The history of education by Prof. M.M. Pant

The History of Education……..from the earliest times to 20th CenturyProgram on Educational EntrepreneurshipBy Prof. M.M. PantFor more details, visit: www.mmpant.net

Education in Preliterate SocietiesHuman being just struggled to survive by fighting against natural forces, animals etc The education, during those times, existed in informal way The education was imparted only through oral tradition like story telling etc. as there was no writing culture during this period Through the use of oral language, people eventually learnt to create and use the symbols, words and signs to express their views

Education in Ancient Africa and AsiaThe written language was used in ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 bc to about 500 bc Priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architectureFormal education in China dates to about 2000 bc, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 bc

Education in Ancient GreeceHistorians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education In the 400s bc, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state.The Sophists specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts.Socratic method of teaching consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice.

Education in Ancient GreeceIn 387 BC Plato (studied under Socrates) had established a school in Athens called the Academy.In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 bc Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the LyceumIn the 4th century bc Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators.Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history.

Medieval EducationDuring the Middle Ages,5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic ChurchThe Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level.Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings.Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts.

Medieval EducationIn the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education.In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible.The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities.The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries.

Education during the RenaissanceThe Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it.

Education during the RenaissanceThe invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates.Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling.Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools.Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes.

Education during the Protestant Reformation Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches.They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language.While arguing with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format.

Education during the Protestant Reformation The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities.The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance.

Educational Theory in the 17th CenturyComenius created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. He advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction.The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. He examined hw people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).

Educational Theory in the 17th CenturyWe acquire knowledge, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games.

Education during the EnlightenmentDuring the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States.The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy.

Education in the 19th CenturySwiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses.Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. Pestalozzi developed a so-called “object lesson” that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them.

Education in the 19th Century Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly.

Education in the 19th Century German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique.Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge.Knowledge should create a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added.

Education in the 19th CenturyHerbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson.

History of Education in IndiaIn the 11th century the Muslims established elementary and secondary schools.A single feature of ancient Indian or Hindu civilization is that it has been molded and shaped in the course of its history more by religious than by political, or economic, influences.

Aim of education in ancient timestraining for completeness of lifethe molding of character of men and women for the battle of life

Rigvedic EducationThe Rig Veda as the source of Hindu Civilization The Rig Veda lays the foundation upon which Hindu Civilization has been building up through the ages.The Rig Veda itself exhibits an evolution and the history of the Rigveda is a history of the culture of the age.The relations between teacher and taught was well established in the Rig Veda.The Rig Veda shows a lively sense of the immutable laws governing Creation.

Rigvedic EducationWomen as Rishis Women were regarded as perfectly eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the sacrifices enjoined in it down to about 200 B.C.Women were then admitted to fulfill religious rites and consequently to complete educational facilities.Rig Veda refers to young maidens completing their education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands in whom they are merged like rivers in oceans.

Rigvedic EducationWomen in educationWomen like Gargi or like Maitreyi had achieved the highest knowledge, that of Brahma.The Rigveda shows us some women as authors of hymns, such as Visvavara, Ghosha, and ApalaThe Rigveda tells us that many women joined the army in those days.

Education in the epicsHermitages Hermitage is a full fledged asaram where pupils from distant parts gathered for instruction round some far-famed teachers.

Education in the epicsHermitages Consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following: AgnisthanaBrahma-sthanaVishnusthanaMahendrasthanaVivasvata-sthanaSomasthanaGaruda-sthanaKartikeya-sthana

Education in the epicsHermitagesA few famous hermitages were:hermitage of Naimishahermitage of Kanva hermitage of Vyasa hermitage of Vasishtha and Visvamitra

Period of PaniniMany institutions were formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda, Benares, Ballavi, Ajanta, Madura and Vikramsila were very famous.Panini the famous grammarian of the 7th century B.C. and Kautilya, the authority on Arthasastra, of the 4th century B.C. were students of Taxila.

Buddhist EducationBuddhism as a phase of HinduismBuddhism is rooted deeply in the pre-existing Hindu systems of thought and life."Buddhism has always seemed to be, to a new religion, but a natural development of the Indian mind in its various manifestations, religious, philosophical, social, and political" : Max Muller.Auguste Barth (1834-1916) calls Buddhism "Hindu phenomenon, a natural product, so to speak, of the age and social circle that witnessed its birth

Takshasila/Taxila - The Most Ancient UniversityTakkasila was the most famous seat of learning of ancient India. Takkasila was also the capital of Gandhara and its history goes back into hoary antiquity.It was founded by Bharata and named after his son Taksha.Takshasila was a Center for Higher Education.Students were invariably sent at the age of sixteen or when they "come of age".

Different Courses of StudyThe presence of scholars of acknowledged excellence and widespread reputation caused a steady movement of qualified students from all classes and ranks of society towards Takshasila from different and distant parts of the Indian continent.Various centers of learning in the different parts of the country became affiliated, to the educational center or to the central University of Takshasila that exercised a kind of intellectual suzerainty over the world of letters in India.

Different Courses of StudyStudents in Takshila completed their education in the three Vedas and the eighteen Sippas or ArtsTakshila was famous for military training, wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing.Students from Takshila pursued education with subjects under scientific and technical education. Medicine included a first hand study of the plants to find out the medicinal ones.The teachers of Takshila were as famous for their knowledge of the arts of peace as for that of war.

Hermitages as Centers of Highest Learningthe hermitages served as schools of higher philosophical speculation and religious training where the culture previously acquired would attain its fruitage.the study of Sanskrit was continued in Buddhist monasteries.Wrestling was popular and descriptions of such breath-holding bouts in wrestling are available in the Jataka stories.Two kinds of games called Udyana Krida or garden games and Salila Krida or water sports are also mentioned.Archery was also popular among the women during this period.Hunting, elephant fighting, Ram fighting, and Partridge fighting were the other important games of this period.

Universities of Ancient IndiaTakkasilaMithila NalandaVallabiVikramasilaJagaddalaOdantapuriNadiaMadura Sangham Benares Kachipuram Navadvip

Libraries in Ancient IndiaUniversities like Nalanda, Vikramasila, Pataliputra, and Tamralipti are said to have contained libraries of their own and striven hard for the promotion of education and learning in the country.Each of these institutions must have maintained a well equipped library for the use of teachers and students.The library in ancient times was called either Saraswati-bhandara or Pustaka bhandara.Many libraries were located in temples.

Arrival of the British in IndiaBefore the British's arrival in India, there was a system of community schools, managed by the village communities.Agents of East India company destroyed the village community schools and started working towards introducing English and western system of education in India.

Dalits and Indigenous System of EducationThe caste-wise division of students falls under four categories, (i) Brahmins, (ii) Vysyas (Vaishyas), (iii) Shoodras (Shudras)(iv) other castes (broadly the modern scheduled castes).

Professional and Useful EducationMedical science Training in SurgeryMilitary EducationCommercial Education

Wood’s despatch 1854; response to British Parliament enquiryOften described as the magna carta of Indian educationProposed Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and MadrasThe study of Indian languages was to be encouraged and that the English language should be taught wherever there was a demand for it. It also recommended that a number of high schools should-be set up for mass education.

Gutenberg, the Printing Press, and the Evolution of NewspapersGutenberg's printing press made it much easier, much quicker, and much less expensive to reproduce printed material. Gutenberg's printing press used movable metal type. To create metal type, a steel "punch" with a mirror image of the letter was struck into a piece of softer metal.

Uses of Guttenberg printing pressUsing Gutenberg's press, printers created every page of a book using these movable letters and then printed hundreds or thousands of copies of the book. Because of his printing press, more books became available to the reading public, and more people yearned to read, leaned to read, thereby gaining education and power

Role played by printing press The printing press played an important role in several major historical events. Printing helped to fuel the Protestant Reformation.Printing also aided the discovery of new landsPrinters created posters, pamphlets, flyers, and booklets that encouraged American colonists to revolt against the British, eventually leading to the Revolutionary War.

Printing: Newspapers in Colonial America, Invention of the Linotype, Modern PrintingOttmar Mergenthaler, a German immigrant who lived in Baltimore, invented the Linotype machine in 1886.The Linotype ("line of type") machine allowed printers to set a complete line of type, using the machine's ninety-character keyboard. The Linotype keyboard, similar to those used for computers, contained all of the characters commonly used in newspaper text.

Characteristics of Linotype machineThe Linotype machine measured seven feet tall, six feet wide, and six feet deep. It was a big machine with lots of moving parts. The Linotype machine composed newspapers four or five times faster than the Gutenberg process of setting type piece -by piece. A good Linotype operator could compose four to seven lines of text per minute.

Characteristics of Linotype machineThe Linotype machines made so much noise and used molten lead to form the lines of text. The use of the loud, complex Linotype machine required an operator who was mechanically inclined as well as good with details. To be an effective Linotype operator, the person had to have a strong background in the English language and a thorough knowledge of English grammar.

Characteristics of Linotype machineAs the operator sat before the Linotype machine, he usually had a handwritten or typed copy of the newspaper article. The Linotype machine did not make correcting errors easy.As he typed, he had to check the length of the line constantly so he wouldn't make it too long or too short-the Linotype machine did not offer automatic word wrapping like today's word processing programs.

Concept of learning theoryLearning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.

Concept of learning theory According to Hill(2002) Learning theories have two chief values:1. providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe.2. suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems

Main categories or philosophical frameworks of learning theoriesBehaviorismCognitivismConstructivism

BehaviorismTheory of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner.For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.

Three basic assumptions about the process of learninglearning is manifested by a change in behaviorenvironment shapes behaviorthe principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to explaining the learning process

Two types of possible conditioning1) Classical conditioning2) Operant conditioning

Classical conditioningIn this, the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's DogsIf the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food.

Operant conditioning(i) reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment(ii) a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.

CognitivismTwo key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach:(1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and(2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

Constructivismlearning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences.a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context.

Constructivism Constructivism itself has many variations, such as:active learning,discovery learning, knowledge building

Informal and post-modern theoriesInformal theories of education deals withmore practical breakdown of the learning process. whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later.book vs real-world experience learning.

Higher educationis the product of evolutionary forces that enable one variant to thrive and cause another to falter.was hatched in a monastic cocoon in the 10th century.

Higher Education as a global commodityHigher education today is a global commodity with all the competition and product diversification that entails, including the splitting of the production from the distribution of knowledge. This is much like the movie industry, where a few companies make movies and many companies distribute them in theaters, on television, and on DVDs.

Education in the 20th centuryEducation in the 20th CenturyIn 1900 children sometimes left school when they were only 12 years old.In 1918 the minimum school leaving age was raised to 14.In 1948 the school leaving age was raised to 15 In 1972 it was raised to 16.

Education in the 20th centuryBetween the wars working class children went to elementary schoolsmiddle class children went to grammar schools and upper class children went to public schools.

Education in the 20th centuryAccording to the 1944 Education Actall children had to sit an exam called the 11 plusthose who passed went to grammar schools those who failed went to secondary modern schools

Education in the 20th centuryThere was a huge expansion of higher education in the 1960s and many new universities were founded.In 1969, the Open University was formed.In 1992 polytechnics were changed to universities.In the late 20th century people had far more opportunities for education and training than ever before.

20th Century ClassroomsTime-basedFocus: memorization of discrete factsLessons focus on the lower level of Bloom’s Taxonomy – knowledge, comprehension and application.Textbook-drivenPassive learning Learners work in isolation – classroom within 4 walls

20th Century ClassroomsTeacher-centered: teacher is center of attention and provider of informationLittle to no student freedom“Discipline problems – educators do not trust students and vice versa. No student motivation.Fragmented curriculumGrades averagedLow expectations

20th Century ClassroomsTeacher is judge. No one else sees student work.Curriculum/School is irrelevant and meaningless to the students.Print is the primary vehicle of learning and assessment.Diversity in students is ignored.Literacy is the 3 R’s – reading, writing and mathFactory model, based upon the needs of employers for the Industrial Age of the 19th century. Scientific management.

Distance educationfocuses on the pedagogy and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that aim to deliver education to students who are not physically "on site".

Distance learningNeed for distance education courses Non availability of (a) time (b) money or (c) flexibility / mobility to attend regular University Courses.The admissions in regular University courses have become highly competititve due to limited number of seats available in specialized professional courses

Distance learningThe state distance learning universities are very helpful in India to allow persons from anywhere to pursue higher education in a course of his or her choice. The central open universities in India provide distance education to people who are unable to do regular courses.Distance education is offered in undergraduate, graduate, post graduate and doctoral programme. Apart from Open Universities there are distance education universities in most of the Indian states. Distance learning courses require students to be self disciplined otherwise there are sharp drop outs.

Distance learning New emerging modern means of distance educationOnline education, virtual classrooms, video conferencing, e-learning

What is Self-Learning Systems? The Self-Learning Systems is an individualized learning program dependent upon the student’s ability. Individuals select, manage, and assess their own learning activities, which can be pursued at any time, in any place, through any means, at any age.

Self directed learning The purpose of self-learning programme is to:maximize the student’s potential,Improve academic achievement, andbuild confidence in each student.

Lifelong learningThe model of lifelong learning is a two-by-two matrix of learner and institution; the self-directed learning objectives and the means of learning. The following situations occupy the other cells of the matrix: formal situation occurs when learners--not the institution--control both the learning, in which institutions, not learners, control objectives and the means of learning; nonformal learning, in which learners control the objectives and institutions control the means; and (3) informal learning, in which institutions control the objectives but learners control the means of learning.

Transformational effect of the computer and Internet on education: The paradigm shift

What is educational technology?Educational technology (also called learning technology) is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources

Significance of Computer and Internet UseUse of computers and the Internet has been associated with improvements in people’s education, labor market prospects, and everyday lives.Since the use of computers helps students gain computer literacy, user rates may indicate how well prepared the current generation of students will be to enter a workforce where computer literacy is in demand.

Benefits of using computer in education Computer use may also promote cognitive development in both children and adults, specificallyin the area of visual intelligence, where certain computer activities—particularly games—mayenhance the ability to monitor several visual stimuli at once, to read diagrams, recognize icons, and visualize spatial relationships

Use of computer for learningComputers are good tools for learning Computers improve students' achievements Computers accelerate children's development, mainly intellectual Computers may provide a free environment for learning Computers may promote social (and family) cohesion

Use of computer for learningComputers provide a fascinating learning environment, one that attracts children and young people Computers provide for a challenge of traditional educational methods and values Computers induce a certain vision of the world Computers make it possible to learn without tensions and pressures Computers (through the Internet) make students get interested in foreign cultures and people

Use of computer for learningComputers develop self-control Computers may provide for a more humanistic teaching Computers may enhance imagination and creativity Computers may be used to make children conscious of their own thinking process Computers provide for an individual way and pace of learning

What kinds of achievements are improved by the use of computers in education?using the internet, the students are able to do the assignments and take online exams while being spatially located anywhere in the whole world. using a computer in education may improve logic-symbolic thinking.using Internet, makes it possible for students to exchange fast mail with people or students in foreign countries.

Students using internet in educationStudents can access information online for homework as well as projects.They can access all the information they want for any tests they are preparing for. They can also learn online through tuitions. Online tutoring has become very popular around the world in the last few years.

Students using internet in educationThey get to hire teachers from other parts of the world, with the help of instant messaging as well as calls online. They not only get all the attention they want, but also get it for a very low cost.They can use the Internet to get the information When preparing for the projects.

The history of education by Prof. M.M. Pant

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The history of education by Prof. M.M. Pant