Social casework

Social Casework: Nature, Values,
Principles and Trends

Introduction
• Social work in its theoretical aspects is based on the knowledge of human
relations with regard to the solution of psycho social problems. In its
applied aspect, social work is a professional service based on scientific
methods and skills. In the field of social sciences, social work occupies a
very important role. Every social problem is the outcome of many external
and internal factors. Therefore, when to deals with the individual
problems, it is essential to deal with his experiences and reactions towards
the problems. Besides, proper recognition of individual is also essential
with regard to the solution of a problem. Therefore in the field of social
work, the main task of social worker is to develop the self direction and
self dependence of an individual. In social case work an individual, group,
situation or phenomena is recognized as unit of study and various aspects
of the units are studied properly.
• Social casework was practised in India under the cover of religious and
social sermons. Indians had their own ways to achieve and accomplish the
individual purposes. It is not surprising and unnatural to find traces of
social casework in any culture as every culture has its own ways to deal
with and tackle the individual’s sufferings and problems.

common techniques
• This is very much true of Indian culture too which becomes clear
from our various scriptures where the most common techniques
used to help the individual clients have been:
– (1) Story-telling,
– (2) Imparting knowledge,
– (3) Prayer,
– (4) Yogic exercises,
– (5) Fasting,
– (6) Learning and practicing behaviour in the company of saintly
persons, and
– (7) Demonstration or modeling behaviour (setting examples), though
in Gita, Lord Krishna has used techniques of re-educating, informing,
imparting knowledge, clarifying the reality to enable Arjuna to
perform his roles.

Meaning
• 1.2.1. Social case work in general
• The social case worker is oriented towards the principle of social justice. Social
justice provides everyone equal right to prowess. Therefore, social case work does
not believe on the survival of the fittest. In other words, social case work is based
on the assumption of human welfare. It provides help to every needy and disabled
person. Its ultimate aim is to establish harmonious relationship between the client
and the society to which he belongs.
• Thus in the social case work individual client is treated as a total unit. Internal and
external forces are motivated in such a manner so that he may solve his problems.
Social case work covers the individual aspect of assistance as such; the method
adopted in it is purely psychological. But side by, social worker has also to
understand the various aspects of human
• behavior. He must establish workable combination between the available social
services and the psychological understanding. Therefore, as a method, social case
work gives much emphasis on environmental reorganization and thereby attempt
to bring about a change on clients attitude and behavior. Social case work does not
make a person entirely free from his disabilities through social assistance. Besides,
in certain favorable circumstances social case work makes prevention and
treatment of pathological problems.

Definitions of Social Case work
• Social case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for and with
different people by cooperating with them to achieve at one and the same time
their own and society’s betterment.
-Richmond (1915)
• Social case work is the art of bringing about the better adjustments in the social
relationship of individual men or women or children.
-Richmond (1917)
• Social case work means those processes which develop personality through
adjustment consciously affected, individual by individual, between men and their
social environment.
• -Richmond (1922)
• Social case work is the method of affecting the understanding of the needs,
resources and reactions of individuals.
-Porter R. Lee
• Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help individuals find a
solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a
satisfactory way by their own effort.
-Sanford

Cont…
• Social case work is the art of adjusting personal relationship.
-Queen
• Social case work is the art of changing human attitudes.
-Lee
• Social case work means Social treatment of a maladjusted individual
involving an attempt to understand his personality, behavior and social
relationships and to assist him in working out a better social and personal
adjustment.
-Taft (1920)
• Social case work is a process concerned with the understanding of
individuals as whole personalities and with the adjustment of these
individuals to socially healthy lives.
-Taylor (1926)
• Social case work is process used by certain human welfare agencies to
help individuals cope more effectively with their problems in social
functioning.
-Perlman (1957)

• The above definitions reveal the fact that social
case work is related to the psycho social
treatment of the client who is in problem and
seeks the help of case worker or problem solving
agencies. Social case work establishes
adjustments between individual capacities and
resources. It consists of the study of mental,
emotional and social factors. In social case work
an individual, group situation or phenomena is
recognized as unit of study and various units are
studied properly.

Objectives of social case work
• The basic purpose of social work is to enable the client to enjoy with some degree
of permanency, more satisfying, effective and acceptable experiences in the social
situations in which he find himself.
• To achieve this goal efforts are made to bring effective changes in the client’s
environment or social living situations.
• According to Witmer, the chief aim of social case work is that of helping people to
mobilize their capacities for the solution of the problems that brought them to the
attention of social agencies.
• Most of the writers of social work like Moffet and Hollis have emphasized that one
of the main objective of social case work is to bring about an adjustment between
the individual client and his situation or environment.
• Bowers mentioned two objectives: better adjustment in the social relationships of
the individual and the development of individual personality.
• According to Perlman, within the boundaries of what the client wants, his
capacities and the resources of skills and materials means of the agency and
community, the specific goal is to help him achieve his previous level of
functioning of which he is capable of this time.

Cont…
• The purpose of social case work is to help an individual
client to solve his psycho social problems in such a way so
that he find himself capable of dealings with these
problems at present and also may solve in future if such
problems arise.
• Thus social case work has the following objectives as
mentioned by P.D.Mishra;
– To understand and solve the internal problems of the individuals
– To strengthen his ego power
– Remediation of problems in social functioning
– Prevention of problems in social functioning
– Development of resources to enhance social functioning.

Ingredients of social case work
• Social case work involves the following ingredients.
• (I)Social agencies
– Social case work is performed through social agencies these agencies
are organized in a large or small scale and often provide specialized
services.
• (II) Application
– The process of social caser work starts after the application by a client
for agency’s assistance. Its success is based on the proper protection
of client’s interests.
• (iii) Continuing Service
– The problem confronting to a client, takes some time for solution.
During this period, agency’s service remains continuous.
• (IV) The process of social case work ends at the stage
– when the client no longer requires agency’s assistance. At this stage
the problem before the client is solved and does not require further
after care service and the process comes to an end.

History of Social Casework:
• The Association for Improving the Conditions of the Poor (AICP) founded in 1843 in
USA, emphasised self-respect, self-dependence and relief suitable to their needs in
its work with the poor.
• The approach behind this service by AICP had a clear departure from the earlier
services to the poor in colonial America under Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601, etc.,
which was based on the concept of charity.
• Seeds of social casework seems to have been shown with the individualised
services of Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847) followed by the Charity Organisation
Society (COS) of 1869 (London) and 1877 (USA) respectively.
• Friendly visitors of COS (USA) discovered that all the poor were—not alike and that
they should be treated differently. Papers presented at the National Conference of
Charities and Corrections enunciated and emphasised the principle of
individualisation.
• The concept of scientific charity came into practice and it was recognised that “the
poor, and those in trouble worse than poverty, have not, in common, any type of
physical, intellectual or moral development which would warrant an attempt to
group them as a class”.
• Friendly visitors at a later stage received training in investigation, diagnosis and
treatment for which the New York School of Philanthropy was established towards
the end of 19th century (Bruno, 1957) and it was during this time that term
‘casework’ appeared in a paper read at a national conference. The COS movement
gave birth to Family Welfare Association in 1905.

Cont…
• In England, around the end of the 19th century, outside visitor (called almoner) at
the instance of Sir Charles Loch came to help hospitals to serve their patients
effectively.
• The almoner, like paid agents and friendly visitor of USA, can be said to be the
predecessor of caseworker. The almoner’s original assignment was seen as the
prevention of abuse of hospital treatment.
• By 1911, social casework had emerged in USA as an accepted formal technique
though the first book on social casework was published in 1917 by an American,
Marry Richmond.
• After World War II, with the problems of morale, leadership, propaganda,
separation, communication, etc., social workers found social sciences more useful.
Interest in social environment, along-with ego psychology, received more attention
and the definition of Richmond (1922) that casework consists of “those processes
which develop personality through adjustments consciously effected, individual by
individual, between man and their social environment” was considered to be the
best by Hamilton (1951). Perlman (1957) also emphasised on the problems of
social functioning.
• The definition by Boehm (1958) which emphasises both external and internal
factors, and uses the concepts of social functioning, social role, malfunctioning,
and, of resources. Many new trends are coming forth and possibly no definition
will ever be able to cover all the changes and trends emerging from time to time.

Components of Social Case work
• The nucleus of the case work event is this- a person with a problem comes to a
place where a professional representative helps him by a given process. The
person is a man, woman, or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be in
need of help in some respect of his socialemotional living, whether the need be
for tangible provisions or counsel. As begins to receive such help, he is called a
“client”.
• The problem arises from some heed or obstacle or accumulation of frustrations or
maladjustments, and sometimes all of these together which threatens or has
already attacked the adequacy of the person’s living situation or the effectiveness
of his efforts to deal with it.
• The place is a social service agency or a social service department of another kind
of human welfare agency. Its peculiarity lies on the fact it is set-up to deal not with
social problems at large but with human beings who are experiencing such
problems in the management of their own personal lives. Its purpose is to help
individuals with the particular social handicaps which hamper good personal or
family living and with the problems created by faulty person-to person, person-to-
group, or person-to-situation relationships.
• The process named, “social work” to denote its center of attention and its
individual aspect; is a progressive transaction between the professional helper
(case worker) and the client. It consists of a series of problem-solving operations
carried on within a meaningful relationship.

The person
• The client of a social agency is like all the other persons we have ever known, but he is different
too. But we find that; with all his general likeness to other, he is unique as his thumb print.
• No one of us can ever know the whole of another person. The reason for this not only in the subtle
dimensions and interlacing of any personality but also in the shift and recognition of new and old
elements in the personality that takes place continuously jus t because the person is a live in a live
environment and in interaction with it. Nevertheless, the person is a whole in any moment of his
living. He operates as a physical, psychological and social entity. He si a product-in-process of his
constitutional make up, his physical and social environment, his
• past experience, his present perception and reactions, and even his future aspirations. It is that he
brings to every life-situation he encounters. The essence of social case work help is that it aims to
facilitate the individual’s social adaption, to restore, reshape, or reinforce his functioning as a social
being. To do this is to affect a person’s behavior.
• The person’s behavior has his purpose and meaning to gain satisfactions, to avoid or dissolve
frustrations and to maintain his balance-in-movement. From the moment of his birth human being
drive to gratify his felt needs. These grow from elementary to complex. The strength and the
particular direction of the drive for satisfaction will differ from different people. Human beings
strives by his behavior to achieve that internal sense of comfort or satisfaction which makes him
feel in tune with his world, balanced, and open to new experiences.

The problem
• The problem within the purview of social case work are those which vitally affect or are affected by a person’s
social functioning, e.g. some unmeant need of economic, medical, educational and recreational nature. In the
process of development human being develops certain attitude, beliefs, ideas and ways of reacting and expressing
in different situations. Sometimes he fails to cope up with his situation and find himself in problem and need the
help of an outsider.
• The problem is a situation, event or anything which impairs the normal functioning of the individual and makes
him handicapped. Problems arise from some needs or accumulation of frustration or maladjustment, and some
times all of these together. Paul B. Horton says that a problem is a situation which exists anywhere, any time and
effects any person. When these hurdles are there, the individuals are become conscious of it and try to find out a
solution. Sometimes the problems is solved by one’s own efforts but sometime he needs external help. That
external help is given by social worker at individual, group and community level.
• The problem is two kinds, Intra personal and Inter personal.
• Intrapersonal
• The dictionary meaning of intrapersonal is in mind or relating to internal aspects of a person, especially the
emotions. It is the problem which does not affect other people but the concerned person himself alone. For
example, if a client has one kidney, she is blind from single eye etc, or if she is depressed and this depression is
disturbing her, she is having an intra personal problem.
• Interpersonal
• The dictionary meaning of interpersonal is between persons or something concerned or involving the relationship
between people. Interpersonal is that problem which affects more than one person. It affects others as well. For
example, if a person is addicted to drugs, it not only affects him but other people around him as well. Crime, theft,
burglary, delinquency are few examples of interpersonal problems. Jealousy is an intrapersonal problem but it is
responded it becomes interpersonal problems.

Types of problem
• There is probably no problem in human living that has not been brought to the
social workers in agencies. Problem for hunger for food and hunger for love,
seeking shelter and of wanting to run away, getting married or not staying to
married, wanting to live, wanting to die etc are many problems
• Physiological problem
• This problem is related to physique of the person.
• Economic Problem
• All individual in this earth is facing economic problem. Economically the society is
divided into three class. Lower, Middle and upper. But we divide as “Haves and
Have not” .
• Psychological Problem
• Psychology is the study of mind and behavior. It is the study of what we think and
what we do.
• Relationship problem
• Human being is a bio psycho social entity. Man lives in the society. He is engaged in
different interpersonal relationship like family, neighbors, colleagues etc.
sometimes there comes some problem in maintaining these relations.

The place
• The place to which the person comes for help with his problems is known as a social agency. When
it gives social work help it is known as a social work agency. The social agency is an organization
fashioned to express the will of a society or of a group in the society as to social welfare.
• Every staff members in the agency speaks and act for some part of the agency’s function, and the
case worker represents the agency in its individualized problem solving help. The case worker while
representing the agency is first and foremost representative of his profession.
• There are three kinds of agencies,
• Governmental agency
• It is fully financially supported by the government. It does not take any aid from any other sources.
Its source of funds is the government itself. Its programmes and plannings are implemented by the
professionals of social services who are government experts. Government agencies are accountable
for their expenditure. The staffs are totally paid and professionally skilled persons.
• Nongovernmental agency
• Non governmental organisations are fully supported by the public donation. The programme are
planned and implemented by the people who has formed the NGO. Its staffs include more
volunteers and less paid employees. Volunteers are the main force of NGOs.
• Semi governmental agency
• Semi governmental organisations are those which are started by the people. The people realize a
need for an orgnisational effort to lead a campaign agianst a social problem. The government gives
them a littile financial support in the shape of grants. 30% by the government and 70% by the
people.

The process
• The case work process is essentially one of problem solving. When persons encounter a problem
that defies their copying efforts or that requires for its solution, some means that cannot command
that they turn to persons whose perspectives, expertise or resources may be of help.
• In order to understand what the case work process must include in the problem-solving help it is
necessary to take stock first of the kinds of blockings which occur in peoples normal problem
solving efforts. These would be:
• i) lack of material provision for it.
• ii) Ignorance or misapprehension.
• iii) When the person with problem is depleted or drained of emotional or physical energy.
• iv) Some problems arouse high feelings in a person- emotions are so strong that they overpower his
reason and defy his conscious controls. Sometimes these feelings are realistically called for as in the
case of death of a dear one.
• (v) The problem may lie within the person, i.e, he may have become subject to, or victim of,
emotions that chronically over a long time, have governed his thinking and action.
• (vi) Some people find problems difficult of solution because they have never developed systematic
habits or orderly methods of thinking and planning.
• The intent of the case work process is to engage the person himself, both in working on and in
coping with the one or several problems that confront him and to do so by such means as may
stand him in good stead as he goes forward in living.

Phases of Case work
• Intake
• Intake is an administrative procedure, and not a
process of social case work, to take in the person
with problem, i.e. admit him or enroll him as a
client of the agency. This starts with first
encounter and ends with usually the second
interview with the social worker. This phase
requires a very skillful probing into the client’s
problem, mopping up all the relevant areas of the
person in his situation.

• Areas for probing are (i) the stage of the problem at which the person, through
whom and the reason because of which, comes to this agency; (ii) the nature of
request and its relation to his problem, and the cause of his problem, as the client
sees; (iii) does the request relate directly to his needs/problem; (iv) his adjustment
to his social functions in job, family, etc.; (v) the state of his physical and mental
health; (vi) his appearance including dress etc, in the first meeting; (vii) his
personal and social resources including material and financial positions; (viii)
appropriateness and intensity of feelings; (ix) nature of defense mechanisms he
frequently uses; (x) level of motivation, i,e, that is how quickly he wants to get rid
of his problems, the efforts he did in the past to solve it, sufferings because of the
problems h had to face, and what efforts he is thinking to undertake to solve his
problems; (xi) nature of family, its status, values, relationship pattern within family
etc.; and (xii) reactions of the worker and seeking help from the agency and sex of
caseworker who will be suitable to help the person.
• The client in need of help come to the agency for professional help through case
worker. A relationship between these two persons of unequal position and power
is developed. The case worker accepts the client as a person who is in a very
stressful situation. He respects the client’s personality and helps him resolve his
problem. In other words, pick him up form a stressful situation and regain a
personal and social balance that is satisfying and enduring.

Study
• According to Richmond (1917), the case worker must secure all and every fact that taken together, through logical
and inferential reasoning, would reveal the clients personality and his situation for appropriate intervention
(treatment). An exhaustive collection of facts about the cliebt and his situation is called study- the first step
(process) in the continuum. I will prefer to use the word study because it communicates the real and complete
nature of activities undertaken during this phase.
• In the course of studying the client in his situation the case worker is able to make initial assessment for diagnosis
of the client’s current, relevant past and possible future modes of adaptation to stressful situations and to related
normal living situations. It requires the analysis of social, psychological and biological determinants of the client’s
current stressful situation. Obtaining data on these determinants the case worker develops hypothesis for
understanding the client in his situation. It may seek to include historical data on related past life experiences and
facts responsible. These are some methods of data collection for study; they are questionnaire observation,
interview and recording.
• In casework the primary source of information is the client. One must learn when to go beyond personal
report and seek data from collaterals, experts, significant others, documents, records, psychological tests and so
forth. One must t be careful to carry out the search acting in
• full respect for the client, maintaining confidentiality, and without violating the right of the client to participate in
so far as it is possible.
• Investing gain more time in study has been found to be frustrating to the client who seeks immediately help with
the presenting problem. In any case facts are needed to plan the treatment. While collecting data one must see
that it is relevant salient and individualized.
• Relevant means, facts bearing upon or properly applying to the case in hand of a nature to afford evidence
tending to prove or disapprove the matters or issue. It then implies that the ways in which the problems is
presented and defined treatment modalities and resources available etc. will determine which data are relevant
and which parts need more exploration and observation. It follows then the study need not in any case cover each
and every part of the person and situation. Salient implies prominence that is anything which is conspicuous and
noticeable. Similarly individualized data means the data should be collected for a particular client having particular
needs or problems in a particular situation.

Diagnosis
• The dictionary meaning of dignosis is the identifying nature of cause of
something. After a complete and through study of the client and his problem., the
worker then diagnose and assess the problem. Diagnosis is an attempt to arrive at
an exact definition as possible of the social situation and personality of a client. It
is a search for the causes of the problems which brings the client to the worker for
help. Diagnosis is;
• I. An explanation formulated in the light of known facts
• ii. An explanation made in the knowledge of other possible explanations
• iii. Subject to change or revision whenever subsequent material warrants a
different explanation.
• Therefore diagnosis is concerned understanding both the psychological or
personality factors which bear a causal relation to the client difficulty and the
social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it.
• Process of diagnosis
• The diagnosis process has been broken up into number of stages known as
gathering data, diagnostic study, evaluation and the diagnostic product.
– Gathering data
– Diagnostic study
– Evaluation

Types of Diagnosis
• Perlman has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on ini
social case work process. These are : dynamic diagnosis, clinical
diagnosis and etiological diagnosis.
• 1. Dynamic Diagnosis
• Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem
of the client and the forces currently operating within the client,
within social environment and between his/her environment.
• 2. Clinical Diagnosis
• Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the
client by the nature of his sickness/problem.
• 3. Etiological Diagnosis
• Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the
beginnings and life-history of problem of the client, basically that
problem that lies in the client’s personality make up or functioning.

Steps in Diagnosis
• The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem:
• 1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors.
• 2. He specifies the target behaviors. This involves an attempt of
breaking down complex behaviors into their component parts,
being as clear and precise as possible about them.
• 3. baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to
be currently controlling the problematic behaviors.
• 4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to
anticipate any major problem in treatment and as a way of
beginning to establish objectives of treatment.
• 5. Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis.
Concentration on one problem at one time makes treatment
process more manageable and allows both client and worker to
channel their energies into one area. It is the best of handling and
proper use of available resources.

Treatment
• According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all activities
and services directed towards helping an individual with a problem.
The focus is the relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible,
modify any basic difficulties which precipitated it.
• The objective of the social case work treatment are as follows:
– 1. To prevent social breakdown.
– 2. To conserve client’s strength.
– 3. To restore social functioning.
– 4. To provide happy experiences to the client.
– 5. To create opportunities for growth and development.
– 6. To compensate psychological damage.
– 7. To increase capacity for self-direction.
– 8. to increase his social contribution.

Social Case Work Treatment Process
• Social case work treatment process begins with the initial contact
with the client. The process of treatment passes through many
phases, i.e,
– (i) initial phase,
– (ii) motivation and role induction,
– (iii) primary contact,
– (iv) diagnosis and assessment,
– (v) establishing treatment goods,
– (vi) developing treatment plan,
– (vii) preparation for actual treatment,
– (viii) treatment in practice,
– (ix) monitoring and evaluating the effects of treatment, and
– (x) planning of follow-up termination of therapeutic relationship.

Principles of Social case work
• Principle of Acceptance
• Social caseworker accepts the client as he is and with all his/her limitations.
He/she believes that acceptance is the crux of all help. It embraces two basic ideas
--- one negative and one positive. He/she does not condemn or feel hostile
towards a client because his/her behaviour differs from the approved one. Later
on, he/ she tries to modify his/her behaviour step by step. Acceptance implies
liking the client irrespective of his negative qualities and conduct. It is an
expression of good will towards the client and criticisms if any are done out of
goodwill. It is conveying deep concern and active understanding to the client who
is liked by the worker in spite of his problem—behavior for which he is hated or
punished by the society. No effective relationship is possible without accepting the
client. Unless we are really accept the client we cannot work out his problem.
When disliked by us, we may behave to keep him off from ourselves and no
positive relationships will be possible. Acceptance involves observance of common
courtesies and respect for his ideas and treating him as equal to self; for example
leaving chair, wishing him, moving forward to receive, or see him off, respecting
appointments, etc., are indicators of acceptance.

Principle of Confidentiality
• Confidentiality is based upon the basic right of the client; it is an ethical obligation of case worker
and is necessary for effective case work service. Everyone prefers to keep his things to himself and
saves it from leaking out unless It’s divulge is more beneficial to the person. Once the worker
imbibes the value of worth and dignity of an individual, he will refrain from encroaching upon the
client’s privacy and maintain the confidence repose in him. Once the client loses confidence in him,
he will not believe the worker and the while process of communication will break down, and
impossible will be the task to assist the helpee in his problems or in fulfillment of his needs.
Maintaining confidentiality for all the transactions, that take place between the case worker and
client in correctional settings or other places where law needs information for justice purpose, is
very difficult or impossible. In all such situations, the client must be made aware of these
limitations. Concept of confidentiality in western society is much different than what it is I India. In
our country wife and husband have minimum things to hide from each other as compared to their
counterparts in the western, especially American, society. In majority of Indian families wife cannot
be interviewed without explicit permission of the husband or the in-laws. Its roots lie in our culture
beliefs and values (like seven vows taken during the Hindu marriage), norm and systems like joint
family etc. Our society is more group oriented as compared to individual-oriented western society.
Our society is more group oriented as compared to individual oriented western society. Our
society’s group orientation emphasizes on one’s duty to others around us. It is these factors that
limit the use of use of principles of confidentiality in our practice.

Principle of relationship
• Relationship is the basis of all help. The relationship should
develop around the act of helping the client. Helping the
client is the purpose for which interaction takes place
between the worker and client which is affected by their
experiences of relating with people in the past, their
expectations from each other and anxieties about the
situation, values that governing their lives, norms of
behavior , knowledge and experience about the subject
matter of interaction. Necessary to develop relationship is
the worker’s training in and mastery of inter personal skills
like active awareness, building trust, communicating,
listening and expression of feelings etc. relationship is an
emotional bond which works as a transmitting belt
between client and the case worker.

Principle of Resource utilization
• Services are provided to the individual in
recognition of his contributions to the society. It
is only because of this that the government takes
care of those who are not cared by any one.
Example: orphans, destitute, handicapped etc.
Therefore all the personal resources and
resources available within the community or
agency and with relatives of the client should be
utilized to help the client. Resources may be in
terms of money, material, power and influence,
capabilities etc.

Principle of individualization
• No two persons are alike in all qualities and traits. Their
problems may be the same but the cause of the problem,
the perception towards the problem and ego strength
differs in every individual. Therefore, each individual client
should be treated as a separate entity and complete
information is required to establish close relations in order
to solve his/her problem from root. Individualization is the
recognition and understanding of each client’s unique
qualities and the differential use of principles and methods
in assisting each toward a better adjustment.
Individualization is based upon the right of human beings
to be individuals and to be treated not just as a human
being but as this human being with his own personal
differences.

Purposeful expression of feelings
• Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the
client’s need to express his/her feelings freely, especially
his/her negative feelings. The caseworker listens
purposefully, neither discouraging nor condemning the
expression of those feelings. Sometimes he/she even
stimulates and encourages them when the expression is of
therapeutic nature. It is to recognize the client’s feeling and
express it freely before the case worker, especially his
negative feelings. The case worker listens purposefully,
neither discouraging nor condemning the expression of
• these feelings sometimes even actively stimulating and
encouraging them when they are therapeutically useful as a
part of the case work service.

Principle of controlled emotional
involvement
• The case worker must not be emotionally
involved with the client during the case work
process, when the client communicates his/
her feelings or problems with the case worker.
The case worker has to respond to all feelings
of the client with his knowledge and
understanding. The social caseworker tries to
understand the client’s feelings and emotions
but he/she himself/herself does not involve
emotionally in his/her problems.

Principle of communication
• Communication is a two-way process. There
must be proper communication between
caseworker and the client, which helps, in
proper understanding of each other. It is the
road to the identification of the client’s
problem. The function of social caseworker is
primarily to create an environment in which
the client will feel comfortable in giving
expression to his/her feelings. It depends on a
proper communication.

Principle of self determination
• It is the practical recognition of the rights and need of the client to have
freedom in making his own choice and decision in the case work process.
Social responsibility, emotional adjustment and personality development
are possible only when the person exercise his freedom and choice and
decision. Case workers have to give this right to the client so that he can
decide and take best possible action in his self interest. This is reasonable
also because he knows himself better than others. And the case worker is
only an enabler who helps him through his expertise to take the best
possible decision and action in the circumstances. The case worker should
understand that these rights are limited and not an absolute one. There
are client who are unable to take proper decisions by themselves. For ex:
Child, immature adults, mentally retarded and they should not be given
this right to harm themselves. The client’s selfdetermination is the
practical recognition of the right and need of clients to freedom in making
his/her own choices and decisions. But this right is limited by the client’s
capacity for positive and constructive decision making.

Principles of Treatment
• The main objective of the treatment is of alleviating the client’s distress
and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person situation system. The
above objective is achieved by enhancing the adaptive skills of his/her ego
and functioning of the person situation system. It is based on certain
principles :
• 1) The forces of the discussion in the interview is centred on the problem
and ways of resolving it. Attention is paid to know the obstacles both
situational and behavioural that stand in the way of solution.
• 2)Nature and extent of both social and psychological factors differ in each
situation.
• 3) Treatment goals and techniques are planned after a careful study of the
particular needs of the client.
• 4) The success of the treatment programme is based on the utilization of
the relationship purposefully.
• 5) Social therapy and psychotherapy are the two broad classifications of
social casework treatment.

Theories of Social Casework
• Theories or models give the direction to the caseworker to handle
the client in a way which is suited according to the client’s need and
social conditions.
• I) Psycho-social Theory
• Psycho-social theory was propounded by Hamilton.
• She published an article on “The Underlying Philosophy of Social
Case Work” in 1941 in which the word ‘diagnostic’ was used to
express psycho-social problems.
• In this approach, diagnosis and treatment are directed toward
person in situation.
• The client is seen in the context of his/her interactions and
transactions with the outer world. For proper diagnosis and
treatment client’s social context must be understood and mobilized.
• Treatment must be differentiated according to the need of the
client. Three stages are involved in psycho-social approach.

II) Behaviour Modification Theory
• Behaviour modification theory is based upon the principles of
learning and conditioning propounded by Pavlov and Thorndike.
• The researches of B.F. Skinner helped to develop the behaviour
modification approach further.
• The behaviouristic theory viewed problem as essentially the result
of a failure to learn necessary adaptive behaviours and
competencies and/or the learning of ineffective and maladaptive
behaviours.
• It may happen due to conflicting situations that require the
individual to make discriminations or decisions of which he/she
feels incapable.
• The maladjusted person has learned faulty coping patterns, which
are being maintained by some kind of reinforcement, and he/ she
has failed to learn needed competencies for coping with the
problem of living.

The Problem Solving Theory
• This theory was propounded by Helen Harris Perlman in the book “Social Case Work : A Problem
Solving Process”.
• This model stands firmly upon the recognition that life is an outgoing problem encountering –
problem solving process.
• Every person is involved every time in coping with his/her problems. Sometimes he/she is capable
of coping and sometimes fails to resolve the crisis situation. Through problem solving process
individual or family is helped to cope with or resolve some difficulty that he/she is currently finding
difficult to solve.
• Thus the primary goal of problem solving model is to help a person cope as effectively as possible
with such problems in carrying social tasks. In the initial phase the attempts are made to engage
the client with his/her problems and to do something about it in a working relationship with the
agency. The problem solving process starts at once, from the first movement with treating the
person. The client is not treated for his/her problem but he is treated for the purpose of helping
him/her to know himself/herself i.e strength and weaknesses and how to remove those
weaknesses.
• In short, the problem- solving casework process involves the following steps:
• 1) It tries to release, energize and gives directions to the client’s motivation for change.
• 2) It tries to release and exercise the client’s mental, emotional and action capacities for coping
with the problem.
• 3) It tries to find and make accessible to the client such aids and resources as are necessary to the
solution of the problem.

Role Theory
• Role is mainly behavioural concept. Role may be seen as a product of an interplay
between
• (i) individual member’s needs and resources,
• (ii) the solution in the social network, and
• (iii) the forces acting on the social network from the environment.
• When there are internal or external difficulties, which are beyond the capacity of
an individual, he/she feels the problem and fails to perform his/her role.
• Social Caseworker with such clients suggests new ideas and ways of facing the
problem and suggests solution for a difficulty that the external factors have
encountered.
• He/she offers facts, which relate to his/ her own experience for understanding the
problem.
• He/ she gives suggestions in terms of examples, and tries to explain how
suggestion would work if followed by the client.
• He/she mediates between other members, attempts to reconcile disagreements,
and relieves tension in conflict situation.
• His/her efforts are also directed to keep communication channels open by
encouraging others to participate in the business of the client.

Rational Emotive Therapy
• This technique is used in the area of modifying irrational elements control
over the self. Some of the irrational ideas at the core of emotional and
behavioural problems are as under :
– 1) It is dire necessity for an adult to be loved by everyone for everything
he/she does.
– 2) Certain acts are awful or wicked, and people who perform such acts should
be severely punished.
– 3) It is horrible when things are not the way one would like them to be.
– 4) It is easier to avoid rather than face life’s difficulties and self-
responsibilities.
– 5) One needs something stronger or greater than one self on which to rely.
– 6) Human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction.
– 7) One has virtually no control over one’s emotions and one can not help
feeling certain things.
• Rational Emotive Therapy includes four stages:
– 1.Presentation of Rationale The worker attempts to elicit the problems or
significance of self-statements in general without mentioning the client’s
problems.
– 2) Overview of Irrational Assumption
– 3) Analysis of Client’s Problem In Rational Emotive Terms
– 4) Teaching the Client to Modify Internal Statement.

Helping Techniques in Social Case work
• Interviewing in social case work
• Interview is the communication between two persons with a conscious
purpose. According to P.V.Young “interview may be regarded as a
systematic method by which a person enter more or less imaginatively
with the life of comparative strangers. It is to secure information from the
client in a systematic way. It is an art which is used by the case worker for
better understanding between him and the client and make the case
worker process easier. It is the foundation of the case work as without
interview the worker cannot get all the possible information about the
client nor can the client gain any confidence in the worker.
• Purpose of interview
• To obtain knowledge of the situation
• To understand other person
• To be understood by the other person
• For securing some information which cannot be gathered from any other
source

Types of interview
• (a) Structural interview
• The structural interview is known as controlled, guided or directed interview. The
interviewer is asked to get information for certain specific questions only. He
cannot go beyond the questions and add on anything from his side.
• b) Unstructured interview
• In this type of interview no direct questions are asked to the subject concerning
the problem. The interviewer initiates the conversation regarding topic and the
client starts narrating all the happenings with his feelings and reactions pointing to
the event. The case worker listens carefully to the client and find out the relevant
information useful for the case work process.
• (c) Focused interview
• In this type of interview the client is shown a film or made to listen to a radio
broadcast which is somehow related to his problem. The client is asked to express
his feelings, reactions and attitude towards this problem. The film or broadcasting
influences the mind of the client, which provokes the inner motivation, feelings
and emotion. Such interview brings out more factual information and helps the
case work process effective.
• (d) Repetitive interview
• This type of interview is repetitive in nature when it is asked. There is some
gradual influences of some social and psychological process on the subject
pertaining to the problem. The questions may be repeated again and again.

Recording in social case work
• Recording has always been given considerable importance in social work. It is
because the case worker has to know many clients intimately and it is essential
that interviews and details should be recorded in a way that recalls the particular
client with all his/her individual differences. The records serve various purposes
and some of them are as follows:
• Documentation of social work activity:
• Continuity of Service:
• Quality control:
• Statistical reporting:
• Organizing the worker’s thought:
• Inter disciplinary Communication:
• Teaching and research:
• A therapeutic tool:
• Types of recording
• Records can be written in different ways. Those are Process recording, Narrative
recording, Role recording, Summery recording and Abstract.

Referral
• In the case work process it is not possible always to solve the client’s problem in the same agency
and by the same worker. Therefore sometimes cases are transferred or referred to another agency
for rendering expertise help to the client. The helping process does not end in referral but it is the
contact with a particular case worker or agency who will take over the case. Referral is done for
various considerations, when a different type of worker/ therapy is required to achieve the finally
formulated goals of treatment and when the worker and client find it difficult to move to or assume
new responsibility. The case may be referred to some other agency if at some point it decided that
the client cannot be helped in this agency for some reasons. Referral involves preparation of a
referral note which gives a very brief summary of the problem and the efforts undertaken to solve
the problem along with psycho social diagnosis.
• Preparation for referral should be done in the way preparation for termination is undertaken
through referral stage is not the final stage. Preparation involves explaining the reasons of referral,
talking of the positive and negative feelings involved in a referral process, tackling separation
anxiety in one or two sessions, handling the question factually and preparing the client for new
contact. When referral is done for availing of some concrete or specialized services, the case worker
may, if required also assume the role of an advocate or liaison worker. The case worker links the
client with the needed services. Advocacy may be required when the agency does not offer its
services to the client. The social case worker tries to interpret the rules, looks for expectations and
pleads for services to the client. While assuming either of these two roles, the case worker must
assess the risk and the time involved. In this process, efforts can also be made to help the client to
secure these services on his own with social, administrative and political pressures. If this is
possible the social worker can work as an enabler. In all cases of referral consent of the client is
important to help him to use the available services for his problems.

Home visits
• Home visit is an important technique used by the case worker to make the
treatment process much effective. Bernard (1964) states that by making home
visits one sees that the environment in which the client lives, observes family and
other relevant social interactions at
• first hand and develops a fuller diagnostic understanding of the patient for
appropriate treatment planning. Home visit is thus an important tool in total
intervention process. According to Cameron, “in a few minutes in home, an
experienced observer can gain more pertinent information about the client and his
environment, which can be gained during hours of probing in an office.
• The main purposes of home visits are:
• Getting detailed information about the client and his family
• Persuading the client to utilize the services to the maximum extent
• Educating the family members in matters of the client
• Strengthening the relationship between the client, agency and the family
• Facilitating rehabilitation of the discharged clients from institutions
• Family care and after care services to the discharged client.

Social casework

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