Viral heamorrhagic septicemia

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VHS)
Caused by infection with viral haemorrhagic septicaemia
virus
Synonym- Egtved virus
Virus belonging to the genus Novirhabdovirus, within
the family Rhabdoviridae

VHS is a disease of
farmed rainbow trout,
farmed turbot,
farmed Japanese flounder as well as a broad
range of wild freshwater and marine species
VHS in turbot

Aetiological agent, agent strains
The aetiological agent of VHS is a rhabdovirus
• genus Novirhabdovirus,
• family Rhabdoviridae, which also includes infectious
haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) and the Hirame
rhabdovirus of the Japanese flounder (Paralichthys
olivaceus).

Virions are bullet-shaped
approximately 70 nm in diameter and 180 nm in length,
 contain a negative-sense,
single-stranded RNA genome of aprox.11,000 nucleotides
 possess an envelope
that contains the membrane glycoprotein,
which is the neutralising surface antigen.

The genome encodes six proteins:
 a nucleoprotein, N;
 a phosphoprotein, P (formerly designated M1);
 a matrix protein, M (formerly designated M2);
a glycoprotein, G;
 a non-virion protein,NV
 a polymerase, L

Type Prevalent host type and location
I-a Farmed rainbow trout and a few other
freshwater fish in continental Europe
I-b Marine fish of the Baltic Sea, Skagerrak,
Kattegat, North Sea, Japan
I-c
Farmed rainbow trout Denmark
I-d Farmed rainbow trout in Norway, Finland,
Gulf of Bothnia
I-e Rainbow trout in Georgia, farmed and
wild turbot in the Black Sea

II Marine fish of the Baltic Sea
III
Marine fish of the British Isles and
northern France, farmed turbot in the
UK and Ireland, and Greenland halibut
(Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) in
Greenland
IV-a
Marine fish of the Northwest Pacific
(North America), North American north
Atlantic coast, Japan, and Korea
IV-b Freshwater fish in North American
Great Lakes region

All VHS virus isolates can be identified by immunochemical
tests using the monoclonal antibody IP5B11
The monoclonal antibody (MAb) IP5B11 reacts with all VHSV
isolates of all known genotypes and serotypes.
Most polyclonal antibodies raised against VHSV type I (DK-F1)
cross react with all known VHSV isolates in the indirect
fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and the enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISA).

In the neutralisation test, however, VHSV can be divided into
three subgroups based on the neutralisation pattern towards
a panel of four neutralising MAbs and one polyclonal
antibody
VHSV thus shares several antigenic epitopes, although sero-
grouping does not correlate with genotypes identified using
nucleic acid sequence analysis.
MAbs specifically reacting with different groups of VHSV, e.g.
the American/Japanese genogroup IVa and genogroup Ib
isolates, have been developed

The most discriminatory way of typing VHSV is by nucleic
acid sequencing.
Four major genotypes have been grouped, based on
sequencing of full-length and/or truncated genes from the
Ngene, G-gene and NV-gene

Survival outside the host
VHSV survival outside the host is dependent on the physico-
chemical conditions of the aqueous medium and on
temperature
The virus survives for longer periods at 4°C compared with 20°C
The virus has been documented to persist in freshwater for 28–35
days at 4°C and has been found to be infective for 1 year at 4°C in
filtered freshwater .

The virus can last a longer time if organic materials are added to
the water, such as ovarian fluids or blood products such as bovine
serum.
In raw freshwater at 15°C, the 99.9% inactivation time was 13
days, but in seawater the virus was inactivated within 4 days .
In other studies using seawater at 15°C, the infectivity of the virus
was reduced by 50% after 10 hours but could still be recovered
after 40 hours .

Freezing VHSV-infected fish at commercial freezing
temperatures then thawing the fish will not completely kill
the virus, but will reduce infectivity or virus titres by 90% or
more .
These authors noted that the remaining infectious virus
remained in the fish tissue and was not lost in the water
thawed from the frozen fish.

Host factors
The reservoirs of VHSV are clinically infected fish as well as
covert carriers among cultured, feral or wild fish.
Several factors influence susceptibility to the disease VHS.
In rainbow trout there is genetic variability for susceptibility and
the age of the fish appears to be of some importance – the
younger the fish the higher the susceptibility.
In general, older fish experiencing high VHS mortality have never
been in contact with the disease before.

Susceptible host species
So far, VHSV has been isolated from approximately 80 different
fish species throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including
North America, Asia and Europe.
the most susceptible farmed fish species is rainbow trout
genotype Ia, although VHS is also reported to cause mortality in
farmed turbot and Japanese flounder.
Among wild fish, severe die-offs have been observed in recent
years in the Great Lakes region of the USA and Canada involving
at least 28 freshwater fish species. All VHSV isolates from
these outbreaks belong to genotype IVb

The disease is more abundant in populations of young,
not previously infected fish.
VHSV is not known to infect fish eggs.
Highest prevalence of virus was found in shoaling fish,
such as herring, sprat, Norway pout

Target organs and infected tissue
In septic stages of the disease, the virus is abundant in all
tissues including skin and muscles.
Target organs are kidney, heart and spleen as these are
the sites in which virus is most abundant.
In chronic stages, virus titres can become high in the brain

Documented transmissions of VHSV across the interface
between wild and domestic host fish populations

Transmission mechanisms
transmission to be horizontal through
contact with other infected fish or
 contaminated water, etc.
Virus is shed from infected fish via the urine and reproductive
fluids.
Transmission readily occurs in the temperature range 1–15°C
but can occur up to 20°C.

Incubation time is dependent on temperature and dose; it
is 5–12 days at higher temperatures.
During and immediately following an outbreak, virus can be
isolated readily in cell culture.
Kidney, heart and spleen tissues yield the highest viral
titres
Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia in
rainbow trout.
Note pale color of stomach region,
pinpoint haemorrhages in fatty
tissue, and pale gills

In carrier (clinically healthy) fish, detection of VHSV is
more problematic.
VHSV will grow in a range of fish cell lines, with the
BF-2 cell line being the most sensitive to infection by
freshwater European strains.
Cell susceptibility is ranked in the order
BF-2,
FHM,
RTG-2,
and EPC ,
but other fish cell lines, such as CHSE-214 and SSN-
1, are also susceptible.

Susceptibility of a cell line to infection will depend on a
range of parameters, including
cell-line lineage and
 viral strain differences;
it thus appears that the EPC cell line may be more
susceptible to VHSV genotype IV isolates than to
type I II or III isolates

Disease generally occurs at temperatures between 4°C and
14°C.
At water temperatures between 15°C and 18°C, the disease
generally takes a short course with a modest accumulated
mortality.
Low water temperatures (1–5°C) generally result in an
extended disease course with low daily mortality but high
accumulated mortality.
VHS outbreaks occur during all seasons, but are most
common in spring when water temperatures are rising or
fluctuating.

Transmission primarily occurs horizontally through water,
with excretion of virus in the urine.
There are no indications or evidence of true vertical
transmission of VHSV

Geographical distribution
During the past two decades, VHSV has been isolated
from wild fish throughout the temperate area of the
Northern Hemisphere, both in fresh- and marine
waters.
In America, VHS primarily causes mortality in wild
fish.
In Asia, there have been reports of clinical outbreaks
in farmed Japanese flounder as well as isolations from
wild fish species

Mortality and morbidity
Mortality varies, depending on many environmental and
physiological conditions, most of which have not been fully
determined.
The disease is, in general, a cool or cold water disease with
highest mortality at temperatures around 9–12°C.
VHS mortality events

Small rainbow trout fry (0.3–3 g)
are most susceptible to
genotype Ia with mortalities
close to 100%, but all sizes of
rainbow trout can be affected
with mortalities ranging from 5
to 90%.
Immersion infection trials also
induced up to 100% mortality
in Pacific herring when
infected with genotype IVa
Brain tissue from
rainbow trout showing
infection and presence
of VHS virus
Red color demos
Staining of VHS virus

Environmental factors
VHS outbreaks have been reported in both freshwater and
seawater environments with salinities up to 36 parts per
thousand (ppt) and at temperatures ranging from 2 to
20°C.
Most disease outbreaks are observed in spring when
temperatures are fluctuating.
Laboratory studies have shown that the temperature range
of VHSV genotype IVb appears to be the same as
genotype I, with an optimum of 9–12°C and an upper limit
of 18–20°C

Sampling
Selection of individual specimens
Clinical inspections should be carried out during a period
when the water temperature is below 14°C or
whenever the water temperature is likely to reach its
lowest annual point.
All production units (ponds, tanks, net-cages, etc.)
should be inspected for the presence of dead, weak or
abnormally behaving fish.
Particular attention should be paid to the water
outlet area where weak fish tend to accumulate due to
the water current

Best organs or tissues
The optimal tissue material to be examined is spleen,
anterior kidney, and either heart or encephalon.
In some cases, ovarian fluid and milt must be examined.
Collecting-sperm

In case of small fry, whole fish less than 4 cm long can be
minced with sterile scissors or a scalpel after removal of the
body behind the gut opening.
If a sample consists of whole fish with a body length between 4
cm and 6 cm, the viscera including kidney should be collected.

Samples/tissues that are not suitable
VHSV is very sensitive to enzymatic degradation,
therefore sampling tissues with high enzymatic activities
such as viscera and liver should be avoided

Clinical methods
Gross pathology
Gross pathology includes generalised petechial haemorrhaging
in the skin, muscle tissue (especially in dorsal muscles) and
internal organs.
It is important to examine the dorsal musculature for the
presence of petechial bleeding, which is a very common sign of
VHS infection.
Hemmorhaging in muscle

Clinical signs
The occurrence of the following
signs should lead to extended
clinical examination for VHS:
rapid onset of mortality,
 lethargy,
darkening of the skin,
exophthalmia,
anaemia (pale gills),
haemorrhages at the base of
the fins, gills, eyes and skin,
abnormal swimming such as
flashing and spiralling, and
 a distended abdomen due to
oedema in the peritoneal cavity.
heamorraghing in internal organs

Pale organs
Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia in rainbow
trout.
Note swollen stomach and “pop eye”

Gizzard shad infected
with the viral
hemorrhagic
septicemia virus.
Notice the petechial
hemorrhages
around the mouth
(A) and sides of the
body (B).

Among the signs were
exophthalmia
(A, yellow perch),
petechial hemorrhages
around the eyes
(B, muskellunge),
ecchymotic hemorrhages
on the sides of the body
(C, freshwater drum) and
at the base of fins (D,
muskellunge), and
hemorrhagic protruded
vent (E, freshwater drum).
External gross lesions

hemorrhages in the
musculature (A, yellow perch),
petechial hemorrhages in the
visceral adipose tissue (B,
yellow perch),
liver bleeding (C, northern
pike),
 hemorrhagic enteritis (arrow)
and hemorrhages within the
ovary (asterix) of a ripe
muskellunge (D),
petechial hemorrhages and
membrane thickening of the
swimbladder (E, muskellunge),
several areas of congestion
in the vasculature of the
swimbladder (F, freshwater
drum).

In the chronic state of infection, affected fish do not in general
exhibit external signs.
VHS can also occur in a nervous form, characterised by
severe abnormal swimming behaviour, such as constant
flashing and/or spiralling.

Clinical chemistry
The red blood cell level is very low in the acute
phase of VHS and the blood appears light red
and transparent.
Stability of the agent
(effective inactivation
methods)
VHSV is sensitive to a number
of common disinfectants.

Histopathology pathology
The main histopathological findings corresponding
to the haemorrhagic lesions on necropsy were
hepatitis with multifocal, sometimes haemorrhagic,
necrosis in the liver, endocarditis and haematopoietic
necrosis in kidney and spleen.
a) Kidney, H&E-stained section of
necrotic haematopoietic tissue in
between intact kidney tubules;
some intact haematopoietic
tissue is evident in lower left
corner.

(b) Kidney, immunohistochemistry (IHC) showing virus
labelling (red colour) of necrotic haematopoietic tissue in
between intact kidney tubules.
(c) Spleen, immunohistochemistry showing virus labelling
(red colour)of necrosis in spleen.

The kidney, liver and spleen show extensive focal necrosis
and degeneration –cytoplasmic vacuoles, pyknosis,
karyolysis, and lymphocytic invasion.
While the skeletal muscle does not appear to be a site of
infection, erythrocytes can accumulate in the skeletal muscle
bundles and fibres without causing damage to the muscle.
(A)Hemmorrhage on viscera
(B)Hemmorhage on somatic
muscle(kidney)
(C)Loss of hemopoietic cells
and massive
hemmorhage in kidney
(D)Accumulation of
inflammatory cells
(arrow) surrounding a
blood sinus in the liver
of rainbow trout

Electron microscopy/
cytopathology
VHSV is a typical bullet-shaped
rhabdovirus, 60–75 nm in
diameter and 180–240 nm in
length.
Ultrastructural aspects of the
development of viral infection in
cell culture have been described
previously

Control and prevention
In the absence of anti-viral treatments, control
methods for VHS currently lie in official health
surveillance schemes coupled with control measures
Examples of practices that have been successful in
reducing the number of infected farms in an endemic
area and preventing reinfection, such as stamping-
out.

Successful eradication of
acute disease outbreaks were
recently experienced in the UK
in 2006 and Norway in 2007
as outbreaks have not been
observed since, and Denmark,
which had more than 400
endemically infected farms
freed itself from VHS after 45
years of surveillance and
control experiencing the last
disease outbreak in February
2009

Vaccination
Although research on vaccine development for VHS
has been ongoing for more than three decades, a
commercial vaccine is not yet available.
Chemotherapy
No therapies are currently available.

Immunostimulation
Several immunostimulants, such as
yeast-derived beta-glucans,
 IL-1β-derived peptides, and
probiotics have been assessed for
enhancing protection against VHS.
Several authors report positive
effects, but no immunostimulant
directed specifically at enhanced
resistance to VHS is available.

Disinfection of eggs and
larvae
Disinfection of eyed and green
eggs is an efficient and cost-
effective preventative measure
for stopping the spread of the
disease.
General husbandry practices
Poor water quality, high fish
density, high feeding rate, other
diseases such as proliferative
kidney disease (PKD),
ichthyophthiriasis, bacterial
kidney disease (BKD), etc. can
influence the course and
severity of disease.

In general, an increase in temperature, restricted feeding,
reduced fish density and restricted handling may reduce
mortality.
In endemically infected farms, stocking with native alevins is
usually done at as high water temperatures as possible.

Viral heamorrhagic septicemia

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