Representation Theory

Representation Theory

• 1.
  RREEPPRREESSEENNTTAATTIIOONN
• 2.
  MALE GAZE: LAURAMULVEY Laura Mulvey's 'Male Gaze' Theory is the idea that women within in media representation are highly sexualised - there only as passive objects to be viewed by an active male heterosexual audience. The theory was initially applied to films but can now be related to music videos, as well as other forms of print and moving image media. Mulvey focused on three main areas: 1. How men view women in media and therefore in life 2. How women see themselves based on the media's portrayal 3. How women see other women based on the media's portrayal The theory claims that cinematography and costume focus on the curves of a woman's body. This obsession with displaying their bodies represents them as objects and encourages the audience to see them in this way too, meaning it becomes the norm; a male audience now expects to see women in the media this way and eventually even like this in real life. Due to the fact the media push this as the dominant representation, it forces all audiences to see women from the perspective of a male audience. Therefore women see themselves and each other in this way as well, perhaps meaning they feel they have to meet a certain criteria to be considered attractive or desirable, or even to be defined as a woman at all. The idealistic images they have about themselves can be damaging to self esteem. To contrast this, some women find sexualisation within the media empowering. For example, female artists like Beyonce or Nicki Minaj may wear revealing clothing in their videos not simply to passively please a male audience but because they like to look good for themselves and for their own confidence. It becomes very subjective as to whether a female audience choose to see a woman in the media who is presented sexually as a positive representation or a negative one. There are examples of Mulvey's theory across many media industries. Sexualised women can be seen not only in music videos, but film trailers, magazines etc.
• 3.
  STAR THEORY: RICHARDDYER Richard Dyer's 'Star Theory' claims that celebrities become icons because they are constructed by institutions for financial reasons and to target a specific audience group. He also covers three main areas: Audiences and Institutions Stars are made only to make money for a certain company, and audiences want to consume what they believe (or have been made to believe by the media) is the ideal. Therefore institutions modify stars, adapting their image and ideology around what the audience wants. Dyer states that 'a star is a constructed image, represented across a range of media and mediums'. Constructions Stars are built for audiences and therefore are not 'real' people but constructions instead, a persona created for audiences to identify with. This makes it easier for audiences to differentiate between stars and decide what they do or do not like. Stars are usually built with one specific trademark feature, such as Amy Winehouse's beehive and eyeliner or Lady Gaga's outrageous fashion, that make them unique. Hegemony This describes leadership or dominance by one state or social group. Dyer argues that as an audience, we relate to stars because they have a feature that we admire or share with them. This can develop from admiration into idolization, where people may attempt to replicate what they like about the star. However this can have negative effects, as often the pressure of being an idol causes stars to become bad role models, going 'off the rails'. Essentially this area of the theory is saying 'stars represent and embody certain ideologies' that audiences accept and become eager to copy.
• 4.
  STEREOTYPES: TESSA PERKINS Tessa Perkins' theory relates to stereotypes. A stereotype is defined as an assumption that is made about or based on a group of people. They are not always correct and can be based on information from the media rather than first hand experience. Perkins believes stereotyping is not a simple process and contains five assumptions that can be challenged. The assumptions people have are: 1. They are always negative 2. They are always about minority groups 3. They cannot be about a group you identify with yourself 4. They are unchanging, fixed perceptions 5. They are always/usually false Each of these assumptions are challenged within Perkins' theory. "They are always negative" This is not always true - stereotypes can be a positive thing. For example 'youths' might be portrayed negatively as thugs or part of 'hoodie culture' in the media, or they could be portrayed positively as hard-working, intelligent, getting good results etc. This can also apply to other stereotypes - the French being assumed to be good cooks, Asians being good at maths, gay men seen as happy and friendly etc. "They are always about minority groups" Again this assumption can be challenged. Lower classes are stereotyped by those with power, yet it also happens the other way as well - upper classes are seen as posh, 'upper class twits' etc. Another example is white people - we're not a minority yet there are stereotypes about us. "They cannot be about a group you identify with yourself" Groups often good-naturedly welcome or accept stereotypes about themselves. For example dancers who are said to be too committed, obsessed with dance, always on diets etc. may agree with these assumptions. Groups often have almost sub-stereotypes within themselves as well, like celebrities are stereotyped as a whole but there are stereotypes within that wide group. "They are unchanging, fixed perceptions" Perkins states that stereotypes can change over time and develop to reflect the different ideologies and values that appear within a culture. Stereotypes concerning gender are a good example here - women used to be stereotyped as housewives, passive domestic people who cleaned and cooked and raised children. Now this stereotype has declined, and women are recognised as more diverse than that. "They are always/usually false" Although stereotypes are often misleading or based on false perceptions, there must have been some truth in them originally for them to exist at all. For example old people are thought to be racist because that was a normal way to think when they were younger. British people are stereotyped to always be complaining but also always polite, which again has truth in it.