WALTHAM book of human animal interactions

Quit Printer Home Back NextContents
WALTHAM®
pocket book of
human-animal interactions
Edited by Dr. James Serpell
and Dr. Sandra McCune

WALTHAM®
pocket book of
human-animal
interactions

Contents
Edited by:
Dr. James Serpell
Dr. Sandra McCune
Written by:
Kathy Kruger
Dr. Sandra McCune
Dr. Ralph Merrill
With thanks to Dr. Karyl Hurley for
her intellectual input and support
Contact:
Dr. Ralph Merrill
WALTHAM® Centre for Pet Nutrition
Waltham-on-the-Wolds
Leicestershire
LE14 4RT
United Kingdom
Illustrations:
Beyond Design Solutions Ltd
Publisher:
Beyond Design Solutions Ltd
www.beyonddesign.co.uk
DISCLAIMER
This book was written to inform the reader and is not a medical guide. It should not be used as an alternative to
seeking veterinary consultation or intervention where necessary.
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL FOR MARS INC. AND WITH THE AGREEMENT THAT IT IS NOT TO BE OTHERWISE
USED OR REPRODUCED WITHOUT THE PRIOR WRITTEN CONSENT OF MARS, INC. COPYRIGHT© 2012, MARS, INC.
ALL RIGHTS INCLUDING TRADE SECRET RIGHTS RESERVED.
Foreword 4
WALTHAM® 5
Introduction 6
An ancient association 6
Pets and healthy
child development 7
Pets as family members 7
Reducing stress 7
Promoting healthy lifestyles 8
Cognitive development 8
Language development 8
Allergies and immunity 8
Health benefits 9
Pets and healthy ageing 10
Pets in society 11
Animals in therapeutic contexts 12
Animal-assisted intervention 12
Assistance animals 13
Animal welfare considerations 13
Emerging trends with special
populations 13
Pets in the classroom 14
Living healthier, happier
lives together 15
Building long and happy
relationships 15
Pet selection 15
Socialisation 16
Training 16
Nutrition 16
Veterinary care 16
Exercise and play 17
Staying safe with pets 18
Animal-related injuries 18
Some tips for adults 18
Some tips for children 18
Zoonoses 19
Allergies 19
The end of the relationship 19
Future focus 20
References 21

Foreword
Anthrozoology – a growing discipline
4 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interaction – Foreword
Perhaps the greatest barrier to the development of anthrozoology as a field has been the general
scarcity of funding for research. Success in biomedical research is typically measured in terms of
peer-reviewed publications in high-quality scientific journals, and by the ability to secure long-term
research funding from government-supported granting agencies.
Since its beginnings, the field of HAI has been sustained mainly by generous but sporadic funding
from the pet food industry.While it is likely that it could not have developed at all without this
support, the field’s dependence on limited amounts of short-term corporate funding has restricted
the type and scope of research conducted, raised doubts about the credibility of some important
findings, and discouraged young researchers from seeking to pursue careers in this area. By its implicit
acknowledgment that the study of HAI is now officially worthy of taxpayer support, the recently
established public-private partnership between WALTHAM® and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development is therefore a significant landmark, and an exciting
new opportunity for the field.
Certainly, a great many important questions still remain to be answered, many of which are discussed
in the pages that follow. In the area of animals and human health, there is a need for long-term,
prospective studies that examine why some human-pet relationships are more or less beneficial than
others. In other words, why some of these relationships tend to end prematurely in abandonment,
euthanasia or shelter relinquishment for the animal partner, while others evoke profound feelings of
loss and bereavement long after the animal’s demise. Can the quality of these different relationships
be related to their benefits? And what is the contribution of the individual animal’s temperament and
behaviour to the durability and impact of these attachments?
Anthrozoology, the study of human-animal interactions (HAI), is a relatively young discipline. I was lucky
enough to enter the field in 1979, in its early years. Now, more than 30 years later, I am delighted to
report that anthrozoology is enjoying what I would call a productive adolescence supported by a healthy
body of original research, much of which is summarised in this excellentWALTHAM® pocket book.
Looking back, it is clear that the field has confronted a number of significant obstacles on its path
to maturity. Research in anthrozoology is not easy. Cross-sectional comparisons of pet owners and
non-owners inevitably run up against the problem of causality. For example, are the observed health
differences between owners and non-owners really due to the pet, or are pet ownership and better
health related independently to some other unknown factor to do with the kinds of people who
choose to acquire pets? It is also hard to design empirical studies to demonstrate the value of pet
ownership or animal-assisted interventions using traditional research methods.
The ‘gold standard’ of clinical research, the double-blind placebo-controlled trial, is obviously not
feasible, and identifying appropriate control groups for comparison is invariably challenging.While
most established disciplines are underpinned by relatively coherent bodies of knowledge and theory,
and by well-defined methods of investigation, the study of HAI really began with an idea – that
animal companionship might be good for us – and then attracted an unusually interdisciplinary
mix of scientists and scholars who applied an equally eclectic range of concepts, theories and
methodologies to the problem.This characteristic of the field was part of what made it appealing
and challenging to those of us involved, but it may also have appeared unfocused or insufficiently
rigorous, especially when viewed from the perspective of more mature and established disciplines.
This perceived vagueness or lack of rigor has probably contributed to the slow pace of acceptance of
HAI research findings within mainstream biomedical science and practice.
Until very recently, the field has not identified plausible mechanisms for the reported benefits of
animal companionship. Fortunately, recent studies of mammalian attachment systems suggest a
possible role for the hormones, oxytocin and arginine-vasopressin, in the formation of human-animal
bonds, and in the ability of these bonds to protect or buffer us from the debilitating effects of stress.
Much work in this area still remains to be done to unravel the biological basis of the so-called
‘human-animal bond’.This approach may help to explain some of the remedial and therapeutic
effects of animal-assisted interventions. Experimental manipulations of brain levels of oxytocin have
been shown to induce expressions of trust and compliance in human subjects. Since both trust and
compliance are necessary precursors to success in most forms of counselling and therapy, this may
help to account for the value of incorporating animals as therapeutic adjuncts.

Seeking answers to questions like these will help to move the discussion beyond simplistic positive or
negative characterisations – for example, pets as universal panacea versus pets as social parasites or
inferior ‘substitutes’ for interpersonal relationships – towards a more nuanced understanding of both
the benefits and challenges of these unique human-animal partnerships. Consideration should also be
given to the possibility that the health benefits of pet ownership are cumulative over the lifetime of
the individual, and may be difficult to detect from the short-term perspective of most studies.
The role of companion animals in human development also deserves more attention. For example,
while a number of studies have shown positive effects of pet ownership on the development of
children’s empathy and prosocial skills, we still do not know whether all children benefit from these
interactions with pets, or if the effects are mediated by other factors such as the age, sex, and
circumstances of the child.
There are theoretical evolutionary reasons for thinking that preadolescent girls might be preferentially
attracted to the nurturing opportunities provided by pets1
, but it remains to be seen whether this
group of children derive greater or more enduring developmental benefits from their interactions with
animals than do others.
Finally, the overwhelming majority of published HAI studies have been conducted in Europe or North
America where people’s attitudes to, and relationships with, animals may be quite different from
those in other parts of the world. As emphasised in this volume, new research is therefore needed to
explore both the similarities and the differences in human-animal interactions cross-culturally.
In spite of the challenges it has encountered along the way, anthrozoology continues to flourish and
now seems poised to enter a new and exciting phase of its development.This timely and informative
WALTHAM® pocket book provides the perfect state-of-the-art introduction to the field, as well as a
valuable guide to where it will likely be going in the future.The authors are to be congratulated for
producing such a remarkably succinct and readable synthesis.
James A. Serpell, MA, PhD
Marie A. Moore Professor of Humane Ethics and Animal Welfare,
Director, Center for the Interaction of Animals and Society,
School ofVeterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania.
5 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Foreword
WALTHAM®
High quality innovative science, conducted in a caring way
For nearly 50 years,WALTHAM® has been a leading authority within the field of pet nutrition and
care.WALTHAM® science and publications have been instrumental in helping define the nutrient
requirements of companion species and understanding the special relationship between pets and people.
WALTHAM® scientists work in partnership with the pets at the WALTHAM® Centre for Pet
Nutrition to conduct pet-focused research to support Mars Petcare.WALTHAM® delivers scientific
breakthroughs in the areas of pet nutrition, health, well-being and behaviour. In collaboration with
global, scientific institutes and experts, the WALTHAM® team of carers, scientists and trainers
supports leading Mars Petcare brands such as Whiskas®, Pedigree®,Trill®, Cesar®, Sheba®, Kitekat®,
Aquarian®,Winergy®, Nutro®, Royal Canin and Banfield®.
Today, having pets share our lives is becoming more important than ever. Smaller households
due to factors such as family breakdown and separation, and a growing aged segment of the
population, mean pets are even more important for healthy child development at one end of the age
spectrum and for healthy ageing at the other.The public-private partnership established between
the WALTHAM® Centre for Pet Nutrition and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development is one example of how high quality research in this field is
expanding with greater credibility and reach across disciplines.
This booklet aims to provide a valuable introduction to
human-animal interactions for everyone interested in pets,
from people sharing their lives with pets to those working
within the pet food and related industries.
www.waltham.com

Introduction
A mutual and dynamic relationship
6 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Introduction
Humans have depended on animals since the dawn of our species, but it is only recently
that a field of study, known as anthrozoology, has emerged to help us better understand
people’s relationships with animals. Anthrozoology, the study of human-animal interactions
(HAI), seeks to examine the full range of people’s associations with animals, including
wildlife, pets, therapy, agricultural, zoo and laboratory animals.
This booklet focuses exclusively on companion and therapy animals, while recognising
that interacting with animals in wild settings, zoos and on farms can be both joyful and
beneficial. In this context human-animal interaction refers to the mutual and dynamic
relationships between people and animals and the ways in which these interactions may
affect physical and psychological health and well-being of both people and their pets.This
concept has also been termed the human-animal bond (HAB) or the human-companion
animal bond (HCAB).
The study of HAI is rapidly expanding.This pocket book will provide the reader with an
overview of the field, the many areas and issues being investigated and a snapshot of the
most recent research related to the potential health, social and emotional benefits of
animal companionship. It will introduce areas of continued and emerging inquiry, such as
the partnering of professionals with pet species to deliver therapeutic benefits, the benefits
of pets to communities, the health benefits of pet ownership and the role that dog walking
can play in promoting physical activity and healthy weight management in both pets
and people.
Animals have been a central feature of human life for many thousands of years.We know
that from the earliest human times, wild animals and, later, agricultural animals have
been important for the provision of food and other materials, transportation, and as part
of cultural and religious practices. Keeping animals as pets, while often thought to be a
modern practice associated with Western affluence and materialism, is in fact neither new
nor primarily Western. Evidence suggests that pet keeping has been practised continuously
throughout human history2
.
An ancient association
Thousands of years with man
Some of the oldest known archaeological
remains of domestic dogs buried with
humans have been found in Israel and
Northern Europe, and are estimated to have
originated 11,000 –14,000 years ago.
Similar dog-human burial sites have been
found in the North American Midwest,
suggesting that Native Americans may have
kept pet dogs more than 8,000 years ago.
Burial evidence from the Mediterranean
island of Cyprus provides support for
the idea that cats, long believed to have
been first domesticated in ancient Egypt
approximately 4,000 years ago, have been
the close companions of humans for at
least 9,500 years.
Ample evidence exists to support the
popularity of pets in ancient Egypt, Greece,
and Rome, and to establish that dogs and
cats were frequently kept as pets in the
imperial households of both China and
Japan.
Therefore, when one considers that pet
keeping only received wide acceptance
in Europe and North America in the mid
to late 18th century (less than 300 years
ago), it becomes clear that our current
relationships with companion animals
are just the most recent expression of an
ancient and enduring bond between people
and pets.

7 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - Pets and healthy child development
Pets and healthy child development
Social, emotional and health benefits
Contact with pets is emerging as a significant source of support and well-being for people
of all ages. Pets may, however, have a special role in healthy child development. Given
changing demographics, including divorce rates and the decreasing size of families in many
developed countries, pets may take on even greater social and emotional importance within
families. One startling statistic is that US children are more likely to grow up with a pet
than with a father in the home.
In developed Western societies there is
a cultural belief that pets are beneficial
to children.They are thought to teach
responsibility, build empathy, and promote
concern for animals and the natural world.
Families with children under 18 make
up nearly 40 percent of all pet owners
in the United States, and animals figure
prominently in children’s toys, books,
games, movies and television programmes.
Science is just beginning to more
rigorously examine the many roles that
pets play in children’s health, development
and well-being.
Studies show that animals can act as ‘stress
buffers’, for example they may ease the
distress associated with anxiety provoking
experiences, decrease the perception of
physical and emotional pain, and dog
ownership in particular may promote
healthier, more active lifestyles.
Pets as family members
One aspect of socio-emotional
development that has received a great
deal of attention involves the bonds that
children form with pets, and the resultant
social support that these relationships
can provide.
When asked, both children and parents
describe pets as ‘members of the family’,
and children will often refer to them as
their ‘best friends’. Many children turn to
their pets for support and comfort.
One study found that 75% of participating
10-14 years olds sought out their pets
when they were upset3
. Another, conducted
in the UK, found that children often
ranked pets higher than certain human
relationships within their social networks,
and that dogs and cats were viewed as
confidantes, as well as providers of comfort
and support4
.
Close relationships with dogs and cats have
also been linked to the development of
empathy (i.e. the ability to identify with
the feelings of another and ‘put oneself in
their place’) and more positive behaviour
among children (i.e. acting with the intent
of benefitting others).
While much remains to be learned about
the role that pets play in children’s social
and emotional development, it is known
that children without younger siblings are
more likely to own pets, and parents have
reported that these children also engage
in more play and caretaking activities with
their animal companions5
, suggesting that
the youngest or only children may receive
the most benefit from having pets at home.
Reducing stress
The availability of social support plays an
important role in the health of adults (see
page 9), and it has been suggested that
pets and other animals can also provide
this type of support to children. Decreasing
stress can have immediate, positive
effects on heart rate and blood pressure
for children and adults, and the presence
of animals has been shown to produce
these effects among people at all stages
of life, and over a variety of contexts. An
animal’s ability to provide non-judgmental
social support has been offered as one
explanation for the calming effect of animal
presence. Healthcare visits can be stressful
to children and early negative experiences
can lead to the development of longer-term
fears that generalise to other situations.The
presence of animals has been found to calm
children in these types of anxiety-provoking
situations.
When combined with the reported ability
of even brief interactions with a dog to
decrease both physical and emotional
perceptions of pain in children who have
recently undergone surgery (1-3 days prior
to interacting with the dog)6
, these findings
suggest that contact with animals may be
beneficial to child health and well-being in
tangible and measurable ways.

8 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Pets and healthy child development
Cognitive development
The role of animals in children’s cognitive
development, including aspects such as
perception, reasoning, decision making,
attention, memory and the acquisition of
language, is also an active area of scientific
inquiry. In the field of human-animal
interactions, a popular theory termed
‘biophilia’ suggests that humans may be
hardwired to attend to animals and the
natural world.
Selective attention to animals and nature
was probably essential to early humans,
whose survival depended on their ability
to locate resources, track prey and avoid
predators.This may help to explain why
interventions that utilise animals appear
to be motivating and beneficial for
some children (e.g. those with disorders
of attention, such as attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD))10
, and may
also support the inclusion of animals and
animal imagery in education.
Language development
The role of animals in the development of
language is uncertain, but it is interesting to
note that studies have found ‘dog’ and ‘cat’
to be some of the most frequently occurring
words in infants’ vocabularies11
.These
terms are also the ones children search for
most commonly in encyclopaedias12
. In a
study of Dutch children’s internet usage,
‘seeking information about animals’ was
among the four most common descriptions
of positive experiences with the internet13
.
These findings may provide further support
for the existence of an innate human
interest in animals, and demonstrate the
power of animals to motivate and stimulate
children’s interest in learning.
Allergies and Immunity
There is evidence to suggest that childhood
exposure to dogs and cats may decrease
the likelihood of developing certain
kinds of allergic reactions to them later
in life, and having pets in the home has
also been linked to enhanced immune
function in children, as evidenced by better
school attendance rates due to fewer
illness-related absences14
.This benefit to
school attendance is thought to result
from children in pet-owning households
having their immune systems ‘primed’
by exposure to microbes from pets.This
effect was particularly strong for younger
children (ages 5-8 years), and in some cases
amounted to nearly three extra weeks of
school attendance for children with pets14
.
Promoting healthy lifestyles
Pets play an important role in promoting
healthy lifestyles in terms of physical
activity and healthy weight management.
Childhood physical inactivity and obesity
are growing public health concerns
worldwide, and up to one third of children
in developed countries can be categorised
as overweight or obese. In addition to the
social stigma that being overweight can
carry, it puts children at increased risk for
developing a number of health problems,
including Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular
disease, and liver problems.
Pets, and dogs in particular, can help
promote physical activity simply by their
need for exercise and their desire to play.
Some studies have reported higher levels of
physical activity in children from families
with dogs7, and a study in Australia found
that young children (5-6 years old) from
families with dogs were less likely to be
overweight or obese8
. Research has also
shown that pregnant mothers who own
dogs are more likely to meet national
guidelines for physical activity through
walking their dog9
.

WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - Health benefits9
Health benefits
Promoting physical and mental well-being
In addition to producing a cardiovascular
response, chronic psychosocial stress also
increases the body’s release of the stress
hormone, cortisol, which in turn suppresses
immune function15
. Several studies have
found that interacting with pet or therapy
dogs is associated with reductions in
cortisol23,24
and self-reported anxiety25
.
Recent work on the hormonal basis of the
human-animal bond has shown oxytocin
peaks in both people and their dogs when
they interact positively.This ‘feel good’
hormone is also released when people are
in close physical contact (e.g. interactions
between mother and infant), and
suppresses the production of cortisol.
This reduction in stress hormones may
explain the feelings of relaxation that
relationships with animals can produce26
.
For people who enjoy animals, and
especially for those with limited social
support, relationships with dogs and cats
can help them cope better with stress, and
can be healthy, supportive and enjoyable
adjuncts to medical treatment.
So what is it about relationships with
animals that create these beneficial
health effects? One well-supported
theory is that pets provide social support,
and this support acts as a buffer against
the stresses of everyday life18-20
. People
who share their homes with pets have
healthier physiological responses to
stress, including lower baseline heart rate
and blood pressure, and demonstrate less
cardiovascular reactivity to, and faster
recovery from, mild stressors18,19
.
Pet ownership and animal-assisted
interventions have also been shown to
help people cope with the psychological
effects of stress21,22
. For example, in a
sample of men infected with HIV, those
who had pets reported less depression,
especially if they had less social support
from other sources21
.
Sharing the ups and downs of life with a pet can help people stay happier and healthier.
Some of the strongest evidence for the health benefits of pets has come from research
on cardiovascular health, physiological arousal (the stress-moderating effect of animals),
depression and anxiety, and social support15
. In 1980, a groundbreaking study showed that
there was a significant positive association between having pets and one-year survival
after hospitalisation for certain kinds of heart disease16
. Many psychosocial variables were
assessed, but only pet ownership and social support emerged as independent predictors of
one-year survival after a heart attack17
.

WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - Pets and healthy ageing10
The value of social support from pets may
be even more relevant for older adults
because, as one ages, social networks and
the support they provide may become
weaker. In older adults with fewer social
contacts, one study found that those having
a strong attachment to a pet reported
lower rates of recent illness than those who
were less attached28
.
Older adults with dogs tend to be more
physically active than those without and
retain their physical activity for longer29
.
Those without dogs can become more
physically active by walking with shelter
dogs, or with volunteer handler/therapy
dog teams. Results from such programmes
have demonstrated improvements in
walking speed and distance for older adults,
with participants reporting that the dogs
serve as motivators for continuing in the
programme more than walking with a
human companion30
.
Pets and healthy ageing
Supporting quality of life
In developed countries, increasing proportions of the population are made up of older
adults. Advances in treating disease, as well as in knowledge and education about nutrition
and healthy lifestyles, are at least partially responsible for this increase in longevity.‘Healthy
ageing’ is about retaining independence and quality of life by preserving physical, mental
and social well-being.
People in developed countries can now
expect to live nearly 80 years without
significant disability, and women in
particular may do so with no limitation
on their ability to care for themselves. In
the US, the majority of people over age
65 live independently, and an estimated
14% share their lives with pets27
. Pets can
be a strong motivator for elderly adults to
remain active, to get outside and to retain
functionality. Caring for a pet can provide a
strong sense of purpose.
Not surprisingly, many of the benefits of
interacting with animals that have been
reported in children and adults are also
relevant to older adults. Certainly, the
findings associating pet ownership with one
year survival after a heart attack become
even more important as one advances in
age17
.

11 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Pets in society
Pets in society
Benefitting the community
Anyone who has walked a dog in a city or suburb will recognise that pets get people talking
to one another. Animals are powerful catalysts for positive social interaction across many
different contexts, and have the ability to create connections that transcend racial, cultural,
physical and socioeconomic differences. Stopping to chat with other dog owners or meeting
up at the dog park are great ways to get to know neighbours and help build healthier
communities that are better connected, safer and more pleasant to live in.
Research into the community benefits of
pets has focused on the concept of social
capital. Social capital can be somewhat
difficult to define, but it has been referred
to as the glue that binds people to their
communities, and reflects the value of all
relationships within a community.
Social capital is created when people
interact with one another, for example by
volunteering, helping each other, getting
involved in community issues, working
toward a common goal or sharing useful
skills, contacts and resources.
With these examples in mind, it starts to
become clear how something like a local
dog park could strengthen and contribute
to the social fabric of a community
by providing opportunities to build
relationships, share useful information,
trade dog watching (or walking) favours,
volunteer, become more civically engaged
and interact with local officials.
Health benefits associated with high levels
of social capital include lower mortality
rates, higher self-rated health, better
general health and a decrease in common
mental disorders31
. Research conducted in
other areas has also identified associations
between strong social capital and decreases
in violent crime, positive child development
and quality community governance31
.
These social benefits of animals to the
community extend beyond pet owners.
Research in this area has found that even
those without pets in their homes believe
that having pets in the community creates
opportunities to socialise with neighbours32
,
and that having owned a pet in the past
can continue to provide long-term positive
effects on social connectedness and
sociability33
.
Companion animals
Social capital
Health and well-being
Figure 1. Conceptual model of the way in which companion animals foster social capital (Wood, L.J., Figure 2.2 (p. 28)
from “Community Benefits of Human-Animal Interactions…the Ripple Effect,” in McCardle, P. et al., Animals in Our
Lives: Human-Animal Interaction in Family, Community, and Therapeutic Settings. Copyright © 2011 Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co., Inc. Baltimore. www.brookespublishing.com. Reprinted by permission).
Facilitationofinteractions
andrelationshipswithothers
Empathyandhow
humansrelatetoothers
Ahelpinghand
Civilengagement
andcommunity
involvement
Fostertolerance
andtrust
Socialnetworksof
support
Getting‘outandabout’in
thecommunity
‘Doingtherightthing’
forthecommunity

12 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Animals in therapeutic contents
Animals in therapeutic contexts
Animal-assisted intervention
The modern practice of including animals in programmes designed to aid in the
treatment of physical and psychological disorders finds its roots in the writings of child
psychotherapist, Boris Levinson, in the late 1960s and 1970s;‘The pet, in a sense, becomes
the mirror in which the child sees him(her)self wanted and loved not for what he (or she)
should be or might have been but for what he (or she) is.’
Animal-assisted intervention
While the term animal-assisted therapy
(AAT) is often used to describe any
situation where an animal is brought into a
therapeutic setting, the technical definition
of AAT is much more limited and specific.
When correctly applied, animal-assisted
therapy refers to a programme where an
animal is intentionally included as part of
a goal-directed, personalised treatment
plan that aims to provide measurable,
documented improvements in human
physical, social, emotional or cognitive
functioning. Programmes that are more
informal and primarily concerned with
improving quality of life are categorised
as animal-assisted activities (AAA). Pet
visitation programmes – now common
in hospitals, nursing homes, and similar
settings – would fit within this latter
category.The term animal-assisted
intervention (AAI) is a more general term
used to refer to both AAT and
AAA programmes.
Today, animal-assisted interventions are
practised with people at all stages of life,
and can be found in every conceivable
medical or mental health care setting, as
well as in schools, universities, workplaces,
community centres, juvenile detention
facilities and prisons.
The rationale for the creation of animal-
assisted interventions, or the introduction
of animals into these contexts, tends to
include some of the potential benefits
that have already been presented (e.g.
reducing stress or distress, providing social
support, increasing motivation, creating a
sense of community and facilitating social
interactions), but may also have the goal
of assisting with behavioural change, or
facilitating the acquisition of new skills.
To promote behavioural change and
facilitate the development of enhanced
social skills, a variety of AAIs make use
of the behavioural lessons contained in
positive/rewards-based animal training
methods. Participants in these programmes
learn how to train animals (typically dogs)
by rewarding correct behaviours (those the
participant/trainer is trying to elicit) and
ignoring behaviours that are incorrect
or undesirable.
Skilled facilitators within these programmes
are able to draw parallels between the
effects of uncontrolled behaviour from
the animals and the social consequences
of unchecked behaviour among people,
while the animals provide immediate and
unambiguous responses to both enjoyable
and unpleasant ways of interacting.
Participation in these programmes has been
associated with a reduction in negative
behaviour (e.g. aggression/non-compliance)
and improvements in social functioning
(e.g. use of appropriate voice tone,
improved relationships with peers).
The benefits conferred by these
interventions are presumed to be derived,
in part, from their ability to demonstrate
appropriate behaviour and behavioural
consequences, and by providing
opportunities for participants to learn and
practise alternative behaviours without the
fear of criticism or rejection that can occur
in human-human interactions. Programmes
such as these have particular relevance
for, and have been implemented in, special
education, residential treatment and
correctional facilities.
Although this booklet focuses primarily
on cats and dogs, interventions that
include horses are also quite common.
These programmes are often referred to as
equine-assisted therapy, therapeutic riding
or hippotherapy. Hippotherapy is distinct
from other kinds of equine programmes in
that it is specifically employed by physical,
occupational and speech therapists who use
the motion of the horse to help patients
make improvements in their motor skills,
neurological functioning and ability to
process sensory input.
Other equine-assisted interventions have
more wide ranging applications, and are
designed to assist people with cognitive,
physical and emotional impairments.
Therapeutic riding programmes typically
involve participants learning specific riding
or horse-care skills as a means to enhance
areas such as self-esteem, responsibility,
leadership and communication.

13 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Animals in therapeutic contents
Assistance animals
Assistance animals serve to aid in the
physical and, increasingly, psychological
functioning of their handlers. Assistance,
Guide, Signal, and Service Animals are
typically dogs that are individually trained
to provide assistance to a person with a
disability.The role of these animals is to
perform some of the functions and tasks
that the individual cannot perform as a
result of their disability.
Although the companionship of an
assistance animal may provide its handler
with some social or psychological benefits,
the primary role of an assistance animal
is to deliver functional assistance, not
treatment. In many countries, assistance
animals are defined and protected by laws
that enable handlers to take them into
places of business where pets are ordinarily
prohibited.These protections do not
typically apply to therapy animals.
The modern practice of employing
assistance animals is thought to have
originated in Germany in 1916, when a
training school was established to provide
dogs that could guide Germany’s blind
World War I veterans.
Although probably the most recognised role
for assistance animals is as guide dogs for
those with impaired sight, today, dogs and
other animals (e.g. miniature horses) help
people with a wide variety of conditions
and disabilities to lead fuller, more
independent lives.
It has recently been discovered that some
dogs are able to predict the occurrence
of seizures, or identify drops in blood
sugar for people with diabetes, and can be
trained to alert their handlers before these
situations become dangerous. Ongoing
research shows promise in the ability of
some dogs to detect certain cancers such
as melanomas or bladder cancers.
Although assistance animals are not
considered pets, extremely close bonds
can be formed between these animals and
those they assist. Research investigating
the psychosocial benefits of assistance
dogs has reported that these relationships
can enhance self-esteem and psychological
well-being, along with providing
opportunities for social interaction and
increased community integration34,35
.
Animal welfare considerations
Ideally the assistance partnership should
be a mutually beneficial interaction. In
order to ensure the welfare of assistance
animals it is essential that their health and
behavioural needs are met.
Emerging trends with special populations
Social circumstances and advances in
science and medicine have heightened
public understanding and awareness of
disorders such as autism spectrum disorders
(ASD) in children and post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) in war veterans.
The prevalence of these disorders,
combined with their ability to significantly
impair functioning, and a shortage of
effective, scientifically-validated treatments
has resulted in an increasing role for
therapy and assistance animals to support
people with these conditions.
Autism-spectrum disorders (ASD)
For children with autism, animal and
equine-assisted interventions have been
reported to facilitate improvements in
critical areas such as social functioning,
focus and attention, prosocial behaviours,
as well as decreases in self-absorption and
stereotypic behaviours,36
.
Programmes that can assist children with
ASD in mainstream classrooms are urgently
needed, and researchers in Australia are
currently testing an innovative programme
that teaches children with ASD to care for
and interact with guinea pigs as a bridge
to developing better skills to interact with
their classroom peers36
.

14 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - Animals in therapeutic contents
Post-traumatic stress disorder and
returning war veterans
Veterans returning from war may have
difficulty reintegrating into civilian life and
are at risk for developing post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), an anxiety disorder
that can occur after exposure to a life-
threatening event. PTSD symptoms can
include anger, nightmares or insomnia,
hyper-vigilance, flashbacks or feelings of
reliving the traumatic event, and emotional
numbing and social withdrawal.
These symptoms have the capacity to
severely limit the veteran’s ability to
function and can put tremendous strain
on families. Service dogs are now being
trained to help veterans cope with a wide
range of PTSD symptoms. Service dogs can
help prevent social isolation and increase
feelings of safety by accompanying the
veteran in public places, and by alerting
to the approach of another person, or
maintaining a boundary of personal space
by positioning themselves between the
veteran and approaching strangers. In
addition, new therapeutic programmes are
emerging that pair veterans with shelter
dogs to work on basic obedience training
and increase the dog’s adoptability, or to
train the dogs to become service animals
for other returning veterans.Working
with the dogs provides the veterans with
structure and a renewed sense of purpose,
while also helping to ensure that shelter
dogs find new homes.
Pets in the classroom
Enhanced learning for children
In recent years, schools have begun to employ animal-assisted educational programmes
that aim to improve students’ motor skills, communication and reading abilities, while also
harnessing the calming or motivating effects that animals can provide.
Studies on the educational benefits of
including animals in classrooms have found
that pre-school children are more likely
to adhere to instructions and perform
certain motor-skills tasks (e.g. completion
of an obstacle course) faster, but without
sacrificing accuracy, in the presence of a
dog37,38
.The presence of a dog has also been
associated with enhanced performance on
cognitive tasks (e.g. matching one picture
with a related picture)39
. Improvements
in communication among students and
between teacher and students, decreased
behavioural extremes (both aggression
and withdrawal) and increased attention
directed toward the teacher, have also
been reported when dogs are present in the
classroom40
.
Reading programmes
A variety of programmes have also been
introduced that aim to improve students’
reading skills by giving them opportunities
to read aloud to dogs.The rationale for
these programmes is that the presence of
a dog may decrease a child’s anxiety about
reading and reading aloud, while the dog
serves as a non-judgmental, non-critical
audience to the child’s reading practice.
Some in education and child development
have voiced scepticism about the capacity
of these interventions to significantly
improve reading levels (in part due to the
lack of instruction or feedback provided to
the children). A stronger evidence
base is needed to confirm encouraging
early reports.
Special education
Special education, in particular, has
looked to the calming effects of animals
to decrease disruptive behaviours in
the classroom. Although evidence for
the effectiveness of these programmes
is limited, there does appear to be
general agreement among them that the
presence of animals can reduce emotional
outbursts, aggression and other undesirable
behaviour41,42
.This is supported by similar
findings obtained in other settings40
.
Although animals can be found in
classrooms around the world as
supportive educational partners, it is
unclear why the mere presence of a calm,
friendly animal is associated with such a
wide range of educational, emotional and
behavioural benefits.
Researchers in this area have speculated
that, in addition to reducing stress and
anxiety, animals may help children to focus
attention, or may provide some form of
motivation to learn or succeed at a task.
In light of the prevalence of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in some
countries, findings related to improvements
in attention and focus may have particular
significance for the development of future
educational programmes for children with
this condition.

15 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - Living healthier happier lives together
Living healthier, happier lives together
Maintaining healthy lifestyles
The many health benefits of regular physical activity are well documented, and include
lower rates of cardiovascular disease,Type 2 diabetes, depression and certain types of
cancer. Recent studies have reported that dog owners who walk their pet are more likely to
meet national guidelines for physical activity. From a public health perspective, promoting
dog walking as a means of reaching physical activity guidelines is appealing due to the high
proportion of people who share their lives with dogs, the ease and low cost of participating
in dog walking and the type of moderate-intensity physical activity involved43,44
.
Even modest increases in dog walking (90
minutes per week), may produce substantial
reductions in new cases of many conditions
linked to sedentary lifestyles (e.g. coronary
artery disease, diabetes, colon cancer)
and may result in significant healthcare
savings45
.
Studies have reported lower rates of
obesity among those who walk with their
dogs46
. For people of all ages, having a dog
in their life can be a great motivator to get
active together.
Building long and happy relationships
A successful partnership
The foundations of a long and happy relationship with a pet are created when care is taken
to choose a suitable pet and meet all its welfare requirements by ensuring that it is well
socialised and trained, and well fed and cared for in health and illness.
Pet selection
Selecting the right pet for the owner’s
living situation, environment, future plans,
activity level, lifestyle, budget and available
time is critically important. For example,
if an owner travels a great deal, or has
limited time, a pet that needs lots of care
and attention may not be the best option.
Becoming educated about the needs,
life spans and temperaments of various
species and breeds will help people make
an informed choice. It is important to
appreciate the nutritional, behavioural and
health needs of any pet species to ensure
that their welfare is not compromised.
Selection does not end with deciding on
the type or breed of pet wanted, or
learning about its needs. It is also
important to spend time with a potential
pet before deciding to welcome it into
the family. Just like people, animals are
individuals with unique personalities and
temperaments. Even among animals of the
same breed (or even those from the same
litter) there are huge individual variations.
Simply choosing a breed with an affable
reputation (e.g. a golden retriever) does not
guarantee a good match for a particular
family or living situation.

16 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Building long and happy relationships
Nutrition
Providing a healthy, nutritious, high-quality
diet is important to ensuring a long and
healthy life for pets. Diets that are suitable
for humans rarely provide the nutritional
balance that dogs and cats require, so it is
best to avoid giving them ‘people food’.
Some common ingredients in human food
can be toxic to cats and dogs, including
chocolate, grapes, raisins and onions. One
way to ensure that all essential nutrient
requirements are met is to feed pets a
complete and balanced manufactured diet.
In most cases, these diets are based on
decades of scientific research and expertise,
and are carefully designed to provide the
right amount of nutrients according to a
pet’s lifestage or lifestyle.
Veterinary care
Just like people, pets need regular medical
and dental care.Vaccinations are especially
important for puppies and kittens, but are
needed at regular intervals for pets of
all ages.
Regular check-ups and preventative care
for problems like heartworms and fleas also
help to ensure a pet’s health and well-being.
Periodontal disease is one of the most
common diseases in dogs, and can result
in pain, tooth loss and chronic infections.
Dental care not only helps to prevent
periodontal disease, it may also be
beneficial to a pet’s general health.
Socialisation
Providing adequate socialisation,
particularly to puppies and kittens, is
critical to ensuring a pet’s long-term
well-being. Pets who are inadequately
socialised cannot relax and enjoy life, and
are frequently stressed by even minor
events. Poorly socialised dogs and cats
are less likely to make rewarding pets, and
are at increased risk for euthanasia due to
behavioural problems.
Training
In addition to socialisation, training is
particularly important for dogs. If a dog is
expected to behave in a certain way, such as
relieving themselves outside, then owners
must teach them how to successfully meet
those expectations. Obedience classes and
puppy classes are widely available, as are
instructional books and other resources.
In addition to teaching basic obedience,
group classes offer excellent opportunities
for puppy socialisation.Training is a great
means of building the bond between
owners and their pets.

17 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - Building long and happy relationships
Exercise and play
Providing opportunities for pets to exercise
is essential to keeping pets healthy.
Having a happy, healthy relationship also
means taking time to just play and have fun
together. Having fun together helps to build
the bond between a person and their pet,
enriching their relationship.
Exercising dogs
Ideally, dogs should be exercised at least
twice a day, and the amount of exercise
depends on the dog’s breed, size, age and
health status, as well as external factors
such as the temperature and weather
conditions. On hot days, it is a good idea
to provide exercise during the early-morning
and evening hours when it is cooler.To
keep things interesting for both the dog
and owner, regular walks can be combined
with activities like running, swimming,
hiking and ‘play dates’ with other dogs.
Simply letting a dog outside may not
provide suitable exercise as many dogs will
not exercise at sufficient intensity unless
encouraged by an owner.
Most dog owners are familiar with common
games like fetch, but canine sports, such
as agility, flyball and canine freestyle, are
growing in popularity.
Such activities not only provide dogs with
mental stimulation and physical activity,
but offer opportunities for owners to
increase their own physical activity as well.
Suggestions for exercising dogs
• Walking or running with their owner
• Swimming, where it is safe to do so,
or dog hydrotherapy pools
• Interactive play with other dogs of
suitable size and temperament
• Throwing toys designed for dogs to fetch
(the use of sticks or stones is not
recommended as they may result in
injury or damage to dogs’ teeth)
• Canine sports such as agility and
obedience training can provide a useful
and social method of increasing physical
activity for both owner and dog.
Exercising cats
Exercising cats can be achieved by
stimulating their hunting instinct. Often
cats are reluctant to exercise themselves.
Cats enjoy opportunities for play and, for
indoor cats, play may be their primary
source of exercise.
Many commercially-available cat toys
enable active participation with owners, but
inexpensive everyday items such as paper
bags and cardboard boxes are also perennial
cat favourites.
Suggestions for exercising cats
• The use of toys is often very successful,
particularly the fishing rod type toys as
well as small toys that can be thrown for
cats to chase, such as ping-pong balls
• Cats love to hide and then pounce so
poking toys through the holes of a box
is a good way to get cats interested
in playing
• Cats rapidly become bored with familiar
toys, so it is important to provide as
much variety as possible
• Some cats love food puzzles where they
have to interact with a ball or other
device so that it releases pieces of
dry food
• Cats are physiologically suited to
short, rapid bursts of activity, rather
than sustained exercise.Therefore, it is
usually better to use a number of short
play sessions rather than a single
prolonged period
• Structures such as climbing and
scratching posts can also be beneficial in
stimulating exercise.

18 WALTHAM®
pocket book of puppy human-animal interactions - Staying safe with pets
Staying safe with pets
Some practical advice
Interacting with pets and other animals can be a source of joy, and can confer health and
psychological advantages to both children and adults. It is important, however, to consider
these benefits alongside the challenges of pet ownership. Some of the most notable risks
of pet ownership include animal bites and zoonotic diseases. Fortunately, applying some
simple techniques when interacting with pets will significantly reduce these risks.
Animal-related Injuries
Animal bites and pet-related falls can cause
injury, and while most are minor and do not
require medical attention, children and the
elderly are more vulnerable to serious injury
from bites and falls, respectively. Part of
staying safe with pets means understanding
that each animal is an individual – with
different likes, dislikes and fears. An owner
should never assume a type of interaction
enjoyed or tolerated by their pet will be
equally acceptable to another person’s pet.
Many people are unaware of or
misinterpret animal behaviour. Providing
education to parents and pet owners
about the causes of animal bites has the
potential to substantially decrease animal-
related injuries.
Some tips for adults
• Before getting a pet, new owners should consult with a professional (e.g. veterinarian
or animal behaviourist) to help determine the best choice for their lifestyle and
environment
• Children and babies should never be left unsupervised with a dog, and interactions
between children and dogs should be closely monitored. Any dog is capable of biting.
Even those who show no signs of aggression may bite if startled, or accidentally hurt
(e.g. tail stepped on)
• Ageing pets may be in pain or have diminished senses which may make them less
tolerant of interactions and more likely to be startled or feel threatened
• Pets may give little indication that they are ill or in pain, and an underlying medical
condition, such as dental pain, can cause changes in a pet’s behaviour. Pets who show
a sudden change in behaviour should be examined by a veterinarian
• Spaying and neutering may have little effect on dog aggression, although it may still
be worth doing for other reasons
Some tips for children
• When interacting with pets; be gentle, speak softly, respect the pet’s need to be alone,
and to sleep and eat without interruption
• Always ask permission from a parent and from the pet owner before touching any pet
• Like people, animals feel pain and do not like to have their ears or hair pulled or
limbs prodded
• Do not chase or corner a pet, let them come to you
• Understand and heed the warning signs animals make (hiss, growl, retreating, snarling)
and know when to leave them alone
• If a pet looks fearful or is backing away, so should you. Avoid direct eye contact as this
can be threatening to some dogs
• Never tease or pull a toy or food away from a dog
• Never slap, kick, shout at or act threateningly towards any animal
• All animals, like humans, can bite and scratch when provoked
• Always wash your hands after interacting with a pet.
• Children are often bitten in relation to guarding behaviour, e.g. a dog being protective of
food, toys, territory, puppies, or other items of importance to the dog. Children and dogs
should be kept separate when there is food present (even ‘people food’), and children
should be taught not to approach unfamiliar dogs or female dogs with puppies
• Many people are unaware of, or misinterpret, animal behaviour and body language.
A wagging tail, or an exposed belly, does not necessarily indicate friendliness or a desire
for interaction. Learning about common canine and feline body postures and signals can
be highly beneficial to the safety of both people and pets.

19 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - Staying safe with pets
Zoonoses
Zoonoses are diseases that can be
transmitted from animals to humans.
Although dogs and cats can carry a variety
of diseases and parasites which may be
passed on to people, the risk of getting sick
from touching or keeping pets is small.
Certain populations, such as pregnant
women, children under five years of age,
or people who have compromised immune
systems such as those undergoing cancer
treatment, organ transplant recipients, or
people with HIV/AIDS, may be at a slightly
greater risk.To minimise the likelihood of
contracting zoonotic infections people are
advised to always wash their hands after
contact with an animal and to avoid rough
play with pets in order to prevent bites or
scratches that could become infected.
Allergies
A small proportion of people may
develop allergies to pets which may
present as allergic rhinitis/conjunctivitis
(‘hay fever’), asthma, atopic eczema and
urticaria (‘hives’).
Being allergic to dogs and cats does not
automatically mean a life without pets.
Allergists and immunologists may be able
to provide medical solutions, and there are
also many lifestyle changes that can help to
minimise allergy symptoms, for example:
• Keeping pets out of bedrooms and off
upholstered furniture
• Removal of rugs and carpeting,
which can trap allergens
• Some studies have indicated that
bathing a pet weekly can significantly
reduce the presence of allergens
• Regular brushing can also help remove
allergens from pets, but this should be
done outside and by someone who is
not allergic.
The end of the relationship
Coping with the loss of a pet
Losing a pet is often one of the most difficult aspects of sharing life with them. Pets may
succumb to illness, trauma or old age. Owners may suffer loss when their pet must be
relinquished or rehomed (e.g. when an elderly person must enter an assisted-living facility
that prohibits pets), or in cases where the fate of the pet is unknown (e.g. when a pet
runs away or is stolen). Just as every person and pet are different, so are each individual’s
responses to the loss of an animal companion. It is not just people who experience loss;
other pets in the family may also display grief-like symptoms (loss of appetite, listlessness,
vocalisations). Understanding the potential impact of pet loss is an important first step in
supporting someone who is grieving.
Many people consider their pets to be a
member of the family, and yet, there are no
culturally defined and accepted rituals for
mourning the loss of a pet.
Fortunately, there is increasing recognition
of the importance of pets in people’s lives,
and this has resulted in a greater availability
of resources for those who are coping with
the loss of a pet. A quick internet search
will produce links to organisations that
specialise in providing pet loss information
and resources for coping, pet loss hotlines
and products to honour and memorialise
pets who are no longer here.
Locally, it is not uncommon to find
support groups and therapists who
have a focus on pet bereavement, and
veterinarians may be able to direct people
to these and other resources.
Those who have lost a pet frequently
express the need to talk about their
experience and to have their feelings
recognised and accepted by others.The
wider availability of resources has made it
easier for those coping with pet loss to find
understanding and support.

20 WALTHAM® pocket book of puppy nutrition and care – Training
Future focus
A better world for pets and their people
Throughout history, the relationship between humans and pets has been one of the world’s
most unique and enduring bonds.This special relationship benefits both humans and pets,
and goes beyond mere companionship. People see their pets as important members of their
families - they are friends, playmates and protectors - providing love, security and joy to
their humans. In turn, it is our responsibility to help make a better world for pets by taking
care of them and providing them with loving, safe and happy homes, good healthcare and
nutrition, and proper training and socialisation.
Not only do pets bring joy to the people
around them – interacting with pets
delivers real, tangible benefits for individuals
and communities.The early work on HAI
has provided intriguing evidence that pets
may, for example, promote better physical
and psychological health in their owners,
support socio-emotional development of
children, enhance learning in the classroom,
facilitate more active, healthy lifestyles,
help maintain or improve functionality
in elderly adults and provide emotional
support in a whole range of contexts when
life gets challenging.
Human-Animal Interaction research is
enjoying a period of unparalleled expansion,
and the quality and complexity of studies
are increasing simultaneously within the
field.These conditions are due, in part, to
new types of researchers joining the study
of HAI (e.g. neuroscientists) and also to the
formation of unprecedented collaborations.
For example, the public-private partnership
forged between the WALTHAM® Centre
for Pet Nutrition and the Eunice Kennedy
Shriver National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development, which has
supported the field through a variety of
activities and resources including a multi-
million dollar grant programme available
for HAI research.
The HAI field has been newly invigorated
by increased availability of research funds;
technological advances in neuroscience;
and an infusion of new scholars, ideas,
and methods. As the field enters this new
phase in its development, it will continue
to build on earlier work to create a stronger
evidence base for the reported beneficial
effects of pet ownership. As part of this,
the field will continue to expand its focus
beyond developed,Western countries, and
explore the roles that culture, ethnicity and
geography play in people’s perceptions of
animals and the practice of pet ownership.
A stronger foundation is needed to convince
medical and other authorities of the
physical and psychological benefits that
can result when pets and people share their
lives or interact in a therapeutic context,
and to provide assurance and protection to
consumers of therapeutic services.
Authorities need to see this evidence to be
convinced that pets play a role in our lives
that is beneficial to individuals but also for
growing healthier communities and cutting
health costs at a national level.The bond
between humans and their pets is special
and, as a leader in the field of HAI research,
WALTHAM® are dedicated to celebrating it
through programmes and partnerships that
highlight the benefits of having a pet.

21 WALTHAM®
pocket book of human-animal interactions - References
References
1. Serpell, J.A., Paul, E.S. (2011) Pets in the family: An evolutionary perspective.
In C. Salmon T. Shackelford (Eds.),The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Family
Psychology (pp. 297-309). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Serpell, J.A. (2011) Historical and cultural perspectives on human-pet interactions.
In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. Griffin, L. Esposito L. Freund (Eds.), Animals in Our Lives:
Human-Animal Interaction in Family, Community, Therapeutic Settings (pp. 11-22).
Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.
3. Covert, A., et al (1985) Pets, early adolescents and families. Marriage and Family
Review, 8, 95-108.
4. McNicholas, J. (2001) Children’s representations of pets in their social networks.
Child: Care, Health and Development, 27(3), 279-294.
5. Melson, G.F. (2011) Principles for human-animal interaction research. In P. McCardle,
S. McCune, J. A. Griffin V. Maholmes (Eds.), How Animals Affect Us: Human Health
(pp. 13-33).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
6. Sobo, E.J. et al (2006) Canine visitation (pet) therapy: Pilot data on decreases in child
pain perception. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 24(1), 51-57.
7. Owen, C.G. et al (2010) Family dog ownership and levels of physical activity in
childhood: Findings from the child heart and health study in England. American Journal
of Public Health, 100(9), 1669-1671.
8. Timperio, A. et al (2008) Is dog ownership or dog walking associated with weight
status in children and their parents? Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 19, 60-63.
9. Westgarth, C. (2012) Dog ownership during pregnancy, maternal activity, and
obesity: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 7(2): e31315. doi:10.1371/journal.
pone.0031315.
10. Katcher, A. and S.Teumer (2006) A 4-year trial of animal-assisted therapy with public
school special education students. In A.H. Fine (Ed.), Handbook on Animal-Assisted
Therapy:Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice. San Diego, CA, Academic
Press: 227-242.
11. DeLoache, J.S. et al (2011) How very young children think about animals
How Animals Affect Us: Examining the Influence of Human-Animal Interaction
on Child Development and Human Health (pp. 85-99).Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
12. Beck, A.M. (2011) Animals and child health and development. In P. McCardle, S.
McCune, J. A. Griffin, L. Esposito L. S. Freund (Eds.), Animals in Our Lives: Human-
Animal Interaction in Family, Community, and Therapeutic Settings (pp. 43-52).
Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.
13. Valkenburg, P., Soeters, K. (2001) Children’s positive and negative experiences
with the Internet: An exploratory survey. Communication Research, 28(5), 652-675.
14. McNicholas, J. et al (2004) Beneficial effects of pet ownership on child immune
function. Paper presented at the 10th International Conference on Human-Animal
Interactions, Glasgow, Scotland.
15. Friedmann, E. et al (2011) Physiological correlates of health benefits from pets.
In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin V. Maholmes (Eds.), How Animals Affect Us:
Examining the Influence of Human-Animal Interaction of Child Development and
Human Health (pp. 163-182).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
16. Friedmann, E. et al (1980) Animal companions and one-year survival of patients after
discharge from a coronary care unit. Public Health Reports, 95(4), 307-312.
17. Friedmann, E., Thomas, S.A. (1995) Pet ownership, social support, and one-year
survival after acute myocardial infarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial
(CAST).The American Journal of Cardiology, 76(17), 1213-1217.
18. Allen, K. et al (2001) Pet ownership, but not ACE inhibitor therapy, blunts home blood
pressure responses to mental stress. Hypertension, 38, 815-820.
19. Allen, K. et al (2002) Cardiovascular reactivity and the presence of pets, friends, and
spouses:The truth about cats and dogs. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 727-739.
20. Kikusui,T. et al (2006). Social buffering: Relief from stress and anxiety. Philosophical
Transactions of The Royal Society B (Biological Sciences), 361, 2215-2228.

22 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - References
21. Siegel, J. et al (1999). AIDS diagnosis and depression in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort
Study:The ameliorating impact of pet ownership. AIDS Care, 11(2), 157-170.
22. Souter, M.A., Miller, M. D. (2007). Do animal-assisted activities effectively treat
depression? A meta-analysis. Anthrozoos, 20(2), 167-180.
23. Barker, S.B. et al (2010). Exploratory study of stress-buffering response patterns from
interaction with a therapy dog. Anthrozoos, 23(1), 79-91.
24. Odendall, J., Meintjes, R. (2003). Neurophysiological correlates of affiliative
behavior between humans and dogs.Veterinary Journal, 165(3), 296-301.
25. Barker, S.B., Dawson, K.S. (1998). The effects of animal-assisted therapy on anxiety
ratings of hospitalized psychiatric patients. Psychiatric Services, 49(6), 797-802.
26. Uvnas-Moberg, K. et al (2011). Promises and pitfalls of hormone research in
human-animal interaction. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin V. Maholmes (Eds.),
How Animals Affect Us: Examining the Influence of Human-Animal Interaction on
Child Development and Human Health (pp. 53-81).Washington, DC: American
27. APPA. (2009). 2009-2010 National Pet Owners Survey. Greenwich, CT: American Pet
Products Association.
28. Garrity,T. F. et al (1989). Pet ownership and attachment as supportive factors in the
health of the elderly. Anthrozoos, 3(1), 35-44.
29. Thorpe R.J. et al (2011). Dog walking as physical activity for older adults. In R. A.
Johnson, A. M. Beck S. McCune (Eds.),The Health Benefits of Dog Walking for Pets
People (pp. 75-88).West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press.
30. Johnson, R. A. (2011). Animal-assisted interventions in health care contexts. In P.
McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin V. Maholmes (Eds.), How Animals Affect Us:
Examing the Influence of Human-Animal Interaction on Child Development and
Human Health (pp. 183-192).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
31. Wood, L. et al. (2009). Living Well Together: How Companion Animals Can Help
Strengthen Social Fabric: Petcare Information Advisory Service Pty Ltd and
the Centre for the Built Environment and Health (School of Population Health),The
University of Western Australia.
32. Wood, L. J. et al (2007). More than a furry companion:The ripple effect of companion
animals on neighborhood interactions and sense of community. Society and Animals,
15, 46-56.
33. Nagasawa, M., Ohta, M. (2010). The influence of dog ownership in childhood
on the sociality of elderly Japanese men. Animal Science Journal, 81, 377-383.
34. Allen, K. (1996). The value of service dogs for people with severe ambulatory
disabilities. Journal of the American Medical Association, 275(13), 1001-1006.
35. Mader, B. et al (1989). Social acknowledgement for children with disabilities:
Effects of service dogs. Child Development, 60, 1529-1534.
36. O’Haire, M. et al (2010) Guinea pigs as classroom pets.The SCAS Journal,Winter 2010,
11-13.
37. Gee, N.R. et al (2009). Preschoolers’ adherences to instructions as a function of
presence of a dog and motor skills task. Anthrozoos, 22, 267-276.
38. Gee, N.R. et al (2007). The role of therapy dogs in speed and accuracy to complete
motor skills tasks for preschool children. Anthrozoos, 20(4), 375-386.
39. Gee, N.R. (2011). Animals in the classroom. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin,
L. Esposito L. S. Freund (Eds.), Animals in Our Lives: Human-Animal Interaction in
Family, Community, Therapeutic Settings (pp. 117-137). Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes Publishing Company.
40. Kotrschal, K., Ortbauer, B. (2003). Behavioral effects of the presence of a dog
in a classroom. Anthrozoos, 16(2), 147-159.
41. Anderson, K.L., Olson, M.R. (2006). The value of a dog in a classroom of children
with severe emotional disorders. Anthrozoos, 19(1), 35-49.

42. Esteves, S.W., Stokes,T. (2008). Social effects of a dog’s presence on children
with disabilities. Anthrozoos, 21(1), 5-15.
43. Bauman, A. et al. (2011). International perspectives on the epidemiology of dog
walking. In R. A. Johnson, A. M. Beck S. McCune (Eds.),The Health Benefits of Dog
Walking for Pets People.West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
44. Johnson, et al. (2011). Future directions in dog walking. In R. A. Johnson, A. M. Beck
S. McCune (Eds.),The Health Benefits of Dog Walking for Pets People (pp. 181-191).
West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press.
45. Headey, B., Grabka, M. (2011). Health correlates of pet ownership from
national surveys. In P. McCardle, S. McCune, J. A. Griffin V. Maholmes (Eds.),
How Animals Affect Us: Examining the Influence of Human-Animal Interaction on
Child Development and Human Health (pp. 153-162).Washington, DC: American
46. Coleman, K.J. et al (2008). Physical activity, weight status, and neighborhood
characteristics of dog walkers. Preventive Medicine, 47, 309-312.
23 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions - References

24 WALTHAM® pocket book of human-animal interactions
James Serpell is the Marie A. Moore
Professor of Humane Ethics and
Animal Welfare at the School of
Veterinary Medicine, University of
Pennsylvania, where he also directs the
Center for the Interaction of Animals
Society (CIAS).
He received his bachelor’s degree
in zoology from University College
London in 1974, and his PhD in
animal behaviour from the University
of Liverpool in 1980. In 1985 he
established the Companion Animal
Research Group at the University of
Cambridge before moving in 1993 to his current position at the University
of Pennsylvania where he lectures on veterinary ethics, applied animal
behaviour and welfare, and human-animal interactions. His research
focuses on the behaviour and welfare of dogs and cats, the development of
human attitudes to animals, and the history and impact of human-animal
relationships. In addition to publishing more than 100 articles and book
chapters on these and related topics, he is the author, editor or co-editor of
several books including Animals Human Society: Changing Perspectives
(1994),The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior Interactions with
People (1995), In the Company of Animals (1996), and Companion Animals
Us (2000).
Sandra McCune is manager for the
Human-Animal Interaction (HAI) re-
search programme at the WALTHAM®
Centre for Pet Nutrition (WCPN).
Sandra McCune joined WALTHAM®
in 1993 after completing a PhD in cat
behaviour and welfare at Cambridge
University. Previously qualified as a
Veterinary Nurse in Ireland, she went
on to do a zoology degree (specialising
in physiology) at Trinity College, Dublin
before heading to Cambridge. Sandra
manages a large portfolio of research
projects across many aspects of HAI in
countries including US, Sweden, UK, Austria, Germany and Australia. She is
also the scientific lead on the public-private partnership Mars-WALTHAM®
has formed with the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child
Health Human Development, one of the National Institutes of Health in
the USA.The partnership was established in 2008 to encourage research
into HAI. Sandra has written research papers and book chapters on several
aspects of cat behaviour, cognition, welfare, nutrition and HAI. She has
co-edited and co-authored several HAI books including Animals in Our Lives
(2010), How Animals Affect Us (2010) and The Health Benefits of Dog
Walking for Pets and People (2011).

WALTHAM book of human animal interactions

More Related Content

Viewers also liked

Similar to WALTHAM book of human animal interactions

More from Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition

Recently uploaded

In this document

WALTHAM book of human animal interactions