Testing Digital Systems I

Testing Digital Systems I

Lecture 9: Boolean Testing Using Fault Models (D-Algorithm, PODEM)
Instructor: M. Tahoori
Copyright 2010, M. Tahoori TDS I: Lecture 9 1

D Algorithm (More Examples)

Copyright 2010, M. Tahoori

TDS I: Lecture 9

Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: A/0

Step 1

D-Drive: Set A = 1

Copyright 2010, M. Tahoori

TDS I: Lecture 9

Example: A/0

Step 2

D-Drive : Set f = 0

0 1 D D

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TDS I: Lecture 9

Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: A/0

Step 3

D-Drive : Set k = 1 1 0 D D

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TDS I: Lecture 9

Example: A/0

Step 4

Consistency: Set g = 1 1 0 1 D D

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TDS I: Lecture 9

Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: A/0

Step 5

Consistency: f = 0

Already set

1 0 1 D D

1 D D

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TDS I: Lecture 9

Example: A/0

Step 6

Consistency: Set c = 0, Set e = 0 1 0 D 0 0 D D 1 D

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TDS I: Lecture 9

Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: A/0

Step 7

Consistency: Set B = 0 X 0 0

Test found: ABCD = 100X

1 0 0 D
TDS I: Lecture 9 9

1 D D

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Example s/1

Primitive D-cube of Failure

1 D

sa1

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Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example s/1

Propagation D-cube for v

1 1 sa1 0 D

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Example s/1

Forward & Backward Implications

1 1 1 1 1 sa1 0 D 0

D D

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Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example s/1

Propagation D-cube for Z test found!

1 1 1 1 1 sa1 0 D 0

D D

1
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Example: u/1

Primitive D-cube of Failure

1 0 sa1 D

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Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: u/1

Propagation D-cube for v

1 0 0 D sa1

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Example: u/1

Forward and backward implications

1 0 0 1 0 1

0 sa1

0 D

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Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: u/1

Inconsistency

d = 0 and m = 1

cannot justify r = 1 (equivalence)

Backtrack

Remove B = 0 assignment

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Example: u/1

Backtrack

Need alternate propagation D-cube for v 1 0 sa1 D

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Lecture 9

Testing Digital Systems I

Example: u/1

Propagation D-cube for v

1 1 sa1 0 D D

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Example: u/1

Propagation D-cube for Z

1 1 1 D 1 0 sa1 D D

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: u/1

Propagation D-cube for Z Implications Test Found! 1 1 1 1 1 D 1 0 0 sa1

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PODEM

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Motivation

IBM introduced semiconductor DRAM memory into its mainframes late 1970s Memory had error correction and translation circuits

To improved reliability Search too undirected Large XOR-gate trees Must set all external inputs to define output

D-ALG failed to generate test for these circuits

Needed a better ATPG tool

TDS I: Lecture 9 23

Copyright 2010, M. Tahoori

PODEM -- Goel IBM (1981)

Path Oriented DEcision Making New concepts introduced:

Expand binary decision tree only around primary inputs n num_PI This reduced size of tree from 2 to 2 Use X-PATH-CHECK To test whether D-frontier still there D-Algorithm tends to continue intersecting D-Cubes

Even when D-Frontier disappeared

Objectives bring ATPG closer to propagating D (D) to PO Backtracing To obtain a PI assignment given an initial objective
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Testing Digital Systems I

Assigning Input Values ( PODEM)

1. 2. 3. 4. Assign value to an unassigned primary input Determine all implications of assignment If test is generated, exit; else Is test is possible with additional input assignments ?
fault site doesn't have fault value assigned Path of unassigned leads from D (D) to an output If yes, go to 1, if no

5. Change input assignments to untried combination, go to 2

If no untried combination exists untestable fault

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Example: Test For k/1

Put D on k

D-Alg: assigned a D to k and propagate it to output f PODEM: try to justify 0 on k

a b c z e g h m & & & q f

w y

0
d p
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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: Test For k/1

Justify 0 on d Implication
a b c z e g h m &

& &

q f

w y

0
d0 p
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Example: Test For k/1

K still hasnt D Justify 0 on c Implication: k=h=m=D

a b c 0 d0 p +

z e g hD m & & &

q f

w y

D
k

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: Test For k/1

Propagate through w Set g = 1 Implication

a b c 0 d0 p +

0 1

z 1e g1 hD m

& & &

1
+ f1

w y

D
k

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Example: Test For k/1

Conflict

f is 1 so propagation is blocked Set b = 0

Reverse the last assignment made to a PI

Implication

a b c 0 d0 p

0 0

z 0e g0 hD m

& & &

0
+ f

w 0 y

D
+ k

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: Test For k/1

There is a propagation path from m to f

Set p = 1

Implication Test found

abcd = 0001

a b c 0 d0 p 1

0 0

z 0e g0 hD m

& & &

0
+ f D

w 0

D
+ k

D
y

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Another Example

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Select path s Y for fault propagation

sa1

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Example: S/1

Initial objective:

Set r to 1 to sensitize fault

1

sa1

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Backtrace from r
1
sa1

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Example: S/1

Set A = 0 in implication stack

1
0 sa1

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Forward implications: d = 0, X = 1
1
0 0 sa1 1

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Example: S/1

Initial objective: set r to 1

1
0 0 sa1 1

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Backtrace from r again

1
0 0 sa1 1

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Example: S/1

Set B to 1.

Implications in stack: A = 0, B = 1 0 sa1

0 1

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Forward implications:
k = 1, m = 0, r = 1, q = 1,Y = 1, s = D, u = D, v=D, Z = 1 0 0 sa1 1

1
D D

0 1

1 D 1

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Example: S/1

X-PATH-CHECK

paths s Y and s u v Z blocked 0 sa1

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Set B = 0 (alternate assignment)

1
0 0 sa1

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Example: S/1

Forward implications:
d = 0, X=1, m = 1, r = 0, s = 1, q = 0, Y = 1, v = 0, Z = 1 Fault not sensitized

0 0 0 0 1 sa1 1 1 0 0 1

1
Copyright 2010, M. Tahoori TDS I: Lecture 9 44

Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Set A = 1 (alternate assignment)

1
1 sa1

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Example: S/1

Backtrace from r again

1
1 sa1

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Lecture 9

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Set B = 0. Implications in stack: A = 1, B = 0

1
1 0 sa1

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Example: S/1

Forward implications:

d = 0, X = 1, m = 1, r = 0.

Conflict: fault not sensitized. Backtrack

0 1 0 0 1 sa1 1 0 0

1
48

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Testing Digital Systems I

Example: S/1

Set B = 1 (alternative assignment)

1
1 sa1 1

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Example: S/1

Forward implications:

d = 1, m = 1, r = 1, q = 0, s = D, v = D, X = 0, Y = D

Test found 1 1 1 1 1 sa1 0 D D

D D

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Testing Digital Systems I

PODEM

Major aspects

Which primary input should be assigned a logic value? What value to assign to the selected primary input? Determining inconsistencies in primary input assignments Handling inconsistencies

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Which PI to Choose?

Decision gate

Logic value at the output of a gate is such that only one input of the gate can control its output to the desired value AND with output 0 Logic value at the output of a gate is such that all inputs of the gate must be at a particular value in order to control its output to the desired value AND with output 1

Imply gate

To justify a logic value at the output of a decision gate, choose the easiest input.

The shortest logical path to primary inputs or has the best controllability

To justify a logic value at the output of an imply gate, choose the hardest input

The longest logical path to primary inputs or has the worst controllability

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Testing Digital Systems I

What Value to Assign?

Path from the objective site to the selected primary input has an even number of inversions

Assign the same value to PI as the objective

Path from the objective site to the selected primary input has an odd number of inversions

Assign the opposite value of the objective to PI

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Inconsistencies in PI Assignment

After every primary input assignment, an implication step is performed. During implication, inconsistencies in primary input assignments are detected using the following rules:

If there are conflicting assignments at the same signal line of the network If the logic value at the fault site doesnt activate the fault If there is no path from the fault site to a primary output such that all side inputs of that path are either X or set at non-controlling values

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Testing Digital Systems I

Handling Inconsistencies

Backtracking

Flip the logic value at the primary input

Which was the last one to be assigned a value

Stack of primary inputs that have been assigned values After flipping implication step is performed

No inconsistency detected

Continue That primary input is removed from the stack and X is assigned to that primary input POP the next assigned PI from stack and repeat
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Otherwise

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