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remainder of the year. The local market may also at times afford a more
satisfactory price than that received under a parcel-post selling
agreement. There may also be producers of large quantities of eggs who
find express transportation cheaper than parcel post.
The securing of proper containers and the wrapping and packing of
the eggs properly for mailing, as well as the care that needs to be
exercised in shipping only strictly first-class eggs, may seem difficult to
some, but if a parcel-post market is to be developed, it will require care
and attention to get it properly established and to keep it going
successfully.
Direct Marketing of Larger Quantities of Eggs Than Private Families Require
The foregoing discussion applies especially to shipments of eggs for
family consumption. It is likely that many producers will desire a larger
outlet than is afforded by private families. These shippers may use
containers such as are described in the postal regulations. They must
come within the weight and measurement limits, however. The present
30-dozen commercial case exceeds the weight limits and would have to
be forwarded by express. The express companies are now paying special
attention to small shipments of food products, and furnish prompt and
efficient service.
Should an individual farmer not have enough eggs to ship alone a
number of neighboring farmers may club together for the purpose of
shipping eggs and may secure a purchaser in the person of a hotel,
restaurant, or lunch-room proprietor, or a retail grocer in some town or
city. The eggs from each farm should be packed in 1-dozen size cartons
or fillers, which would take the place of the ordinary filler of the standard
30-dozen-size egg case. These cartons should have stamped on them
the name and address of the producer, or instead of the name and
address a number could be assigned to each farm for the purposes of
identification. Each carton should be sealed so that any complaint in
regard to quality can be traced to the individual producer. This is
necessary in order to protect members of the club from complaints of
delinquency not justly attributable to them.[2]
Farmers’ Bulletin 656, The Community Egg Circle, gives the details of such
an organization. It can be obtained on request from the Division of
Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/32276-250407164835-291b7438/75/Total-Food-Sustainability-of-the-Agri-Food-Chain-1st-Edition-Keith-W-Waldron-37-2048.jpg)
Total Food Sustainability of the Agri Food Chain 1st Edition Keith W. Waldron
- 1. Total Food Sustainabilityof the Agri Food Chain 1st Edition Keith W. Waldron pdf download https://ebookfinal.com/download/total-food-sustainability-of-the- agri-food-chain-1st-edition-keith-w-waldron/ Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks at ebookfinal.com
- 2. Here are somerecommended products for you. Click the link to download, or explore more at ebookfinal Worlds of Food Place Power and Provenance in the Food Chain Kevin Morgan https://ebookfinal.com/download/worlds-of-food-place-power-and- provenance-in-the-food-chain-kevin-morgan/ Food safety regulatory compliance catalyst for a lean and sustainable food supply chain 1st Edition Preston W Blevins https://ebookfinal.com/download/food-safety-regulatory-compliance- catalyst-for-a-lean-and-sustainable-food-supply-chain-1st-edition- preston-w-blevins/ Zoonotic Pathogens in the Food Chain First Edition Denis O Krause https://ebookfinal.com/download/zoonotic-pathogens-in-the-food-chain- first-edition-denis-o-krause/ Enhancing Food Safety The Role of the Food and Drug Administration Committee On The Review Of Food And Drug Administration'S Role In Ensuring Safe Food https://ebookfinal.com/download/enhancing-food-safety-the-role-of-the- food-and-drug-administration-committee-on-the-review-of-food-and-drug- administrations-role-in-ensuring-safe-food/
- 3. How Food MadeHistory 1st Edition B. W. Higman https://ebookfinal.com/download/how-food-made-history-1st-edition-b-w- higman/ Innovation and Future Trends in Food Manufacturing and Supply Chain Technologies 1st Edition Craig Leanly https://ebookfinal.com/download/innovation-and-future-trends-in-food- manufacturing-and-supply-chain-technologies-1st-edition-craig-leanly/ Safe Food The Politics Of Food Safety Updated And Expanded California Studies In Food And Culture Marion Nestle https://ebookfinal.com/download/safe-food-the-politics-of-food-safety- updated-and-expanded-california-studies-in-food-and-culture-marion- nestle/ Aquaculture Innovation and Social Transformation The International Library of Environmental Agricultural and Food Ethics 1st Edition Keith Culver https://ebookfinal.com/download/aquaculture-innovation-and-social- transformation-the-international-library-of-environmental- agricultural-and-food-ethics-1st-edition-keith-culver/ Plunkett s Food Industry Almanac 2009 Food Industry Market Research Statistics Trends Leading Companies Jack W. Plunkett https://ebookfinal.com/download/plunkett-s-food-industry- almanac-2009-food-industry-market-research-statistics-trends-leading- companies-jack-w-plunkett/
- 5. Total Food Sustainabilityof the Agri Food Chain 1st Edition Keith W. Waldron Digital Instant Download Author(s): Keith W. Waldron, GrahamK. Moates, Craig B. Faulds ISBN(s): 9781847557506, 1847557503 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 54.76 MB Year: 2009 Language: english
- 9. Total Food Sustainability ofthe Agri-Food Chain Edited by K. W. Waldron, G. K. Moates Institute of Food Research, Norwich, UK C. B. Faulds Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
- 11. Preface The “Total Food”series of biennial, international conferences was initiated in 2004 by the Royal Society of Chemistry Food Group and the Institute of Food Research, Norwich. The aim of Total Food is to debate global research and development relevant to exploiting the whole food crop rather than the limited proportion that is consumed at present. For example, many vegetables are subjected to a high degree of trimming during post-harvest processing, and many parts including the outer leaves and stems are often disposed of by landfill. Much of the ‘wasted’ material is potentially food grade and may also contain important ingredients for further exploitation. The volumes involved are considerable. In the EC, over 500,000 tonnes of onion waste are disposed of per year. In some cases, up to 65% of food-grade material may be discarded during processing, and the EC-funded “AWARENET” report (2004) indicated that up to 222 million tonnes of food chain waste from all food processing sectors are produced annually across the EU. Since the Total Food series began, the issue of food security has become prominent. The increasing global population in conjunction with the use of crops for biofuel production mean that the more efficient exploitation of biomass will be required. The Total Food conferences are well placed to provide regular forums to highlight recent developments and to facilitate knowledge transfer between representatives of the agri-food (and increasingly non-food) industries, scientific research community, legal experts on food- related legislation and waste management, and consumer organisations. We gratefully acknowledge financial sponsorship from the following organisations without whose help the 2009 conference would not have been possible: the International Agri- Technology Centre, the Institute of Food Research, the Food & Health Network, Norwich Research Park and Achor International. Information and downloads: Total Food 2009 Conference details, abstracts and presentations may be obtained from the website: http://www.ifr.ac.uk/totalfood2009/ Total Food 2004: Presentations, abstracts and the complete Proceedings Volume may be downloaded from the website http://www.totalfood2004.com/ K.W. Waldron G.K. Moates C.B. Faulds
- 13. Contents Key Drivers A socio-economicperspective on co-product exploitation B. Gremmen, P. van Haperen and J. Lamerichs Value added products - Plants Food applications of novel ingredients from agro-based sustainable sources J.L. Bialek, D. Jarvis and P. Lopez-Sanchez Improving the textural characteristics of brewer’s spent grain breads by combination of sour dough and different enzymes V. Stojceska and P. Ainsworth Effect of packaging conditions on shelf-life of bologna sausages made with orange juice wastewater and oregano essential oil M. Viuda-Martos, Y. Ruiz-Navajas, J. Fernández-López, E. Sendra, E. Sayas-Barbera and J.A. Pérez-Álvarez Effects of industrial processing on content and properties of dietary fibre of strawberry wastes P. Torres, F.J. López-Andréu, G. Torres, M. Vidriales, R.M. Esteban, E. Mollá and M.A. Martín Cabrejas Formulation and acceptability studies of high fibre cookies made from pink guava (Psidium guajava) decanter / agro waste H. Chek Zaini, H. Zaiton, C.W. Zanariah and N. Sakinah Extraction of antioxidant compounds from apple pomace H.H. Wijngaard and N. Brunton Extracting novel foam and emulsion stability enhancers from brewers’ grain F.A. Husband, A. Jay, C.B. Faulds, K.W. Waldron and P.J. Wilde Biological production of vanillin from ferulic acid obtained from wheat bran hydrolyzates D. Di Gioia, L. Sciubba, M. Ruzzi and F. Fava Methanolic extract of Cistus ladaniferus as a source of phenolic antioxidants for use in foods M. Amensour, M. Viuda-Martos, E. Sendra, J. Abrini, J.A. Pérez-Álvarez and J. Fernández-López 3 17 27 32 38 44 53 58 64 70
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- 16. x Contents Asparagus fibresas reinforcing materials for developing 100% biodegradable packaging S. Jaramillo-Carmona, R. Guillén, C. Escrig-Rondan, J.M. Fuentes-Alventosa, G. Rodríguez, A. Lama, A. Jiménez-Araujo, J. Fernández-Bolaños and R. Rodríguez-Arcos Increasing protein extraction yield from duckweed (Lemna obscura) with an ammonia treatment L. Urribarrí, J. Ríos and A. Ferrer Diffusion of bioactive peptides from chitosan-based edible films – effects of temperature and peptides molecular weight A.C. Pinheiro, A.I. Bourbon, M.A.C. Quintas, C. Rocha, J.A. Teixeira and A.A. Vicente Functional properties of Gleditsia triacanthos seeds extracts and their incorporation into galactomannan films for food applications M.A. Cerqueira, B.W.S. Souza, J.T. Martins, J.A. Teixeira and A.A. Vicente An investigation on the effect of formulation and extrusion temperature on physico-chemical characteristics of tomato-enriched snacks Z. Dehghan-Shoar, A. Hardacre, G. Meerdink and C.S. Brennan Subject Index 224 229 233 238 244 249
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- 24. 8 Total Food includedquestions that addressed the feasibility and significance of REPRO’s contribution to reprocess food waste and whether the trajectories REPRO is working on (BSG, trimmings) are best suited to reach the project’s goals. Similar to what was said previously, for some parts REPRO can be considered a project which aim is to exemplify processes and tools, but for another part the actual significance or feasibility cannot be determined yet. Critical remarks are made with regard to whether the trajectories are best suited to reach the project’s goals, and to feasibility in terms of economical feasibility (the costs involved). 3.2 Delphi study among Stakeholders In the Delphi study among stakeholders we used almost the method as in the Delphi study among Repro members. The differences were that we used ranking questions as well, the “no opinion” option was left out, and the questionnaire was restricted to 16 questions. From the 54 invited candidates only 16 eventually responded. The main result was that the diverging viewpoints were concerned with the relative importance of communication towards consumers and product-origin-information, the relative importance of increased quality and hazard control and, the appropriateness of existing reprocessing technology. Food safety and quality control was seen as the core issue in relation to consumer trust and acceptance, but communication was considered important by others as a precaution to win trust and handle negative reactions. The idea for consumers to know that food was produced from waste was seen as rather threatening, while reprocessing itself was not seen as risky, just uneconomical for the moment. This in contrast to remarks that the origin of the by product itself plays an important role. Reprocessing inside the production chain is seen as more acceptable than outside, reprocessing vegetable matter more consumer acceptable than animal products. Legislation and quality control was not perceived to cause greater waste streams, although it alternately was regarded as an obstacle to further utilize by-products. Waste handling legislation was also indicated to form a possible incentive in stimulating reprocessing techniques. Where some reported a lack of technology for reprocessing, others indicated economic incentives were missing to employ existing known reprocessing technology. Others again were pointing out that the existing techniques were lacking an outlook for profitable and acceptable products. Overall in the study, it appeared that although there was sufficient interest in discussing quality aspects of reprocessing of food products, the stakeholders in majority choose techniques for volume reduction and water recycling –not resulting in food products- as the most promising areas for reprocessing. 4 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS Focus groups are used to discover what people think and feel with the intention to define the concept of satisfaction, identify the relevant ingredients of satisfaction and discover the conditions or circumstances that influence satisfaction. Characteristics of a focus group: people who possess certain characteristics and provide qualitative data in a focused discussion to help understand the topic of interest. Four focus groups were conducted of respectively 8, 10, 10 and 9 respondents, a total of 37 respondents. After completing the fourth focus group theoretical saturation was reached: the range of ideas was heard, answers overlapped. Moreover, it was not doable to conduct more focus groups in the Netherlands as well as any abroad with the time and resources available. The duration of
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- 27. The person receivingeggs for hatching should place them on the small end in bran or similar substance for 24 hours, in order that the germs may settle thoroughly before incubation is started. Supplies for Shippers As the postal regulations require that every parcel must have on it the name and address of the sender preceded by the word “From,” each person shipping eggs by parcel post will find it convenient to have a rubber stamp similar to the following: From William Smith, Rural Corners, Pa. The stamp and an inking pad will cost about 50 cents. The postal regulations also require that parcels containing eggs are to be marked “Eggs.” For this purpose a rubber stamp having letters one- half inch high and reading “Eggs” should be used to stamp this word on each side of the parcel. Thus the nature of the contents will be apparent no matter which side is in view. The sender will soon learn how much postage each size of parcel requires. Parcel-post scales can be secured at reasonable prices. Scales are needed in the farm home on many occasions, and the parcel-post type will serve these other purposes also. They can be had for $2.50 and weigh up to 20 pounds. (See fig. 5.) “Union” scales having both a platform and a scoop attachment and weighing up to 200 or 300 pounds can be had for from $6 to $12, if desired. Boxes, wrapping paper, and twine should be bought in as large quantities as possible (say a year’s supply at a time), so that lower prices may be obtained. With proper organization it will be possible for several farmers to join in ordering containers by the thousand and other supplies in correspondingly large quantities.
- 28. Economical Size ofParcels In arranging with the customer as to the size and frequency of shipments it is wise to take into consideration the fact that the larger the parcel sent (i. e., the more eggs sent in one parcel) the cheaper will be the postage per dozen. It would be much more economical for the family that uses, say, 4 dozens a week to have them sent in a 4-dozen parcel once a week than to have them sent in two 2-dozen parcels at different times during the week; and the eggs, if produced under proper conditions and properly kept, would not deteriorate to any appreciable extent in that length of time. The same principle would hold good regardless of quantity used. Considering the cost of the container and the postage, the consumer usually will find it no economy to buy eggs for food by parcel post in less than 2-dozen lots. Wrapping and Addressing Parcels The appearance of the parcel depends largely upon the manner in which it is wrapped. Odds and ends of paper and twine are not desirable for this purpose. Every producer who aims to make a business of shipping eggs by parcel post should procure a supply of good tough paper of the proper size to wrap his parcels, and also good, strong, though not too heavy, cord or twine that stretches very little. No matter what the design of the container there is always danger, should the parcel be subjected to excessive pressure or violence in any form, that the eggs may be broken and the contents leak out. In a large number of experiments it was found that when parcels were properly wrapped with good paper, even though there were quite a number of broken eggs in the parcel, in only a few cases did any leakage of the contents damage other mail matter. A container badly stained from broken eggs should not be used again. Better a little less profit on a shipment of eggs than a displeased customer, who, displeased a few times, will cease to be a customer. It is a simple matter to wrap the parcels both rapidly and neatly. A little attention to the best manner of folding the paper in completing the wrapping will result in a securely and neatly covered package. This applies to parcels weighing less than 20 pounds—parcels exceeding 20 pounds need not be wrapped.
- 29. To insure promptdelivery the address should be written plainly on the wrapping of the parcel. Much mail matter is delayed or altogether fails to reach its destination because of an incomplete or poorly written address. Inclosures An inclosure stating the number of eggs and the price may be placed in the parcel, but no message of any kind may be included, as that would subject the package to the first-class postage rate. Unpacking Eggs When Received The person receiving the eggs should unpack them immediately to see if any have been broken. It may be desirable to have instructions printed on the outside of the container, and the following are suggested: “Please unpack and examine at once to see condition and to give proper attention.” Whether or not this is printed on the container, the shipper should have a distinct understanding with the consumer that this is to be done with every parcel received, so that information as to any unsatisfactory condition may be promptly obtained. Returning Empty Containers Many shippers will doubtless find it desirable and economical to have the customer save the containers and return them after a sufficient number have accumulated. When so returned the postage on empty cases still in usable condition is less than the cost of new ones. The consumer should receive credit for the postage required to return them. Many of the containers are made in “knocked-down” style, i. e., to take apart and fold so they can be made into a much smaller package or parcel. Containers which are knocked down to be returned should be packed in such a way that there will be no edges or points projecting without support or protection, as such projections are likely to be broken or crushed in the mails. The cost of the container is necessarily included in the price of the eggs to the consumer. It is therefore to the interest of the consumer to take proper care of containers and to save or return all that are in usable condition. Since the return of containers will have some effect on the price of the eggs, the proper spirit of thrift should cause the consumer to
- 30. take care ofall returnable empties and to send them back in accordance with whatever agreement or understanding may exist between the producer and himself. Method of Bringing Producer and Consumer Together One of the problems to the average farmer is how to secure customers who desire eggs direct from the farm. In other words, the question is, “How shall I come in contact with the person who wants my product?” An occasional contact may be secured through acquaintance in the city or town where a parcel-post market is sought. Contact might also be secured by a small advertisement in a city or town paper, stating the number of eggs available per week. The postmasters in a number of large cities have issued lists of consumers which ought to be helpful. In France city dwellers make these business arrangements in summer when in the country on their holiday. Consumers who will not take trouble about these relatively small things should not complain of the high cost of food products. Additional contact ought to be more easily obtained than the original contact, for the simple reason that if a producer supplies satisfactory eggs the person receiving them is almost sure to obtain other customers for him by speaking well of his product. It might be said that the reputation a parcel-post shipper makes with his first customers will very largely determine his success or failure in marketing by this method. The matter of holding business once secured and securing additional business is important. One of the serious drawbacks of ordinary farming is the great irregularity of income during the year. The development of a regular parcel-post business in eggs and the numerous other products that may be marketed by this means will increase the income and distribute it better throughout the year. Once a customer has been secured, every endeavor should be made to furnish strictly high-grade goods and to deal fairly, promptly, and satisfactorily, so that the customer may be retained. When a reputation has been established for products of high quality and for fair dealing, the holding of customers and securing new ones will be a comparatively simple matter.
- 31. Fixing Fair Prices Asthe object of parcel-post dealing is to get slightly increased prices for the producer and better products at the same price, or the same class of products at lower prices, for the consumer, the question of arriving at prices fair to both is important. It is also difficult. It is not likely, at least not for some time to come, that eggs will be marketed so largely by parcel post that the ordinary marketing quotations can not be depended upon in arriving at prices. It ought to be a comparatively easy matter for a producer and a consumer to agree upon a stipulated market quotation as the basis for determining the price to be paid. A consumer may desire 5 dozen eggs per week, the price to be agreed upon being the number of cents per dozen above the wholesale quotation for the best grade of eggs on the market that week. The necessary relations in this matter can be maintained only by scrupulous honesty and well-founded mutual trust. Contracts or Agreements Between Producer and Consumer The nature of the agreement between the producer and the consumer, whether reduced to writing or not, should be made to suit the circumstances and must be fair to both. Perhaps the first agreement made should be in writing; but later, if mutual confidence and trust have been thoroughly established, the contract may be verbal. The matter of frequency and method of payment can be arranged in various ways. For the first agreement term, which may be a year or less, cash in advance might be satisfactory, until a definite system of orders and payments is established. The agreement should specify: (1) The names of the parties to the agreement. (2) The length of time during which the agreement is to be in force. (3) The number of eggs to be shipped each week during the time the contract runs, and also the frequency of shipment and the number in each shipment. (4) Price to be paid during the time of the contract, together with the base on which the price is fixed. (5) Method of adjusting claims for broken or bad eggs. (6) The consumer should open boxes properly (without cutting or tearing), and should take proper care of them and return them by mail as desired by the producer. (7) Frequency of payment and manner of remitting; postage paid on empties returned to the producer to be credited to the consumer on next bill rendered.
- 32. For the reasonthat eggs are in very abundant supply in the spring season and in very short supply in the fall and early winter season, the contract should specify quantity to be supplied each week throughout the year. The producer can not expect the consumer to take all the eggs that are to be marketed in the season of greatest production, nor can the consumer expect to get as many eggs as he wishes in the season of lowest production; and these two extremes should be thoroughly understood and specifically mentioned in the agreement, so as to have no misunderstanding regarding them. In the season of short supply the consumer might be willing to try some eggs preserved in water glass, thereby relieving the situation. The producer in making an agreement with a consumer should undertake to replace or allow for eggs lost by breakage in shipping. Should this provision in the agreement be abused by any consumer it might be sufficient reason to refuse to contract again with that consumer, and of course satisfactory evidence of unusual breakage would need to be produced, and it might even be necessary to locate the cause of the breakage in the mails. The following is a suggested form of agreement: This Article of Agreement made this ...... day of ......, 1917, by and between John Doe, of Doeville, Doe County, Va., party of the first part, and Richard Roe, of 298 Bahama Avenue, Washington, D. C., party of the second part. Witnesseth, That for the price of .... cents (....) per dozen above the wholesale price for best eggs quoted in the “Blankville News” on Tuesday of each week, the party of the first part agrees to supply the party of the second part .... (....) dozens of eggs weekly for the remainder of the calendar year 1917, each weekly consignment to be shipped in one parcel. Payments are to be made every four weeks on bill rendered by party of the first part to party of the second part after making proper allowance for eggs broken beyond use and for eggs otherwise unusable. The party of the second part is to receive credit for postage on empties returned and agrees to take proper care of containers, open them properly (without cutting or tearing), and to return them to the party of the first part as party of the first part may desire. If party of the first part require it, party of the second part agrees to return containers with broken eggs in place if he claims they are damaged beyond use. Parcel Post Zones The United States is divided into “units,” each one of which is numbered, as illustrated by the accompanying section of map. (See fig.
- 33. 6.) The centerof each unit constitutes the center of the zones for all post offices within that unit. The first zone consists of any given unit together with all the adjoining units, even though they but touch at the corner. The second zone embraces all those units within a radius of 150 miles from the center of any given unit, and the whole of any unit, any part of which is touched by this 150-mile boundary line, is considered entirely within that zone. Fig. 6.—This illustration shows a section of Parcel Post Zone Map for Washington, D. C., and all other post offices in Unit 1071. Larger map
- 34. There is separatezone map for each unit. The accompanying illustration shows a section of the map for the unit in which Washington is located. The second circle shows the nominal boundary of zone 2; but owing to the fact that all units which are touched by this boundary line fall entirely within the second zone, the units which are bounded by the heavy line (outside the second curved line) are entirely within zone 2. This principle applies to all other zones; that is, any unit which is touched at any point by the boundary of a given zone lies wholly within that given zone and is so considered for the purposes of the parcel-post service. Particular description is here given of the first and second zones because of the fact that the great bulk of the shipping of farm products by parcel post is likely to be done within these zones. The rate can be ascertained readily from the accompanying tables. Local parcel post rates Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents 1 5 11 10 21 15 31 20 41 25 2 6 12 11 22 16 32 21 42 26 3 6 13 11 23 16 33 21 43 26 4 7 14 12 24 17 34 22 44 27 5 7 15 12 25 17 35 22 45 27 6 8 16 13 26 18 36 23 46 28 7 8 17 13 27 18 37 23 47 28 8 9 18 14 28 19 38 24 48 29 9 9 19 14 29 19 39 24 49 29 10 10 20 15 30 20 40 25 50 30 Fifty pounds is the weight limit for local delivery. These rates are 5 cents for the first pound and 1 cent additional for each 2 pounds or fraction thereof; they apply to any parcel-post matter that does not go beyond the jurisdiction of the mailing office. First and second zone parcel-post rates Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Pounds Postage Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents 1 5 11 15 21 25 31 35 41 45 2 6 12 16 22 26 32 36 42 46
- 35. 3 7 1317 23 27 33 37 43 47 4 8 14 18 24 28 34 38 44 48 5 9 15 19 25 29 35 39 45 49 6 10 16 20 26 30 36 40 46 50 7 11 17 21 27 31 37 41 47 51 8 12 18 22 28 32 38 42 48 52 9 13 19 23 29 33 39 43 49 53 10 14 20 24 30 34 40 44 50 54 The weight limit within the first and second zones is 50 pounds. These rates apply to all points within the first and second zones, as there is no difference in rates between these two zones. A simple rule to determine the postage on any parcel not going beyond the second zone is to add 4 to the number of pounds, and the resulting number is the postage required in cents. Example: A parcel weighs 13 pounds and 11 ounces; this will require postage on 14 pounds (as any fraction of a pound is considered a full pound); 14 + 4 = 18 cents postage. The weight limit for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth zones is 20 pounds. Any information desired in regard to rates, zones, and other postal matters can be obtained from any post office. Measurement Limits for Parcel-Post Mail Matter In addition to the weight limits shown in connection with the foregoing postage tables there is a measurement limit, which is the same for all zones. This limit is that the girth (measurement around) and the length added must not exceed 84 inches. For example, a parcel 12 inches square (48 inches around) and 36 inches long would be just up to the limit, as would also a parcel 15 inches square (60 inches around) and 24 inches long. A parcel cubical in shape and 14 inches in each dimension would measure 56 inches around, and to this would be added 14 inches for length, making 70 inches, or 14 inches less than the limit. Receipt, Insuring and C. O. D. If desired, a receipt can be procured from the postmaster acknowledging the mailing of a parcel on the payment of 1 cent. For 3 cents a parcel may be insured against loss if not valued at more than $5. A parcel may be sent collect on delivery for 10 cents. This also insures it for actual value not exceeding $50.
- 36. Practicability and Utilityof the Parcel Post in Egg Marketing Under the present method the general farmer, or in most cases the farmer’s wife, sells the surplus eggs to the local storekeeper, taking their value out in trade. The parcel post offers an opportunity for a cash outlet at better prices. It should prove a valuable help, especially to those farms that are located unfavorably in regard to a consuming market. It is not too much to say that shipping by parcel post has been demonstrated as a practical proposition when properly conducted. To send a 2-dozen-size parcel would cost about as follows: For container and wrapping, 8 cents; for postage, 9 cents, or a total of 17 cents, which would be 81 ⁄2 cents a dozen marketing cost. Marketing a 5- dozen parcel would cost about 13 cents for container and wrapping and 14 cents postage, or a total of 27 cents; a 10-dozen lot would cost about 22 cents for container and wrapping and 25 cents postage, or a total of 47 cents. These figures are based on container prices prevailing prior to July 1, 1914. The postage rates here used are those within the first and second zones. The rates to the third and farther zones are higher, and the advantages of marketing by parcel post consequently less. These figures include the cost of a new container each time. The experiments show that containers from the 4-dozen size up will stand on an average two to four trips very satisfactorily. Containers for smaller lots will stand on an average from three to five trips. As the postage cost of returning containers is considerably less than the price of new ones, the average expense for containers can be materially reduced from the figures quoted. Disadvantages or Difficulties in Marketing Eggs by Parcel Post If it is kept in mind that it takes a few days for eggs to reach the consumer, a regular supply of eggs can be had for use at all times. The possibility of broken eggs and the consequent adjustment of payment may seem to be a disadvantage, but if properly provided for in the agreement it need not be. The matter of arriving at equitable prices may seem to be difficult, but ought not be a drawback. Some farmers may be so situated that they already have a satisfactory market for their eggs. Others may wish to have a parcel-post market during a part of the year, but may dispose of them otherwise during the
- 37. [2] remainder of theyear. The local market may also at times afford a more satisfactory price than that received under a parcel-post selling agreement. There may also be producers of large quantities of eggs who find express transportation cheaper than parcel post. The securing of proper containers and the wrapping and packing of the eggs properly for mailing, as well as the care that needs to be exercised in shipping only strictly first-class eggs, may seem difficult to some, but if a parcel-post market is to be developed, it will require care and attention to get it properly established and to keep it going successfully. Direct Marketing of Larger Quantities of Eggs Than Private Families Require The foregoing discussion applies especially to shipments of eggs for family consumption. It is likely that many producers will desire a larger outlet than is afforded by private families. These shippers may use containers such as are described in the postal regulations. They must come within the weight and measurement limits, however. The present 30-dozen commercial case exceeds the weight limits and would have to be forwarded by express. The express companies are now paying special attention to small shipments of food products, and furnish prompt and efficient service. Should an individual farmer not have enough eggs to ship alone a number of neighboring farmers may club together for the purpose of shipping eggs and may secure a purchaser in the person of a hotel, restaurant, or lunch-room proprietor, or a retail grocer in some town or city. The eggs from each farm should be packed in 1-dozen size cartons or fillers, which would take the place of the ordinary filler of the standard 30-dozen-size egg case. These cartons should have stamped on them the name and address of the producer, or instead of the name and address a number could be assigned to each farm for the purposes of identification. Each carton should be sealed so that any complaint in regard to quality can be traced to the individual producer. This is necessary in order to protect members of the club from complaints of delinquency not justly attributable to them.[2] Farmers’ Bulletin 656, The Community Egg Circle, gives the details of such an organization. It can be obtained on request from the Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
- 38. Shipping by expresspresupposes that the producers concerned are within reasonable distance of express service, otherwise the expense of transporting the eggs to the express office might be prohibitive. It is hoped that these methods may enable the producer to realize better prices, and that at the same time the consumer will secure a fresher product. Eggs so handled and shipped will be fresher and in better condition than ordinary country-store or huckster-collected eggs. The average farmer pays scant attention to egg and poultry production, usually leaving matters relating thereto to his wife. Properly managed, however, this branch of farm industry may prove profitable. Indeed, it is not unlikely that a careful keeping of the cost of producing corn on many farms would lead to the conclusion that the family treasury had profited more by the activities of the hen than by raising corn. Opportunity of Extension of Parcel-Post Marketing to Other Products It is quite possible that once having secured a parcel-post market for eggs many farmers having other commodities not readily salable at home may open up markets for them in the same way. Methods of arriving at prices would be the same, the producer advising the consumer as to the commodities, quantity, and price. By this means a market may be found for many products which are not now being marketed, mainly for the reason that they are in the nature of by- products or small surpluses over the family’s need which do not justify a special trip to market. There is also a field of opportunity open for development in making a special effort to produce such things as town or city residents are anxious to obtain, and by proper attention a supplemental income could be built up by developing such business. Summary (1) In the experiments conducted in this study 76011 ⁄12 dozens, or 9,131 eggs, were sent through the mails in 466 shipments of from 1 to 10 dozens each. The total breakage was 327 eggs; of these, 118 were only cracked or slightly broken and were usable, and 209 (or 2.3 per cent) were broken beyond use. Ninety-one eggs were broken because the parcels containing them were handled contrary to postal rules and
- 39. regulations. Subtracting these,the loss was only 1.3 per cent. This shows the possibility of shipping eggs by parcel post with small loss, and indicates that eggs may be so shipped with safety if existing postal regulations are observed. (2) Care should be exercised in the production of eggs so that they will be of as good quality as possible. The hens should be provided with proper quarters and fed on clean, wholesome feed. The production of non fertile eggs reduces the losses materially. After gathering, the eggs should be kept carefully in the coolest and best ventilated place available. (3) Trials of many styles and makes of containers were made; a large number proved satisfactory. The addresses of manufacturers of containers can be obtained from the agricultural experiment stations in the several States. (4) In selecting eggs for shipping by mail, thin-shelled and unusually long or irregular-shaped eggs should not be used. Each egg should be wrapped in sufficient paper to hold it snugly in its own individual compartment in the container. The container should be properly closed and carefully wrapped with good, tough wrapping paper and strong twine. The address should be written plainly to insure prompt delivery on arrival. The postal regulations require the name and address of the sender on the parcel also. (5) If attention is given to the necessary details, as indicated in this bulletin, eggs can be shipped by parcel post to the advantage of the farmer. This method of marketing affords a means of increasing the fresh-egg business to the benefit of both the producer and the consumer. (6) Farmers located out of reach of a satisfactory market or of the usual means of transportation can find in the parcel post a ready means of getting their eggs direct to a consuming market promptly and at prices that will justify the additional trouble involved in packing for mailing. Publications of the Department of Agriculture of Interest to Poultry Raisers Farmers’ Bulletin 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. Farmers’ Bulletin 287. Poultry Management. Farmers’ Bulletin 528. Hints to Poultry Raisers. Farmers’ Bulletin 530. Important Poultry Diseases.
- 40. Farmers’ Bulletin 562.The Organization of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs. Farmers’ Bulletin 574. Poultry House Construction. Farmers’ Bulletin 585. Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hen’s Eggs. Farmers’ Bulletin 624. Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens. Farmers’ Bulletin 656. The Community Egg Circle. Farmers’ Bulletin 682. A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry. Farmers’ Bulletin 703. Suggestions for Parcel-post Marketing. Further suggestions along this line may be found in Farmers’ Bulletin 703, Suggestions for Parcel-Post Marketing, which may be obtained on request from the Division of Publication, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
- 41. PLAN No. 226.DRESSING CHRISTMAS DOLLS Having observed that of the thousands of dolls which are sold during the holidays very few of them are dressed to suit the tastes of buyers, this woman felt certain she could make a good living by dressing these dolls. She therefore prepared a circular letter which she sent to hundreds of selected homes in her city, asking to be allowed the privilege of dressing the children’s dolls according to her own taste, or that of the mothers of the little girls, and received invitations to call at the homes of a large number of these people. She did so, and so well did she demonstrate her ability for the work that she received many orders. Her charges were reasonable, and she developed a regular and paying business.
- 42. PLAN No. 227.PAPER COVERS FOR SCHOOL BOOKS ASSIST IN PUTTING MAN THROUGH COLLEGE A young man in an eastern Washington town, who was obliged to work his way through the agricultural college, adopted, as one of his numerous plans for making money, that of providing substantial yet inexpensive manilla covers for school books. He bought from a wholesale paper store, a quantity of the best manilla paper at 4 cents a pound and, at a cost of 15 cents additional, had it cut into different sizes and the corners cut off on a regular paper cutter. The ends he cut off himself with a pair of shears, and pasted them down so they could be slipped on over any school book, to protect it. The cover, completed, cost him less than 2 cents each, yet he sold a large number of them for 5 cents each. Finally, he induced the school board to buy 5,000 of them, at 31 ⁄2 cents each. He made enough in this to put him through the greater part of his first year’s schooling. He operated the same plan in other school districts the second and third years, and completed his course with the money he thus earned.
- 43. PLAN No. 228.MAKING PAN-LIFTERS A woman in Lincoln, Nebraska, who knew the difficulties and dangers involved in lifting hot pans that have to be handled often, figured out a plan to make this work both safe and convenient. She made a belt to fasten around the waist, and on each side of the front she fastened a strip that came down nearly to the knees. On the ends of these strips she sewed small quilted pads about six inches square. These were always ready to use, and proved great time-savers and made the lifting easy. She was so well pleased with the one she made for herself, that she made up a hundred of them and went from house to house, explaining their advantages, and readily sold them at 25 cents each.
- 44. PLAN No. 229.MONEY IN WINTER BULBS In late October or early November every year, a Massachusetts woman buys some plain glass dishes, about five inches wide and two or three inches deep. She then collects pebbles and places them in each dish, and on top of them, so they will not touch each other, she places fine narcissus bulbs, filling in around them with more pebbles, until the dish is quite full. Then adding water enough to fill to the top, she sets the dishes on the cellar floor and leaves them there until they are full of roots. She then brings them into a light, sunny room, and as soon as they are in bloom she takes them to the woman’s exchange, where they sell readily for 50 cents a dish. The cost of the dishes is 5 cents each, and the bulbs, six for 5 cents, so she makes 40 cents on each dish.
- 45. PLAN No. 230.SELLING HICKORY NUTS A country woman with a grove of hickory trees on her farm, made $30 in one month gathering hickory nuts, which she sent to a friend in the city, who bought them at $1.50 per bushel. That was only twenty bushels, and people who live in localities where these nuts are plentiful could multiply that number many times by gathering them on a more extensive scale.
- 46. PLAN No. 231.THUMBLESS MITTENS FOR CHILDREN What mother has ever been able to get a baby’s thumb into a mitten? And how long would it stay if she did? Then why have thumbs on baby’s mittens at all? These are questions a Canadian mother asked herself many times, and learned that there was but one answer: make the mittens without thumbs. And she did so. In fact, she found that no matter how many pair she made, the baby- outfitters gladly took all she could knit, sold them for 40 cents a pair, and charged her only a small commission for selling; as the materials cost less than 10 cents, her profit was large. She used white pompadour or saxony yarn, and a large steel hook, so the work was light, pleasant and profitable.
- 47. PLAN No. 232.TAILORED HATS Here is the story of a Montana woman who discovered that she could make a better tailored hat for girls, and sell it for 50 cents, than the millinery stores ask $2 for, and she not only made one for her own little girl, but for a hundred or more other small misses, and realized a profit on every one she made. The material cost but little, while the work on the hats was no trouble at all, so she kept it up until she had supplied everybody of her acquaintance with the prettiest hats to be seen anywhere. She made them from a pattern published by a well known woman’s periodical; and it was so easy to follow it that the making of hats was a real pleasure. She also made nice hats for women, at $1.00 each, and on these the profits were still greater.
- 48. PLAN No. 233.SELLING POTTED PLANTS A southern woman who was extremely fond of flowers lived in a town of 5,000 inhabitants in which there was no regular florist, so she began supplying the needs of the flower-loving people there by engaging in the business on a small scale herself, specializing on potted plants and cut flowers. She bought small plants, repotted them, and easily doubled her money on them. In their season she buys tomato and pansy plants and scarlet sage, as well as bulbs and roots, and holds regular flower sales at Easter, Christmas, Thanksgiving, Mother’s Day, etc., and always finds a demand for all her floral products. Recently she turned her back yard into a hot-house, and raises the plants herself, thus decreasing the cost and increasing the margin of profit. From one large bed, the seed for which cost 75 cents, she sells from $15 to $20 worth of plants every season. She also advises flower growers about flowers culture, color schemes, etc., and in many ways adds to the grand total of her yearly income.
- 49. PLAN No. 234.BASKET MAKING A downeast woman learned basket making in the young people’s society of her church, and made it a regular business. She specializes in market and scrap baskets, but makes fancy reed ones to order. Her main sales are made through the woman’s exchange, though sometimes direct to customers, and her earnings are sufficient to support her very comfortably. This line of work is not overcrowded, and there is plenty of opportunity in it for many other women.
- 50. PLAN No. 235.GROWING MUSHROOMS There are many methods of growing mushrooms, but the one adopted by this Michigan woman is perhaps as easy and profitable as any of them. First, providing a sufficient quantity of fresh manure and black dirt, she carefully prepares the beds and buys the spawn, and with but little care thereafter they produce a good crop every month in the year. In one bed 7 feet long by 2 feet wide, made from an old trunk lid and two soap boxes, she placed three bricks of spawn early in October, and eight weeks later picked 11 ⁄2 pounds of mushrooms, which sold for $1.26 per pound. Then every two days thereafter, until May 1st, she picked from four to five pounds. The picking, packing and marketing are easy, and do not interfere with her regular household duties. She made $8 to $10 a week out of this industry, and recommends it to others who need something to help out with household expenses.
- 51. PLAN No. 236.LUNCHES FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN A woman in Minnesota, whose income was very limited, was asked by the parent-teachers’ association to provide noon lunches for the pupils in the basement of a school building, the profit or loss to be her own. She had two long tables made of rough boards, covered with white oilcloth, and on these she spreads sandwiches made of minced ham, peanut butter, chipped beef and cheese, at 3 cents each; cake at 2 cents a slice, with milk, cocoa, soup, etc., at very low prices, yet which pay her a profit. She buys her material at wholesale prices, and makes a small profit on each article, so there is at least a comfortable living in it. At one o’clock her work is all done, and she has the afternoons and Saturdays at her own disposal. Not a very large enterprise, but it affords a living, and that is quite an item for a poor woman.
- 52. PLAN No. 237.DESICCATED VEGETABLES An eastern woman, anxious to help her husband lift the mortgage from their farm, had been told of the possibilities of desiccated vegetables, and decided to try out the plan herself. By way of experiment, she desiccated some vegetables and dried them in the sun. These she soaked for an hour in cold water, poured off the water, and put the vegetables in with some meat she was stewing. In half an hour she had a fine Irish stew ready for the table. Calling in some of her neighbors, they formed a local company for manufacturing desiccated vegetables. The vegetables, dried to a small bulk, were easily shipped to grocers at a great saving in freight or express charges, the weight also having been reduced to almost nothing. The company employed several of its members to become traveling salesmen, and they took many orders, as dealers were glad to get the new product. A package containing enough potatoes, carrots and onions for a stew, was sold for 3 cents at retail or 2 cents wholesale. They sold well at all seasons, as they were a great saving to the housewife, and when put into water were as fresh and palatable as in their original state.
- 53. PLAN No. 238.A PROFITABLE ADVERTISING PLAN A young man left Chicago some time ago and went to the Northwest for the purpose of increasing his earning power. Having first provided himself with twelve cartoon plates, with a strong home-trade argument under each cartoon, which a big newspaper syndicate had made for him, he stopped at a town of some 5,000 inhabitants and called upon the publisher of the leading newspaper. To him he made the following proposition: To obtain for his paper one or two pages of local advertisements to run every week for twelve weeks, and create a strong sentiment for patronizing home merchants and local industries, furnishing the cartoons and home-trade arguments, of which he showed proofs, and to divide the profits equally, though it was not to cost the publisher a cent, except the composition on the local ads. to be secured and set up; that for this home-trade page, the rates must be double his regular rates, so that he would get full price for his ads. Of course, the publisher accepted, and the Chicago man went to work. In three days he had contracts signed up for enough local ads. to fill two pages with the cartoon in the center of the page to run twelve consecutive weeks, the contracts to be left with the publisher, who was to collect and forward him his half, but the newspaper man willingly paid him one-fourth of the amount that would be due him at the end of the twelve weeks. In three days the Chicago man had made just $288. This plan will afford a good living to any advertising salesman.
- 54. PLAN No. 239.BACKYARD POULTRY KEEPING Acknowledgment is due for this article to the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. In every household, no matter how economical the housewife, there is a certain amount of table scraps and kitchen waste which has feeding value but which, if not fed, finds its way into the garbage pail. Poultry is the only class of domestic animals which is suitable for converting this waste material, right where it is produced in the city, into wholesome and nutritious food in the form of eggs and poultry meat. Each hen in her pullet year should produce ten dozen eggs. The average size of the back-yard flock should be at least ten hens. Thus each flock would produce in a year 100 dozens of eggs which, at the conservative value of 25 cents a dozen, would be worth $25. By keeping a back-yard poultry flock the family would not only help in reducing the cost of living but would have eggs of a quality and freshness which are often difficult to obtain. Remember that eggs produced by the back-yard flock cost very little, as the fowls are fed largely upon waste materials.
- 55. An illustration ofthe average back yard of the city man which may be turned to a profitable use by raising chickens. Advantages of Home Poultry The keeping of a small flock of laying hens on a town or village lot or in a city back yard is an important branch of poultry keeping. Though the value of the product from each flock is small of itself the aggregate is large. The product of such a flock, both in the form of eggs and fowls for the table, may be produced at a relatively low cost, because of the possibility of utilizing table scraps and kitchen waste which would otherwise be thrown away. A small flock of hens, even as few as six or eight, should produce eggs enough, where used economically, for a family of four or five persons throughout the entire year, except during the molting period of the fall and early winter. By the preservation of surplus eggs produced during the spring and early summer this period of scarcity can be provided for. The keeping of pullets instead of hens also will insure the production of eggs at this time. Not only will the eggs from the home flock materially reduce the cost of living, but the superior freshness and quality of the eggs are in themselves well worth the effort expended. Eggs are a highly nutritious food and are so widely used as to be almost indispensable, and an occasional chicken dinner is relished by everyone. Where conditions render it feasible and cheap small flocks of poultry should be kept to a greater extent than at present by families in villages and towns, and especially in the suburbs of large cities. The need for this extension of poultry raising is particularly great in those sections where the consumption of poultry products exceeds the production, with the result that prices are high. Overcoming Objections to Keeping Poultry in the City Objection is frequently raised to the keeping of poultry in towns and cities because of the odor which may result and also because of the noise which is made by roosters crowing, particularly in the early morning. In some cases city regulations have been formulated to prevent or to control poultry keeping. Where there are city regulations it is necessary to find out their provisions and to conform to them. There is no necessity for the poultry flock to become a nuisance to neighbors. If
- 56. the dropping boardsare cleaned daily and the houses and yards are kept in a reasonably clean condition there will be no annoying odors. The male bird need not be a nuisance. Unless it is intended to hatch chickens from the flock it is unnecessary to keep a male bird. The fact that there is no male in the flock will have absolutely no effect on the number of eggs laid by the hens. If it is desired to mate the hens and to hatch chicks the male bird should be sold or eaten just as soon as the hatching season is over. This is desirable not only for the purpose of eliminating noise, but also to save the feed that would be eaten by the male and for the reason that the eggs produced after the male is disposed of will be infertile. Since these eggs are incapable of chick development they keep much better than fertile eggs and consequently are superior for preserving or for market. Fig. 1.—Poultry house and run in a back yard. The flock must be kept confined; otherwise the hens will stray into neighbors’ yards and gardens, where they may cause damage and are almost sure to cause ill feeling. Kind of Fowls to Keep Householders usually desire not only eggs for the table and for cooking, but also an occasional chicken to eat. For this reason one of the general-purpose breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, or Orpington, is preferable to the smaller egg breeds, such
- 57. as the Leghorns.Not only do the mature fowls of these breeds, because of their larger size, make better table fowls than the Leghorns, but the young chickens for the same reason make better friers and roasters, whereas chickens of the egg breeds are only suitable for the smaller broilers. The general-purpose breeds are also “broody” breeds, the hens making good sitters and mothers, which is a decided advantage when it is desired to hatch and raise chickens, since the hens of the egg breeds seldom go broody and are in any event rather unreliable sitters and mothers. If, however, the production of eggs outweighs the desire for an occasional table fowl, the lighter egg breeds undoubtedly will be found better, because they lay as many eggs and do so on less feed, with the result that they produce the eggs more cheaply. It is by all means advisable to keep some pure breed or variety. Where this is done, sales at a profitable figure can often be made of breeding stock which it is intended to market or of eggs for hatching. Size of Flock The size of the flock which can be most efficiently kept will depend first of all upon the space available and, secondly, upon the amount of table scraps or other waste which is available for feed. It is a mistake to try to overstock the available space. Better results will be obtained from a few hens in a small yard than from a larger number. The back-yard poultry flock rarely will consist of over 20 or 25 hens and in many cases of not more than 8 or 10, or occasionally of only 3 or 4. For a flock of 20 to 25 hens a space of not less than 25 by 30 feet should be available for a yard. Where less space is available, the size of the flock should be reduced, allowing on the average 20 to 30 square feet per bird. A few hens are sometimes kept successfully with a smaller yard allowance than this, but if the space is available a yard of the size indicated should be used.
- 58. Fig. 2.—A back-yardpoultry plant. In the background are the poultry houses set up off the ground on accounts of rats. At the left is a shade made of wooden strips and roofing paper. At the right are the coops for the hens and chicks. In the foreground oats for green feed are being sprouted under wire screens. Procuring Stock The best way for the city poultry keeper to procure hens is to purchase them in the fall. An effort should be made to obtain pullets rather than older hens, and the pullets selected should be well matured, so that they will begin to lay before the cold weather sets in. Evidences of the maturity of pullets are the development and red color of the comb and a size and growth which are good for the breed or variety. Hens will lay little or no eggs during the fall and early winter, while they are molting. Well-matured pullets, however, should lay fairly well during this period, so that an immediate return is realized from the investment. The purchasing of pullets in the fall is preferable in most cases to purchasing day-old chicks or to hatching chicks in the spring. Usually there is little space available for the raising of chicks, and, moreover, many city dwellers have had no experience in raising them. Under these conditions the results are apt to be very poor. Hatching and rearing chicks also necessitates broody hens for this purpose, or else investing money in artificial apparatus such as incubators and brooders. Such an investment is often too great to prove profitable with the average small flock. If chicks are raised, they must be fed throughout the summer and no
- 59. return will beobtained until the pullets begin to lay in the fall, except that the males can be eaten or sold. Fig. 3.—A shed in the heart of the city utilized for a poultry house. While a larger opening in the front would admit more light and make a more suitable hen house, the fowls kept here have done very well. The wire netting used for the yard was purchased very cheaply at an auction. The grass and sacks shown on the top of the run are used to furnish shade. When pullets are to be purchased, it is well if possible to go to some farmer or poultryman who may be known to the prospective purchaser. In some cases it may pay to make arrangements with the farmer to raise the desired number of pullets at an agreed price. Where the householder does not have an opportunity to go into the country for his pullets, he can often pick them out among the live poultry shipped into the city to be marketed. The advice of some one who knows poultry should be sought in making such a purchase, to make sure that pullets or young hens are obtained, and that the stock is healthy. Often the local poultry associations are glad to help the prospective poultry keeper to get stock by putting him in communication with some of its members having stock for sale. Sometimes the local board of trade or chamber of commerce is glad to help to bring together the prospective purchaser and the poultry raiser.
- 60. Housing The flock shouldbe comfortably but not expensively housed. A house which provides a floor space of 3 or 4 square feet per bird is ample for the purpose, and fowls are often successfully kept with an allowance no greater then 21 ⁄2 to 3 square feet. Houses must be dry and free from draft, but must allow ventilation. Often there is an unused shed or small building on the place which can easily be converted into a chicken house (see fig. 3). The front of the poultry house should be faced toward the south, if possible, so that the sun will shine into it. Perfectly satisfactory houses can be made cheaply from piano boxes or other packing cases. Two piano boxes with the backs removed can be nailed together and a door cut in the end. These boxes should be covered with a roofing paper in order to keep the house dry and to make it wind-proof. A portion of the door should be left open or covered with a piece of muslin, so as to allow ventilation. (See figs. 4 and 5.) Similar houses can be constructed of packing cases at a relatively small cost. A small amount of 2 by 4 or 2 by 3 lumber can be purchased for framing. The box boards can be applied for siding or sheathing and then covered with roofing paper. Where there is a board fence it is sometimes possible to take advantage of this by building the poultry house in the corner of the fence and making the fence itself, with the cracks covered by strips or battened, serve as the back and one side of the house.
- 61. Fig. 4.—Poultry houses,each of which is made out of two piano boxes. The two boxes are placed back to back, 3 feet apart, the back and top of each removed, a frame for roof and floor added, and the part between the two boxes built in with the boards removed from the boxes. The whole is covered with roofing paper. With piano boxes at $2.50 each, such a house can be easily and quickly constructed for $12. It will accommodate 12 hens comfortably. A cheap house 8 by 8 feet square can be made of 2 by 4 inch pieces and 12-inch boards. Plans for such a house are given in figure 6. The 2 by 4 pieces are used for sills, plates, corner posts, and three rafters. No studding is required except that necessary to frame the door and window space. The boards are run up and down and add sufficient stiffness to the house. They are used also for the roof and covered with roofing paper. The back and sides of the house also can be covered with roofing paper, or the cracks can be covered with wooden battens or strips 11 ⁄2 to 3 inches wide. In the front of the house there should be left a window or opening which can be closed, when desired, by a muslin screen or curtain which serves as a protection against bad weather but allows ventilation. In the side a door should be provided which will allow entrance. A shed or single-slope roof is best because easiest to build. A height of 6 feet in front and 4 feet in the rear is ample. If desired, the house may be built higher, so that it is more convenient to work in; the increase in cost will be slight. The ventilator in the rear is not needed in the northern part of the country, but is desirable in the South where summers are very warm.
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