Introduction to Theoretical Physics

So, you want to be a theoretical physicist. Or you are at least interested enough to look into a book about it. So what is theoretical physics? What is the difference between mathematics and physics? This chapter aims to answer that question. An example of theoretical physics. The ancient Greek philosophers had the mistaken idea that gravitation was a natural tendency for objects to be attracted to an almost mystical place in the world. This special place was the center of the Earth. The heavier an object was the more strongly attracted it would be to that center. In other words, their weight determined their proper place and they all settled into that place. This was their idea of gravity. Today scientists laugh at that idea, but what tells us that this idea is wrong? What is the right idea? The fact that Aristotles idea of gravity was wrong took a long time to be realized. It was Galileo that put the proverbial nail in the coffin. His argument went something like this; noteI will enumerate the arguments so they are easier to follow (this will be a standard procedure for proofs and derivations): 1. We will assume that an object that is heavy falls faster than a lighter object as they are each trying to get to their proper place in the world. This explained why it was possible to pick up small objects, but not buildings or mountains; the latter being in their proper places. This is the idea promoted by Aristotle. What happens when we strap a lighter object to a heavy one? There are two possibilities; either the combined object acts like a single object, or it does not. This idea is an example of the law of the excluded middle. Something either is or it is not, there is no middle. These possibilities led to the next two arguments.

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Introduction to Theoretical Physics

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What happens when we strap a lighter object to a heavy one? There are two possibilities; either the combined object acts like a single object, or it does not. This idea is an example of the law of the excluded middle. Something either is or it is not, there is no middle. These possibilities led to the next two arguments. If the combination forms a single object, that single object is heavier than either of the two components. By the assumption in step 1 the single heavier object must fall faster than the heavier of the two component objects. If the combination does not form a composite object, then, by the assumption made in step 1, the lighter object will fall slower than the heavier. Since they are connected by the strap, the lighter object will slow the rate of fall of the heavier object, so the combination will not fall as fast as the heavier object. These arguments lead to the prediction that the same combination of objects fall both faster and slower than the heavier of the two component objects. A situation where a given assertion leads to two or more opposing outcomes is called a contradiction. No assertion that leads to a contradiction can be true. This method of proof is proof by contradiction, or reductio ad absurdum. Let us say that you are trying to prove an assertion. The first step in a proof by contradiction is to assume your assertion to be false. You then show that this falsehood leads to a contradiction. Since no assertion leading to a contradiction can be true, the falsehood is then itself false. This proves your original assertion cannot be false. By the law of the excluded middle, it must then be true. This completes a proof by contradiction. In this case we have proved that Aristotle's assertion that objects fall at a rate according to their weight is false; this is the same as proving that objects fall in a way that is independent of their weight. In fact, this principle is the law of falling bodies. To state this law explicitly, objects fall under the influence of gravity independent of their weight. This implies that the influence of gravity is the same for all objects.

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In this case we have proved that Aristotle's assertion that objects fall at a rate according to their weight is false; this is the same as proving that objects fall in a way that is Introduction to Theoretical Physics independent of their weight. In fact, this principle is the law of falling bodies. To state this law explicitly, objects fall under the influence of gravity independent of their weight. This implies that the influence of gravity is the same for all objects. Having made the prediction that objects fall independently of their weights, experiments were performed that confirmed this result.

This is a fantastic example of the process of theoretical physics! We have an established idea, predicted that this idea produced results that were contradictory, thus formulated a new hypothesis and confirmed it by both logical reasoning and physical experiment. We can attempt to answer our question for the chapter: Theoretical physics is the process of establishing an idea, predicting its consequences, and either confirming or refuting it. But how do we come up with an idea about nature? Physical phenomena. There is a well-worn definition of physics that it the study of matter and energy. I do not like that definition, as it is almost misleading unless you already know what matter and energy are; and those questions have not been settled to this day. Physics concerns itself with discovering the most fundamental principles of the universe around us. This boils down to understanding the most elementary constituents of matter and the interactions between them. Wait a minute! What about energy? The truth is we do not really know what energy is. We can calculate energy for many different situations. We can use these calculations to learn about 6. different situations, but these calculations result from the study of matter and its interactions. All we know about energy is that it is some number we can calculate and use in calculations. All attempts to study matter and/or its interactions are based on attempts to represent physical phenomena mathematically. This allows us to use the rules of the type of mathematics being used to predict the physical phenomena. The attempt to understand matter by studying idealized objects without regard to shape or size is called particle theory. The

different situations, but these calculations result from the study of matter and its interactions. All we know about energy is that it is some number we can calculate and use Physics in calculations. Introduction to Theoretical All attempts to study matter and/or its interactions are based on attempts to represent physical phenomena mathematically. This allows us to use the rules of the type of mathematics being used to predict the physical phenomena. The attempt to understand matter by studying idealized objects without regard to shape or size is called particle theory. The first step in understanding any physical phenomena is to try to simplify the situation by removing all complications and then working out all of the consequences of that situation. The particle is this kind of simplification. For such a simple explanation, it is very rich in principles and consequences. In the last century, particle theory has also taken on a definition relating to subatomic particles. We only have so many words, and they often must be used in many different ways in the same field. The mathematics of particles is the analytic geometry of points, basic calculus, and ordinary differential equations. The attempt to understand interactions between collections of matter by examining properties that seem to be everywherecalled a fieldis called field theory. Here we look at a property like temperature. If we assume that this temperature exists everywhere we are considering, we call it a temperature field. The mathematics of fields are the theories of scalar, vector, and tensor fields, and partial differential equations. The theories of matter are the result of the inevitable complication of nature over idealized theories. Once we have studied many simple ideas, we need to make them more realistic by reintroducing some of the complications that we removed in the process of simplification. We can treat matter in bulk as a kind of matter field. This kind of idea is sometimes called a continuum theory, based on the idea that matter is continuous. The mathematics of continuous matter is the theory of tensor fields and partial differential equations. We can also examine matter and the interactions of matter at ever smaller scales, where the simple ideas no longer holdthis is called a quantum theory. The mathematics of quantum physics is abstract algebra and partial differential equations. We can take the point of few that matter consists of a huge number of fundamental elements and determine the properties of it by examining the collection, this is

kind of matter field. This kind of idea is sometimes called a continuum theory, based on the idea that matter is continuous. The mathematics of continuous is the theory of tensor fields Introduction matter to Theoretical Physics and partial differential equations. We can also examine matter and the interactions of matter at ever smaller scales, where the simple ideas no longer holdthis is called a quantum theory. The mathematics of quantum physics is abstract algebra and partial differential equations. We can take the point of few that matter consists of a huge number of fundamental elements and determine the properties of it by examining the collection, this is a statistical theory. The mathematics of statistical physics is statistics and probability. Applied physics is a collection of disciplines that use physics to describe specific phenomena. These have the character of being much more complicated than pure physics, since they deal with situations where the simplifications of pure physics often do not hold. The simplified theories of pure physics have removed complications that must be considered in the more realistic situations covered by applied physics. Here we include astrophysics, atmospheric physics, biophysics, physical chemistry, the physical theory of computation and information, electronics, engineering physics, geophysics, physical hydrology, materials physics, and physical oceanography. The mathematics of applied physics varies depending upon the ideas being used. So we can expand our definition of theoretical physics. Theoretical physics is the process of considering some physical phenomena, establishing a theory, predicting its consequences, and either confirming or refuting it. How do we predict the consequences of a physical theory? Physical laws. Most everyone has heard the term laws of physics, but what is a law of physics? How does it come about? What makes it a law? Let us say that you have been thinking about the relationship between the pressure, the volume, and the temperature of a gas. After a while you become so curious that you do some experiments and measure the pressure of a gas for different volumes at constant temperature. You find that the pressure, symbolized by P is proportional to the inverse of the volume, symbolized by V , we write this symbolically,

Most everyone has heard the term laws of physics, but what is a law of physics? How does it come What makes it a law? Let us Introduction toabout? Theoretical Physics say that you have been thinking about the relationship between the pressure, the volume, and the temperature of a gas. After a while you become so curious that you do some experiments and measure the pressure of a gas for different volumes at constant temperature. You find that the pressure, symbolized by P is proportional to the inverse of the volume, symbolized by V , we write this symbolically, P V 1. (1)

Where is the proportionality symbol. After some more analysis we note that (1) is exactly true when the volume is multiplied by some constant, determined by the gas under study. We will symbolize this constant c , so we have, P We can rewrite this, PV c. (3) c V 1. (2)

This is called Boyle's law. It is one of the basic gas laws. All such laws are similar in two ways. First, they are similar in that they are all true within what I call their region of applicability, that is when the assumptions that were made when they were discovered are still valid. Second, they all break down in some way when those assumptions are no longer valid, in other words when the law is used outside of its region of applicability. So, is physics just a collection of laws? No, such a collection is an absolute statement of fact and is unable to extend itself beyond the regions of applicability of the laws. Such a list of laws fails to explore the relationships between the various laws in the list. Any list of laws of physics will, by necessity, be restrictive. Does this mean that physical laws should not be considered? No, it means that we must be aware of the regions of applicability of the laws we want to use. So we can expand our definition of theoretical physics: Theoretical physics is the process of considering some physical phenomena, establishing a theory, applying the relevant physical laws, predicting the consequences, and either confirming or refuting it. How, then,

itself beyond the regions of applicability of the laws. Such a list of laws fails to explore the relationships between the various laws in the list. Any list of Introduction laws of physics will, by necessity, be restrictive. to Theoretical Physics Does this mean that physical laws should not be considered? No, it means that we must be aware of the regions of applicability of the laws we want to use. So we can expand our definition of theoretical physics: Theoretical physics is the process of considering some physical phenomena, establishing a theory, applying the relevant physical laws, predicting the consequences, and either confirming or refuting it. How, then, does physics advance into regions not covered by existing laws? Physical theories and the program of theoretical physics. What is a physical theory? It turns out that the answer to this question is a little counterintuitive from the point of view of the general public. A scientific theory is a body of work leading to a self-consistent idea that is considered to be a fact. In most cases there is no controversy about the theory in question. The program of theoretical physics is all about developing physical theories. Unfortunately there is more than one program. We begin with the modeling approach to theoretical physics. Another way of calling this would be the phenomenacentered approach, whose goal is to understand a specific phenomena by developing either a mathematical or computational model of it. The process begins by forming primitive, intuitive, and ill-defined notions about what you are studying. You choose an approach to representing the phenomena; can you represent it as particle? a field? or some continuous distribution of matter? From this beginning you construct precise ideas and give them symbolic representation. Often the symbolic representations are stated in the form, Let us assume . . . . Then you choose a mathematical formulation. Examples of mathematical formulations are Newtonian mechanics, Maxwells equations, Lorentz transformations, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, etc. You then adapt your approach to the mathematical formulation, thus developing a mathematical representation of your phenomena. By manipulating these statements, making physical arguments, and making calculationssymbolic and computationalfor specific situations, we can make predictions with these statements; often

Often the symbolic representations are stated in the form, Let us assume . . . . Then you choose a mathematical formulation. Examples of mathematical formulations Newtonian Introduction to Theoretical Physics are mechanics, Maxwells equations, Lorentz transformations, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, etc. You then adapt your approach to the mathematical formulation, thus developing a mathematical representation of your phenomena. By manipulating these statements, making physical arguments, and making calculationssymbolic and computationalfor specific situations, we can make predictions with these statements; often in the form of tables, formulas, and plots. This type of prediction is called a model. By studying these results in different circumstances you can extend our understanding of the phenomena. A body of models linked by physical argument, derivation methods, and/or computer simulation is a physical theory. This is the most direct method of doing theoretical physics, it is a straight application of mathematical or computational methods. It is certainly the most structured way of doing theoretical physics. Such formulations constitute much of the material of most textbooks and courses on physics. Another is the constructive approach to theoretical physics. This can be thought of as the method to develop a new formulation of a physical theory. Examples are the Lagrangian formulation of mechanics, the Lagrangian formulation of electrodynamics, the Eulerian formulation of fluid dynamics, the path-integral formulation of quantum mechanics, and so on. You begin by choosing how you represent objects in your developing theory. Then you choose some quantity, or set of quantities to base your construction on. Then you choose an argument to base your construction on. Are you seeking to find symmetries? Are you arguing from some conserved quantity? Are you assuming that your quantity is minimized? For example, in the Lagrangian formulation you choose to create a new quantity called the Lagrangian and then you work out the consequences when the integral of the Lagrangianthe actionis minimized. This leads to the Euler-Lagrange equations of motion, a new formulation of classical mechanics. This is a much more difficult, but powerful methodyou build the formulation. The difficulty stems from the lack of structural guidelines in creating a new formulation. Once you have the new formulation, it is actually easier to use in most situations.

that your quantity is minimized? For example, in the Lagrangian formulation you choose to create a new quantity called the Lagrangian and then you work out the Physics consequences when the Introduction to Theoretical integral of the Lagrangianthe actionis minimized. This leads to the Euler-Lagrange equations of motion, a new formulation of classical mechanics. This is a much more difficult, but powerful methodyou build the formulation. The difficulty stems from the lack of structural guidelines in creating a new formulation. Once you have the new formulation, it is actually easier to use in most situations. A third approach is that of abstraction. This approach is where you take a number of specific cases and generalize their results. For example, knowing that when a derivative is 0 a quantity is unchanged; you take the zero derivatives of momentum in many cases and generalize that into the law of conservation of momentum. This sort of activity is very difficult since there are few guidelines for how to proceed beyond what is already known. The last case we will examine here is that of unification. Unification is the idea that different phenomena are governed by a singlehigher-leveltheory instead of a theory for each phenomena. There is no real reason to believe that this is true generally. This is one difficulty with practical application. Another difficulty is that all of our equations are, to one degree or another, an approximation of reality. So the fact that equations in different fields look alike is another way of saying that the approximations are similar. Does that mean the phenomena are also similar? Sometimes. Isaac Newton unified gravity at the surface of the Earth and gravity away from the Earth. James Maxwell unified electricity, magnetism, and light. Abdus Salam, Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg unified electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force. The work of unifying electroweak theory with the strong interaction force is a work in progress. Even less success has been made in unifying gravity.

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Introduction to Theoretical Physics

Things to do before the next session. Begin building your library of references. Get a couple of basic physics and calculus books. I have listed some good references below. Reference [1] are a set of web sites that have lots of free books. Reference [2] is a gold mine, and all theoretical physicists should have a list of mathematics tables. Here are some good calculus books that are free [3], [4], [5], [6], and [7]. Get a computer. While a computer is not absolutely essential to getting started in theoretical physics these days, it is very useful. Get one and use it every day. Get a Computer Algebra System (CAS) for your computer. I recommend Mathematica. Learn to use it and then use it to check your work. This book uses Mathematica throughout. There is an inexpensivehomeversion of Mathematica that is a fully capable version of the software. It runs about $300, so it is well within most budgets. Conclusions I have presented a basic definition of what theoretical physics is So, we now know that theoretical physics is the process of considering some physical phenomena, establishing a model/construction/abstraction/unification, then applying the relevant physical laws, predicting the consequences, and either confirming or refuting it.

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References

[1] There are four web sites that warehouse lots of math and physics books that are free. The most active one is Free Science and is located at
http://freescience.info/index.php,

which has all areas of science and technology. Then there is the Free Book Centre located at
http://www.freebookcentre.net/

this site has lots of computer science, math, electronics, and even medical books. Then there is Free Online Books at
http://books.pspxworld.com/

where they have math and computer science books. My favorite, with math and physics, is Textbooks in Mathematics, located at
http://mathbooks.110mb.com/mylist.php

though this list is not as active as it once was. [2] Murray R. Speigel, (1995), Mathematical Handbook, 34th printing, McGraw-Hill, this is one of the Schaums Outline series. [3] Gilbert Strang, (1991), Calculus, Wellesley Cambridge Press. Also available at the MIT Open Courseware site
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/resources/Strang/strangtext.htm

as a free download. Gilbert Strang is a fine writer and famous professor. This book is pretty good, not my favorite, but I like it.

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Introduction to Theoretical Physics

[4] Paul Dawkins, (2007), Calculus I, available at

as a free download. Also available from this web site are Calculus II, Calculus III, Algebra, Linear Algebra, and Differential Equations. These books are all very nice. [5] Frank Ayers, Jr., Elliott Mendelson, (1999), Calculus, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, this is one of the Schaums Outline series. If you are not familiar with the Schaums Outline series, they are an outline of the theory along with hundreds of solved practice problems, in this case there are 1,103 such problems! [6] Dan Sloughter, (2000), Difference Equations to Differential Equations, as a free download located here
http://synechism.org/drupal/de2de/

This is my favorite textbook for single-variable calculus. He has also written The Calculus of Functions of Several Variables (available at
http://synechism.org/drupal/cfsv

Yet Another Calculus Text hypercomplex numbers, available at

(dealing

with

http://synechism.org/drupal/yact

and the introduction to advanced calculus A Primer of Real Analysis (available at

[7] Wilfred Kaplan, Donald J. Lewis, (1970), Calculus and Linear Algebra, Volume 1 and 2, Wiley and Sons, reprinted in 2007 by the Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan. The first volume in this remarkable series is available as a free download from the University of Michigan:

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[7] Wilfred Kaplan, Donald J. Lewis, (1970), Calculus and Linear Algebra, Volume 1 and 2, Wiley and Sons, reprinted in 2007 by the Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan. The first volume in this remarkable series is available as a free download from the University of Michigan:
http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=spobooks;idno=5597602.0001.001

Volume 2 is available from the same source:

The nice thing about this series is that it not only covers calculus, but also linear algebra.