Training

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Meaning
 After an employee is selected, placed and introduced he or she
must be provided with training facilities. Training is the act of
increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing a
particular job. Training is a short-term educational process and
utilising a systematic and organised procedure by which
employees learn technical knowledge and skills for a definite
purpose. Dale S. Beach defines the training as “organised
procedure by which people learn knowledge and/or skill for a
definite purpose.”
 In other words training improves, changes, moulds the
employee’s knowledge, skill, behaviour, aptitude, and attitude
towards the requirements of the job and organisation. Training
refers to the teaching and learning activities carried on for the
primary purpose of helping members of an organisation, to
acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes
needed by a particular job and organisation.
 Thus, training bridges the difference between job requirements
and employee’s present specifications.

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Training and Development
 Employee training is distinct from management
development or executive development. While the
former refers to training given to employees in the areas
of operations, technical and allied areas, the latter refers
to developing an employee in the areas of principles and
techniques of management, administration, organisation
and allied areas.

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Area Training Development
Content Technical skills and
knowledge
Managerial and behavioural
skill and knowledge
Purpose Specific job – related Conceptual and general
knowledge
Duration Short – term Long-term
For whom Mostly technical and Non-
managerial Personnel
Mostly for managerial
Personnel
Difference between Training and Development

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Importance Of Training
 The importance of human resource management to a large
extent depends on human resource development. Training is the
most important technique of human resource development. No
organisation can get a candidate who exactly matches with the
job and the organisational requirements. Hence, training is
important to develop the employee and make him suitable to the
job.
 Job and organisational requirements are not static, they are
changed from time to time in view of technological advancement
and change in the awareness of the Total Quality and
Productivity Management (TQPM). The objectives of TQPM can
be achieved only through training as training develops human
skills and efficiency. Trained employees would be a valuable
asset to an organisation. Organisational efficiency, productivity,
progress and development to a greater extent depend on
training. Organisational objectives like viability, stability and
growth can also be achieved through training. Training is
important as it constitutes significant part of management control.

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Benefits of Training
How Training Benefits the Organisation
 Leads to improved profitability and/or more positive
attitudes towards profit orientation
 Improves the job knowledge and skills at all levels of the
organisation
 Improves the morale of the workforce
 Helps people identify with the organisational goals
 Helps create a better corporate image
 Fasters authenticity, openness and trust
 Improves the relationship between boss and
subordinates
 Aids in organisational development

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 Learns from the trainee
 Helps prepare guidelines for work
 Aids in understanding and carrying out organisational
policies
 Provides information for future needs in all areas of the
organisation
 Organisation gets more effective decision-making and
problem solving
 Aids in development for promotion from within
 Aids in developing leadership skill, motivation, loyalty,
better attitudes, and other aspects that successful
workers and managers usually display
 Aids in increasing productivity and/or quality of work
 Helps keep costs down in many areas, e.g., production,
personnel, administration, etc.

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 Develops a sense of responsibility to the organisation for
being competent and knowledgeable.
 Improves labour –management relations
 Reduces outside consulting costs by utilising competent
internal consulting
 Stimulates preventive management as opposed to
putting out fires
 Eliminates sub-optional behaviour (such as hiding tools)
 Creates an appropriate climate fro growth,
communication
 Helps employees adjust to change
 Aids in handling conflict, thereby helping to prevent
stress and tension.

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Benefits to the Individual Which in Turn
Ultimately Should Benefit the Organisation
 Helps the individual in making better decisions and
effective problem solving
 Through training and development, motivational
variables of recognition, achievement, growth,
responsibility and advancement are internalised and
operationalised
 Aids in encouraging and achieving self-development and
self –confidence
 Helps a person handle stress, tension, frustration and
conflict
 Provides information for improving leadership
knowledge, communication skills and attitudes
 Increases job satisfaction and recognition

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 Moves a person toward personal goals while
improving interactive skills
 Satisfies, personal needs of the trainer (and trainee)
 Provides the trainee an avenue for growth and a say
in his/her own future
 Develops a sense of growth in learning
 Helps a person develop speaking and listening
skills; also writing skills when exercises are required
 Helps eliminate fear in attempting new tasks.
Benefits to the Individual Which in Turn
Ultimately Should Benefit the Organisation

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Benefits in Personnel and Human Relations, Intra
and Inter group
Relations and Policy Implementation
 Improves communication between groups and
individuals
 Aids in orientation for new employees and those taking
new jobs through transfer or promotion
 Provides information on equal opportunity and
affirmative action
 Provides information on other governmental laws and
administrative policies Improves morale
 Builds cohesiveness in groups
 Provides a good climate for learning, growth, and co-
ordination
 Makes the organisation a better place to work and live

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 The increasing competition, among other things
increases the significance of training. Training
matches the employee with the job from time to time.
Further, the trained employees invite organisational
change and ready to take up any type of assignment.
The success of any organisation, to a greater extent
depends on the amount, qualitative and timely training
provided by an organisation.
Employee Training

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Need for Training
 Every organisation big or small, productive or non-
productive, economic or social, old or newly
established should provide training to all employees
irrespective of their qualification, skill, suitability for
the job etc. Thus, no or5ganisation can choose
whether or not to train employees.
 Training is not something that is done once to new
employees; it is used continuously in every well run
establishment. Further, technological changes,
automation, require up-dating the skills and
knowledge. As such an organisation has to retrain
the old employees.

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Specifically, the need for training arises
due to the following reasons:
i. To match the Employee Specifications with the
job requirements and Organisational Needs: An
employee’s specification may not exactly suit to
the requirements of the job and the organisation
irrespective of his past experience,
qualifications skills, knowledge etc. Thus, every
management finds deviations between employee’s
present specifications and the job requirements and
organisational needs. Training is need to fill these
gaps by developing and moulding the employee’s
skill, knowledge, attitude, behaviour etc. to the tune
of the job requirements and organisational needs.

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ii. Organisational Viability and the Transformation Process
The primary goal of most of the organisations is their viability
which is continuously influenced by environmental pressure.
If the organisation does nor adapt itself to the changing
factors in the environment, it will lose its market share. If the
organisation desires to adapt these changes, first it has to
train the employees to impart specific skills and knowledge
in order to enable them to contribute to the organisational
efficiency and to cope with the changing environment. In
addition, it provides continuity to the organisation process
and development. The productivity of the organisation can
be improved by developing the efficiency of transformation
process which in turn depends on the enhancement of the
existing levels of skill and knowledge of the employees. The
achievement of these objectives mostly depends on the
effectiveness of the human resources that the organisation
possess. Employee effectiveness can be secured by proper
training.

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iii. Technological Advances :
Every organisation in order to survive and to be
effective should adopt the latest technology, i.e.,
mechanisation, computerisation and automation.
Adoption of the latest technological means and
methods, will not be complete until they are named
by employees possessing skill to operate them.
So, organisations should train the employees to
enrich them in the areas of changing technical
skills and knowledge from time to time.

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iv. Organisational Complexity : With the emergence of
increased mechanisation and automation, manufacturing
of multiple products and by-products or dealing in services
of diversified lines, extension of operations to various
regions of the country or in overseas countries,
organisation of most of the companies has become
complex. This has led to the growth in number and kind of
employees and layers in organisation hierarchy. This
creates the complex problems of co-ordination and
integration of activities adaptable for and adaptable to the
expanding and diversifying situations. This situation calls
for training in the skills of co-ordination, integration and
adaptability to the requirements of growth, diversification
and expansion. Companies constantly search for
opportunities to improve organisational effectiveness.
Training is responsible for much of the planned change
and effectiveness in an organisation as it prepares the
people to be the change agents and to implement the
programmes of effectiveness. Thus training solves the
problems of organisational complexity.

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v. Human Relations : Trends in approach towards
personnel management has changed from the
commodity approach to partnership approach,
crossing the human relations approach. So today,
management of most pf the organisations has to
maintain human relations besides maintaining
sound industrial relations although hitherto the
managers are not accustomed to deal with the
workers accordingly. So training in human
relations is necessary to deal with human problems
(including alienation, inter-personal and inter-group
conflicts etc.) and to maintain human relations.

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vi. Change in the job Assignment : Training is
also necessary when the existing employee is
promoted to higher level in the organisation and
when there is some new job or occupation due to
transfer. Training is also necessary to equip the
old employees with the advanced disciplines,
techniques or technology.

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The need for training also arises
due to :
 Increased productivity
 Improved quality of the product/services.
 Help a company to fulfil its future personnel needs.
 Improve organisational climate.
 Improve health and safety.
 Prevent obsolescence.
 Effect the personal growth.
 Minimise the resistance to change.
The factors discussed above are mostly external factors
and they are beyond the Personnel Manager’s control.
These factors often determine the success of training
objectives

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Training Objectives
Generally line managers ask the Personnel
Manages to formulate the training policies. The
Personnel Managers formulates the following
training objectives in keeping with the Company’s
goals ad objectives :
1. To prepare the employee both new and old to meet
the present as well as the changing requirements
of the job and the organisation.
2. To prevent obsolescence.
3. To impart the new entrants the basic knowledge
and skill they need for an intelligent performance of
definite job.
4. To prepare employees for higher level tasks.

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5. To assist employees to function more effectively in their
present positions by exposing them to the latest concepts,
information and techniques and developing the skills they
need in their particular fields.
6. To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare
them to occupy more responsible positions.
7. To broaden the minds of senior managers by providing them
with opportunities for an interchange of experiences within
and outside with a view to correct8ing the narrowness of
outlook that may arise from over specialisation.
8. To develop the potentialities of people for the next level job.
9. To ensure smooth and efficient working of a department.
10. To ensure economic output of required quality.
11. To promote individual and collective morale, a sense of
responsibility, co-operative attitudes and a good
relationships.

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Assessment of Training Needs
 Training needs are identified on the basis of
organisational analysis, job analysis and man
analysis. Training programme, training methods
and course content are to be planned on the
basis of training needs. Training needs are
those aspects necessary to perform the job in an
organisation in which employee is lacking
attitude/aptitude, knowledge, skill.
 Training needs = Job and organisational
requirement - Employee specifications

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Training needs are identified through
identifying the organisational needs based on :
i. Organisational Analysis : This includes analysis
of objectives, resource utilisation, environment
scanning and organisational climate :
Organisational strengths and weaknesses in
different areas like accidents, excessive scrap,
frequent breakage of machinery, excessive labour
turn-over, market share, and other marketing
areas, quality and quantity of the output,
production schedule, raw materials and other
production areas, personnel, finance, etc.

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ii. Department Analysis : Departmental
strength and weakness including special
problems of the department or a common
problem of a group of employees like acquiring
skills and knowledge in operating computer by
accounting personnel.
iii. Job/Role Analysis : This includes study of
job/roles, designs of jobs/roles, design of job
due to changes, job enlargement, and job
enrichment etc.
iv. Manpower analysis : Individual strength and
weakness in the areas of job knowledge, skills
etc.

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Methods Used in Training Needs Assessment
Group or Organisational Analysis Individual Assessments
Organisational goals and objectives Performance appraisal
Personnel/skill inventories Work sampling
Organisational climate indices Interviews
Efficiencies indices Questionnaires
Exist interviews Attitude survey
MBO or work planning systems Training progress
Quality circles
Rating scales
Rating scales
Customer survey/satisfaction data Observation of behaviour
Consideration of current and projected
Changes

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Individual Training  Group Training  Organisational
Needs Needs Training Needs

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Assessment Methods
The following methods are used to assess the
training needs :
1. Organisational requirements/weakness.
2. Departmental requirements/weaknesses.
3. Job specifications and employee specifications.
4. Identifying specific problems.
5. Anticipating future problems.
6. Management’s requests.
7. Observations.
8. Interviews.
9. Group conferences.
10. Questionnaire surveys
11. Tests or examinations.
12. Check lists.
13. Performance Appraisals.

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Training Assessment Methods
1. Identifying Specific Problems : Such problems
are: productivity, high costs, poor material control,
poor quality, excessive scrap and waste, excessive
labour management troubles, excessive violation of
rules of conduct, poor discipline, high employee
turnover and transfers, excessive absenteeism,
accidents, excessive fatigue, fumbling,
discouragement, struggling with the job, standards
of work performance not being met, bottlenecks in
production, deadlines not being met, and delayed
production. Problems like these suggest that
training may be necessary. For this the task and
the workers should be closely observed and the
difficulties found out.

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2. Anticipating Impending and Future Problems
bearing on the expansion of business, the
introduction of new products, new services, new
designs, new plant, new technology and of
organisational changes concerned with manpower
inventory for the present and future needs.
3. Management Request : The supervisors and
managers may make specific request for setting
training programmes. Though this method is
simple and a correct evaluation of the performance
deficiencies can be made, but often such
recommendations may be built on faulty
assumptions; and requests may not coincide with
each other or organisational goals.

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4. Interviewing and Observing the Personnel on
the job: Interviewing personnel and direct
questioning and observation of the employee by
his superiors may also reveal training needs.
5. Performance Appraisal : An analysis of the past
performance records of the perspective trainee
and comparing his actual performance with the
target performance may provide clues to specific
interpersonal skills that may need development.
6. Questionnaires : Questionnaires may be used
for eliciting opinions of the employees on topics
like communication, satisfaction, job
characteristics, their attitude towards working
conditions, pay, promotion policies etc. These will
reveal much information about where an
employee’s skills and knowledge are deficient.

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7. Checklist : The use of checklist is a useful
supplement to interviews and observations.
Through it, more reliable information can be
obtained and the data got are quantifiable. This
facilitates evaluating the training programme’s
effectiveness.
8. Morale and Attitude Surveys : An occasional
personnel audit may be conduced to forecast
future promotions, skill requirements, and merit
rating, to initiate informal discussions and an
examination of records and statistics regarding
personnel, production, cost, rejects and wastages.
All these generally reveal the potential problems to
be tackled through training programmes.
9. In addition, tests of the interpersonal skills through
handling of posed cases and incidents, may also
reveal training needs.

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Check List for Identifying Training
and Developing Requirements
1. Determine Immediate Needs
A. Evaluate current training and development
programmes to determine whether training
produces the desired behavioural changes.
i. Evaluate on going training programmes.
a) Review training documents for adequacy.
b) Observe trainers and trainees in the learning
environment of a classroom, a shop or a
laboratory.
c) Analyse in-course and end-of-course test results.
d) Interview trainers and trainees.

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ii. List and analyse shortfalls in the process or
products. Determine whether they are due to
a) Poor organisation;
b) Inadequate supervision;
c) Poor communication;
d) Improper personnel selection or policies or
procedures;
e) Unclear policies;
f) Poor job design;
g) Equipment or material problem;
h) Work methods;
i) Inappropriate work standards;
j) Inadequate operator or supervisory training.

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B. Survey all the aspects of the
operations of an enterprise to
determine the areas where additional
training is required.
a) Compare job descriptions and applicant
specifications with personnel records.
b) Analyse performance ratings.
c) Analyse all the records of an enterprise to
identify areas of possible deficiency.
d) Identify and analyse operating problems.
e) Use interviews, questionnaires, group
conferences tests, and work samples to
determine training problems.

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f) Subject each problem to a careful analysis to
determine whether it is due to:
1. Poor organisation;
2. Inadequate supervision;
3. Unclear or ambiguous policies;
4. Poor communication;
5. Improper personnel policies;
6. Poor job designs;
7. Equipment or material deficiencies;
8. Improper work methods;
9. Inappropriate work standards;
10. Training deficits.

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II Determine Long-term Training Needs
a) Analyse an enterprise’s plans, policies and
forecasts to determine their potential impact on
staffing needs.
b) Identify and analyse future systems, equipment,
techniques, and procedures to determine their
impact on personnel requirements.
c) Determine whether current training systems will
support future personal requirements in terms of :
i. Operative personal workers;
ii. Supervisory personnel;
iii. Managerial personnel;
d) Identify training System shortfalls.

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III. For each training requirement, determine
whether training be provided on or on- the-job.
Consider;
a) Comparative costs; and
b) The availability of in-house personnel, equipment
and facilities.
IV. Summaries training needs
V. For off-the-the premises programmes, develop
objectives, prepare contract specifications, solicit
and evaluate proposals, and select contractors.
VI. For in-house programmes, develop objectives
and guidelines following the procedures laid
down for the purpose

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Principles of Training
Providing training in the knowledge of different skills is a
complex process. A number of principles have been
evolved which can be followed as guidelines by the
trainees. Some of them are as follows:
1) Motivation: As the effectiveness of an employee depends
on how well he is motivated by management, the
effectiveness of learning also depends on motivation. In
other words, the trainee will acquire a new skill or
knowledge thoroughly and quickly if he or she is highly
motivated. Thus, the training must be related to the desires
of the trainee such as more wages or better job,
recognition, status, promotion etc. The trainer should find
out the proper ways to motivate experienced employees
who are already enjoying better facilities in case of re-
training.

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2) Progress Information: It has been found by various research
studies that there is a relation between learning rapidly and
effectively and providing right information specifically, and as
such the trainer should not give excessive information or
information that can be misinterpreted. The trainee also wants to
learn a new skill without much difficulty and without handing too
much or receiving excessive information or wrong type of
progressive information. So, the trainer has to provide only the
required amount of progressive information specifically to the
trainee.
3) Reinforcement: The effectiveness of the trainee in learning
new skills or acquiring new knowledge should be reinforced by
means of rewards ad punishments. Examples of positive
reinforcement are promotions, rise in pay, praise etc.
Punishments are also called negative reinforcements.
Management should take care to award the successful trainees.
The management can punish the trainees whose behaviour is
undesirable. But the consequences of such punishments have
their long-run ill effect on the trainer as well as on the
management. Hence, the management should take much care
in case of negative reinforcements.

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4) Practice: A trainee should actively participate in the training
programmes in order to make the learning programme an effective one.
Continuous and long practice is highly essential for effective learning.
Jobs are broken down into elements from which the fundamental
physical, sensory and mental skills are extracted. Training exercises
should be provided for each skill.
5) Full Vs. Part: It is not clear whether it is best to teach the complete job
at a stretch or dividing the job into parts and teaching each part at a
time. If the job is complex and requires a little too long to learn, it is
better to teach part of the job separately and then put the parts together
into an effective complete job. Generally the training process should
start from the known and proceed to the unknown and from the easy to
the difficult when parts are taught. However, the trainer has to teach the
trainees based on his judgement on their motivation and convenience.
6) Individual Differences: Individual training is costly, and group training
is economically viable and advantageous to the organisation. But
individuals vary in intelligence and aptitude from person to person. So
the trainer has to adjust the training programme to the individual
abilities and aptitude. In addition, individual teaching machines and
adjustments of differences should be provided.

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Areas of Training
Organisation provide training to their
employees in the following areas:
1. Company policies and procedures;
2. Specific skills;
3. Human relations;
4. Problem solving;
5. Managerial and supervisory skills; and
6. Apprentice training.

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(1) Company Policies and Procedures:
 This area of training is to be provided with a view to
acquainting the new employee with the Company Rules,
Practices, Procedures, Tradition, Management, Organisation
Structure, Environment Product/Services offered by the
company etc.
 This acquaintance enables the new employee to adjust
himself with the changing situations. Information regarding
company rules and policies create favourable attitudes of
confidence in the minds of new employee about the company
and its products/services, as well as it develops in him a
sense of respect for the existing employees of the company
and the like. The company also provides first hand information
to the employee about the skills needed by the company, its
development programmes, quality of products/services and
the like. This enables the new employees to know his share of
contribution to the organisation’s growth and development.

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2) Training in Specific Skills: This area of training is to enable
the employee more effective on the job. The trainer trains the
employee regarding various skills necessary to do the actual
job. For example, the clerk in the bank should be trained in
the skills of making entries correctly in the edge, skills and
arithmetical calculations, quick comparison of figures, entries
and the like. Similarly, the technical officers are to be trained
in the skills of project appraisal, supervision, follow-up ad the
like.
3) Human Relations Training: Human relations training
assume greater significance in organisations as employees
have to maintain human relations not only with other
employees but also with their customers. Employees are to
be trained in the areas of self-learning, interpersonal
competence, group-dynamics, perception, leadership, styles,
motivation, grievance redressal, disciplinary procedure, and
the like. This training enables the employees for better team
work, which leads to improved efficiency and productivity of
the organisation.

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(4) Problem Solving Training:
 Most of the organisational problems are common –
to be employees dealing the same activity at
different levels of the organisation. Further some of
the problems of different managers may have the
same root cause. Hence, management may call
together all managerial personnel to discuss
common problems so as to arrive at effective
solutions across the table. This not only helps in
solving the problems but also serves as a forum for
the exchange of ideas ad information that could be
utilised. The trainer has to organise such meetings,
train and encourage the trainees to participate
actively in such meetings.

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5) Managerial and Supervisory Training: Even the non-
managers sometimes perform managerial and
supervisory functions like planning, decision-making,
organising, maintaining inter-personal relations,
directing and controlling. Hence, management has to
train the employee in managerial and supervisory skills
also.
6) Apprentice Training: The Apprentice Act, 1961
requires industrial units of specified industries to
provide training in basic skills and knowledge in
specified trades to educated unemployees/apprentices
with a view to improving their employment opportunities
or to enable them to start their own industry. This type
of training generally ranges between one year to four
years. This training is generally used for providing
technical knowledge in the areas like trades, crafts etc.

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 TRAINING METHODS
 As a result of research in the field of training, a number of programmes are
available. Some of these are new methods, while others are improvements
over the traditional methods. The training programmes commonly used to
train operative and supervisory personnel are discussed below. These
programmes are classified into on-the-job and off-the-job training
programmes as shown in the following figure.
Training Methods
On-the-job Methods Off-the-job Methods
• Job rotation
• Coaching
• Job Instruction or
• Training through Step-by-step
• Committee Assignments
• Verstibule training
• Role playing
• Lecture Methods
• Conference or Discussion
• Programmed Instruction

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On-The-Job Training Methods
 This type of training, also known as job instruction training, is the
most commonly used method. Under this method, the individual
is placed on a regular job and taught the skills necessary to
perform that job. The trainee learns under the supervision and
guidance of a qualified worker or instructor. On-the-job training
has the advantage of giving first hand knowledge and experience
under the actual working conditions. While the trainee learns how
to perform a job, he is also a regular worker rendering the
services for which he is paid. The problem of transfer of trainee
is also minimised as the person learns on-the-job. The emphasis
is placed on rendering services in the most effective manner
rather than learning how to perform the job. On-the-job training
methods include job rotation, coaching, job instruction or training
through step-by-step and committee assignments.

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a) Job Rotation: This type of training involves the movement
of the trainee from one job to another. The trainee receives
job knowledge and gains experience from his supervisor or
trainer in each of the different job assignments. Though
this method of training is common in training managers for
general management positions, trainees can also be
rotated from job to job in workshop jobs. This method
gives an opportunity to the trainer to understand the
problems of employees on other jobs and respect them.
b) Coaching: The trainee is placed under a particular
supervisor functions as a coach in training the individual.
The supervisor provides who feedback to the trainee on
his performance and offers him some suggestions for
improvement. Often the trainee shares some of the duties
and responsibilities of the coach and relieves him of his
burden. A limitation of this method of training is that the
trainee may not have the freedom or opportunity to
express his own ideas.

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c) Job Instructions: This method is also known as
training through step by step. Under this method,
trainer explains the trainee the way of doing the
jobs, job knowledge and skills and allows him to do
the job. The trainer appraises the performance of
the trainee, provides feedback information and
corrects the trainee.
d) Committee Assignments: Under the committee
assignment, group of trainees are given and asked
to solve an actual organisational problem. The
trainees solve the problem jointly. It develops team
work.

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Off-the-Job Methods
 Under this method of training, trainee is separated
from the job situation and his attention is focussed
upon learning the material related to his further job
performance. Since the trainee is not distracted by
job requirements, he can place his entire
concentration on learning the job rather than
spending his time in performing it. There is an
opportunity for freedom of expression for the
trainees. Off-the-job training methods are as follows:

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a) Vestibule Training: In this method, actual work
conditions are simulated in a class room. Material, files
and equipment those are used in actual job performance
are also used in training. This type of training is
commonly used for training personnel for clerical and
semi-skilled jobs. The duration of this training ranges
from days to a few weeks. Theory can be related to
practice in this method.
b) Role Playing: It is defined as a method of human
interaction that involves realistic behaviour in imaginary
situations. This method of training involves action, doing
and practice. The participants play the role of certain
characters, such as the production manager,
mechanical engineer, superintendents, maintenance
engineers, quality control inspectors, foreman, workers
and the like. This method is mostly used for developing
interpersonal interactions and relations.

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c) Lecture Method: The lecture is a traditional and direct method
of instruction. The instructor organises the material and gives it
to a group of trainees in the form of a talk. To be effective, the
lecture must motivate and create interest among the trainees.
An advantage of lecture method is that it is direct and can be
used for a large group of trainees. Thus, cost and time involved
are reduced. The major limitation of the lecture method is that it
does not provide for transfer of training effectively.
d) Conference or Discussion : It is a method in training the
clerical, professional and supervisory personnel. This method
involves a group of people who pose ideas, examine and share
facts, ideas and data, test assumptions, and draw conclusions,
all of which contribute to the improvement of job performance.
Discussion has the distinct advantage over the lecture method in
that the discussion involves two-way communication and hence
feedback is provided. The participants feel free to speak in small
groups. The success of this method depends on the leadership
qualities of the person who leads the group.

54
e) Programmed Instruction: In recent years this
method has become popular. The subject-matter
to be learned is presented in a series of carefully
planned sequential units. These units are arranged
from simple to more complex levels of instruction.
The trainee goes through these units by answering
questions or filling the blanks. This method is
expensive and time consuming.

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