toxins and can disrupt fragile food webs.[21] The chemical regulation of water hyacinths can be done using common herbicides such as 2,4-D, glyphosate, and diquat. The herbicides are sprayed on the water hyacinth leaves and leads to direct changes to the physiology of the plant.[23] The use of the herbicide known as 2,4-D leads to the death of water hyacinth through inhibition of cell growth of new tissue and cellular apoptosis (Jimenez, 2005). It can take almost a two-week period before mats of water hyacinth are destroyed with 2,4-D. It has been found that up to 150,000 acres of water hyacinth are treated annually in Louisiana.[24] The herbicide known as diquat is a liquid bromide salt that can rapidly penetrate the leaves of the water hyacinth and lead to immediate inactivity of plant cells and cellular processes. For the herbicide glyphosate, it has a low toxicity than the other herbicides; therefore, it takes longer for the water hyacinth mats to be destroyed (about three weeks). The symptoms include steady wilting of the plants and a yellow discoloration of the plant leaves that eventually leads to plant decay.[22] Physical control Physical control is performed by land based machines such as bucket cranes, draglines, or boorm or by water based machinery such as aquatic weed harvester,[25] dredges, or vegetation shredder.[26] Mechanical removal is seen as the best short-term solution to the proliferation of the plant. A project on Lake Victoria in Africa used various pieces of equipment to chop, collect, and dispose of 1500 hectares of water hyacinth in a 12-month period. It is, however, costly and requires the use of both land and water vehicles, but it took many years for the lake to become in poor condition and reclamation will be a continual process. It can have an annual cost from $6 million to $20 million and is only considered a short-term solution to a long-term problem. Another disadvantage with mechanical harvesting is that it can lead to further fragmentation of water hyacinths when the plants are broken up by spinning cutters of the plant-harvesting machinery. The fragments of water hyacinth that are left behind in the water can easily reproduce asexually and cause another infestation.[23] However, transportation and disposal of the harvested water hyacinth is a challenge because the vegetation is heavy in weight.The harvested water hyacinth can pose a health risk to humans because of the plant’s propensity for absorbing contaminants, and it be considered toxic to humans. However, the practice of mechanical harvesting is not effective in large-scale infestations of the water
- 41. 40 hyacinth, because thisaquatic invasive species grows much more rapidly than it can be eliminated. In addition, only one or two acres of water hyacinth can mechanically harvested daily because of the vast amounts of water hyacinths in the environment. Therefore, the process is very time-intensive.[27] Biological control In 2010 the insect Megamelus scutellaris was released by the Agricultural Research Service as a biological control for Water hyacinth.[28] As chemical and mechanical removal is often too expensive and ineffective, researchers have turned to biological control agents to deal with water hyacinth. The effort began in the 1970s when USDA researchers released three species of weevil known to feed on water hyacinth into the United States, Neochetina bruchi, N. eichhorniae, and the water hyacinth borer Sameodes albiguttalis. The weevil species were introduced into the Gulf Coast states, such as Louisiana, Texas, and Florida, where there was thousands of acres of infestation from water hyacinth. It was found that a decade later in the 1980s that there was a decrease in water hyacinth mats by as much as 33%. However, because the life cycle of the weevils is only ninety days, it puts a limitation on the use of biological predation to efficiently suppress water hyacinth growth.[24] These organisms regulate water hyacinth by limiting water hyacinth size, its vegetative propagation, and seed production. They also carry microorganisms that can be pathological to the water hyacinth. These weevils eat stem tissue, which results in a loss of buoyancy for the plant, which will eventually sink.[23] Although meeting with limited success, the weevils have since been released in more than 20 other countries. However, the most effective control method remains the control of excessive nutrients and prevention of the spread of this species. May 2010 the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service released Megamelus scutellaris as a biological control insect for the invasive waterhyacinth species. Megamelus scutellaris is a small planthopper insect native to Argentina. Researchers have been studying the effects of the biological control agent in extensive host-range studies since 2006 and concluded that the insect is highly host-specific and will not pose a threat to any other plant population other than the targeted water hyacinth. Researchers also hope that the biological control will be more resilient than existing biological controls to the herbicides that are already in place to combat the invasive water hyacinth.[29] Another insect being considered as a biological control agent is the semi-aquatic grasshopper Cornops aquaticum. This insect is specific to the water hyacinth and its family, and besides
- 42. 41 feeding on theplant, it introduces a secondary pathogenic infestation. This grasshopper has been introduced into South Africa in controlled trials.[30] Uses Bioenergy Because of its extremely high rate of development, Eichhornia crassipes is an excellent source of biomass. One hectare of standing crop thus produce more than 70,000 m3 of biogas.[31] According to Curtis and Duke, one kg of dry matter can yield 370 liters of biogas, giving a heating value of 22,000 kJ/m3 (580 Btu/ft3 ) compared to pure methane (895 Btu/ft3 )[32] Wolverton and McDonald report only 0.2 m3 methane per kg, indicating requirements of 6000 MT biomass/ha to attain the 70,000 m3 yield projected by the National Academy of Sciences (Washington).[33] Ueki and Kobayashi mention more than 200 MT/ha/yr.[34] Reddy and Tucker found an experimental maximum of more than a half ton per day.[35] Bengali farmers collect and pile up these plants to dry at the onset of the cold season; they then use the dry water hyacinths as fuel. They then use the ashes as fertilizer. In India, a ton of dried water hyacinth yield circa 50 liters ethanol and 200 kg residual fiber (7,700 Btu). Bacterial fermentation of one ton yields 26,500 cu ft gas (600 Btu) with 51.6% methane, 25.4% hydrogen, 22.1% CO2, and 1.2% oxygen. Gasification of one ton dry matter by air and steam at high temperatures (800°) gives circa 40,000 ft3 (circa 1,100 m3 ) natural gas (143 Btu/cu ft) containing 16.6% hydrogen, 4.8% methane, 21.7% CO, 4.1% CO2, and 52.8% N. The high moisture content of water hyacinth, adding so much to handling costs, tends to limit commercial ventures.,[33][36] A continuous, hydraulic production system could be designed, which would provide a better utilization of capital investments than in conventional agriculture, which is essentially a batch operation.,[3][37] The labour involved in harvesting water hyacinth can be greatly reduced by locating collection sites and processors on impoundments that take advantage of prevailing winds. Wastewater treatment systems could also favourably be added to this operation. The harvested biomass would then be converted to ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen and/or gaseous nitrogen, and fertilizer. The resulting byproducts of water and fertilizer can both be used to irrigate nearby cropland.[3] Phytoremediation, waste water treatment The roots of Eichhornia crassipes naturally absorb pollutants, including lead, mercury, and strontium-90, as well as some organic compounds believed to be carcinogenic, in concentrations 10,000 times that in the surrounding water.[38] Water hyacinths can be cultivated for waste water treatment.[3] Water hyacinth is reported for its efficiency to remove about 60–80 % nitrogen (Fox et al. 2008) and about 69% of potassium from water (Zhou et al. 2007). The roots of water hyacinth were found to remove particulate matter and nitrogen in a natural shallow eutrophicated wetland (Billore et al. 1998).[39]
- 43. 42 Edibility The plant isused as a carotene-rich table vegetable in Taiwan. Javanese sometimes cook and eat the green parts and inflorescence.[3] Medicinal use In Kedah (Malaysia), the flowers are used for medicating the skin of horses.[3] The species is a "tonic.",[40][41] Potential as bioherbicidal agent Water hyacinth leaf extract has been shown to exhibit phytotoxicity against another invasive weed Mimosa pigra. The extract inhibited the germination of Mimosa pigra seeds in addition to suppressing the root growth of the seedlings. Biochemical data suggested that the inhibitiory effects may be mediated by enhanced hydrogen peroxide production, inhibition of soluble peroxidase activity, and stimulation of cell wall-bound peroxidase activity in the root tissues of Mimosa pigra.[42] Other uses In East Africa, water hyacinths from Lake Victoria are used to make furniture, handbags and rope.[43] The plant is also used as animal feed and organic fertilizer although there is controversy stemming from the high alkaline pH value of the fertilizer.[44] Though a study found water hyacinths of very limited use for paper production,[45] they are nonetheless being used for paper production on a small scale. American-Nigerian Achenyo Idachaba has won an award for showing how this plant can be exploited for profit in Nigeria.[46] In places where water hyacinth is invasive, overabundant, and in need of clearing away, these traits make it free for the harvesting, which makes it very useful as a source of organic matter for composting in organic farming in those locales, provided that the composting method properly handles it. As an aquatic plant, it requires most of the same composting principles as the seaweed that is composted close to sea coasts.