QAHS BIOLOGY

CORE TOPIC 2.1 Cell Theory

2.1.1 Outline cell theory

The cell theory states

 Living organisms are composed of cells
 Cells are the smallest unit of life
 .Cells come from pre-existing cells.

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory

A theory is a general system of ideas used to explain or interpret observations

 theories provide predictive power by generating hypotheses
 a hypothesis is a specific prediction than can be tested through observation or
experiment
 each aspect of cell theory is based on evidence obtained from observations
and experiments

A cell is a functional unit of cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane and contain genetic

material. All living things are made of one or more cells
 microscopes allow us to observe that all living things are either unicellular
(bacteria) or multicellular (liver, pancreas, nerve, leukocytes)

Exceptions:
1. skeletal muscle, some fungal hyphae, and some algae have multinucleate
cytoplasm, lacking normal cell separations, red blood cells have no nucleus
2. connective tissue, such as bone, blood and cartilage, is composed of both
cellular and extracellular structures, especially extracellular proteins and
fluids; however, these extracellular structures are products of cellular
activities

The cell is the smallest unit of life:

 nothing smaller than a cell can survive independently
 subcellular structures cannot survive independently (nuclei, ER, Golgi
apparatus, chloroplasts, mitochondria)
 the lower limit on cell size is about 200nm, large enough for DNA, ribosomes,
and membranes

All cells come from pre-existing cells

 :this seems to imply that life has always existed, which is incompatible with
geological evidence about the age of Earth
 therefore, an exception is made for the origin of life, when cells must have
arisen from non-living substances
 since the conditions of early Earth were anaerobic, they allowed for cells to
from non-living substances
 the conditions of present Earth are aerobic, precluding the formation of cells
from non-living substances
2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life

Unicellular organisms carry out the functions of life:

 metabolism: chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to
release energy
 response: perceiving and responding to changes in the
environment
 homeostasis: keeping conditions inside the organisms within tolerable limits
 growth: an irreversible increase in size
 reproduction: producing offspring either sexually or asexually
 nutrition: obtaining food, to provide energy and the materials needed for
growth

2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units

1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 1000 mm
1 m = 1,000,000 µm

Relative sizes
Molecules Membrane Viruses Bacteria Organelles Cells
thickness
1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 µm upto 10 µm upto 100 µm
2.1.5 Calculate linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens
in images of known magnification

Microscopes are used to magnify the cells of biological specimens

Properties Compound light microscope Electron Microscope

Light source light rays electron beam
Material living dead
Photographs coloured black and white
Use easy /portable specialist / fixed
Resolution 0.2 µm 5 nm

Drawings of microscopic structures must include at least one of:

 magnification: x 250
 scale bars: |-----------| = 1 µm

Magnification = size of image

actual size of specimen

If a plant cell of 150 µm diameter with the microscope and with the image enlarged
photographically, the magnification in a print enlarged photographically; then the
magnification to show the cell at 15 cm diameter
(150 000 µm) is:

Magnification = 150000 = x1000

150

Scale Bars
A scale bar is a short line usually drawn on an electron micrograph that enables the viewer
to calculate the magnification of the photograph

To use a scale bar to determine magnification

 measure the scale bar on the photograph with a ruler (mm) = 15 mm
 convert the mm into um (same scale on scale bar = 15 x 1000 = 15000 µm
 divide the µm / by the number on the scale bar 15000 / 5 = x3000

To determine actual size of the cell - the electron micrograph states the magnification
 note magnification x750
 measure a dimension of the cell (state length or width) = 41 mm
 divide this by the magnification 41 / 705 = 0.055 mm
 convert to a sensible unit 0.055 mm x 1000 = 55 µm

REALLY IMPORTANT
WHEN DEALING WITH ANY NUMBER YOU MUST ALWAYS SUPPLY
UNITS
2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor
limiting cell size

As an organism increases in size

the surface area to volume ratio decreases

dimensions 1x1x1 dimensions 2x2x2 dimensions 3x3x3

surface area 6 cm2 surface area 24 cm2 surface area 54 cm2
volume 1 cm3 volume 8 cm2 volume 27 cm2
SA:V ratio 6:1 SA:V ratio 3:1 SA:V ratio 2:1

 The metabolism of a cell is linked to its mass: volume ratio

 Surface area provides the exchange surface for heat and substances (the greater the
amount of cytoplasm the more heat and waste products are produced as well as n
increased demand for oxygen and nutrients
 As the organism gets bigger the surface area decreases so in order for the cell to
survive they develop adaptations
- plant cells develop a large central vacuole
- intestinal cells have villi
- leaf palisade cells are column shaped
- Polar bears have little ears
while bilbies have large one

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts; the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts
For example if an organism can use temperature homeostasis by using hair, feathers,
sweating, changing blood flow then that organism has a greater rate of survival in a variety
of habitats

2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized
functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

unicellular organisms
 must solve all of life’s challenges within the confines of a single cell
multicellular organisms
 can differentiate into a variety of interdependent cell types
 each specialized to carry out a subset of functions
 thereby achieving a greater efficiency
 through division of labour among a multicellular cooperative
cellular differentiation
 achieved through differential gene expression
 all cells in an organism have identical DNA = genome
 different cell types make different proteins
 usually as a result of transcriptional regulation
 each cell type expresses a closely regulated subset of its genome
 “turning on” some genes and “turning off” others

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to
differentiate along different pathways.

Stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different
pathways

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cell.

 bone marrow transplants use hematopoietic stem cells (HS cells)

 HS cells are found in bone marrow and divide continually, producing a
 variety of red and white blood cells
 just 100 HS cells can completely replace the blood system of mice when all
cells in the marrow have been destroyed by radiation
 HS cells are used in the treatment of numerous blood disorders
acute leukaemia (cancer of white blood cells)
SCID (severe combined immune deficiency)
multiple myeloma
lymphoma

In lymphoma:
1. cells are removed from the bone marrow of the patient
2. high doses of chemotherapy drugs are taken by the patient to kill dividing
cells in the body
3. both cancerous and normal are killed
4. HS cells from the bone marrow are then transplanted back into the patient
5. these HS cells can then fully restore healthy production of blood cells in the
bone marrow

Ethical issues
 use of embryonic stem cells involves the death of early-stage embryos
 therapeutic cloning could reduce suffering for patients with a
wide variety of conditions
 QAHS BIOLOGY
CORE TOPIC 2.2 Prokaryotic Cells
2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as
an example of a prokaryote.

2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1

with the function of each named structure
Structure Function
cell wall  always present
 composed of peptidoglycan
 provides physical protection
 maintains cell shape
 prevents bursting in hypotonic environment
plasma membrane  thin layer mainly composed of phospholipids pushed up
against the inside of the cell wall provides selectively
permeable barrier between homeostatically controlled interior and
fluctuating exterior environments
 controls entry and exit of substances
 can also pump substances in or out by active transport
cytoplasm  fluid filling the space inside the plasma membrane
 water with many dissolved substances
 contains many enzymes
 contains ribosomes
 does not contain any membrane-bound organelles
 carries out the chemical reactions of metabolism
plasmid  small rings of DNA
ribosomes  small granular structures (70S)
 smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes which are 80S
 sites of protein synthesis
nucleoid  region cytoplasm containing the genetic material
 DNA is circular and naked (not associated with protein)
 total amount of DNA is much smaller than in eukaryotes
 the nucleoid is stained less densely than the rest of the cytoplasm because there are fewer
ribosomes in it and less protein
pili  protein filaments protruding from the cell wall
 can be pulled in or push out by a ratchet mechanism
 used for cell to cell adhesion
 used when bacteria stick together to form aggregations of cells
 used when two cells are exchanging DNA during conjugation
flagella  structures protruding from the cell wall with a corkscrew shape
  base is embedded in the cell wall
 using energy, they can be rotated, to propel the cell from on are
to another
 unlike eukaryotic flagella, they are solid and inflexible, working like a propeller

2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli.

2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide

by binary fission.

Prokaryotic cells divide

by binary fission
 QAHS BIOLOGY
CORE TOPIC 2.3 Eukaryotic Cells
2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell.

2.3.2

Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure

Structure Function
Free ribosomes  sites of protein synthesis for use within the cytoplasm
 ribosomes are constructed in the nuclear region called the
nucleolus
Rough endoplasmic reticulum  flattened membrane sacs (cisternae)
 ribosomes attached to outside of cisternae
 proteins synthesized by ribosomes enter cisternae
 proteins collected within cisternae are packaged in vesicles
 vesicles transport proteins to Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes  spherical vesicles formed by Golgi apparatus
 contain hydrolytic/digestive enzymes
 enzymes for breaking down ingested food, damaged
organelles, or entire cells
Golgi apparatus  consists of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
 unlike ER, cisternae are curved, shorter, and lack ribosomes
 proteins received from arriving vesicles are processed
 carbohydrates added to proteins to form glycoproteins
 vesicles of glycoproteins exit Golgi for exocytosis or
intracellular use
Mitochondria  double membrane bound
 inner membrane invaginated to form cristae
  site of aerobic respiration, producing ATP
Nucleus  double membrane bound, containing pores for transport of
proteins and ribosomes
 contains chromosomes, made of DNA + protein
 uncoiled chromosomes = chromatin
 site of DNA replication and transcription into RNA
nuclear pore allows exchange of substances between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
nuclear envelope a double membrane with nuclear pores to allow exchange of substances between the
nucleoplasm and cytoplasm

2.3.3 Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.

2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Naked DNA DNA associated with proteins
DNA in cytoplasm (no nuclear membrane) DNA enclosed by nuclear membrane)
DNA circular DNA linear
No membrane-bound organelles Many membrane-bound organelles
(no mitochondria, ER, Golgi) (mitochondria, ER, Golgi) to
compartmentalise functions
ribosome size = 70S ribosome size = 80S
Plasmids present No plasmids
Only bacteria All cells other than bacteria
Size: 1 - 10 µm Size: 2 - 1000 µm

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

Plant cell Animal cell

cellulose cell walls no cell walls
large central vacuole lacking or small vacuoles
no cholesterol in the plasma membrane cholesterol in plasma membrane
no centrioles centrioles present
stores starch stores glycogen
may contain chloroplasts never contains chloroplasts
2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components.

Extracellular components are material found outside the cell membrane

Plant cells Animal cells

Plant extracellular matrix Animal extracellular matrix

The cellulose cell wall (1) Basement membrane: a secretion formed from
Role collagen and glycoproteins joined together by a third
'linkage' protein. Their exact composition varies form tissue
to tissue.
Role
Support: the membrane surrounds the tissues of lines ducts. It
provides structural support for the integrity of the tissue or organ
Filter : The basement membrane of the kidney glomerulus
provides the effective barrier for ultrafiltration
Vascular niche: Interestingly cells often require a base on which
to organise before they will form proper tissue. There are
implications here for developmental biology, tissue repair, stem
cell therapies and cancer treatment.

(2) Interstitial matrix:

 Role
Bone has a matrix which includes collagen with a calcium
 Maintains the shape of the cell.
phosphate.

 Provides structural support against the force of gravity.

 prevents excessive uptake of water by the cell

 QAHS BIOLOGY
CORE TOPIC 2.4 Membranes
2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids to

maintain the structure of cell membranes.

 Hydrophobic fatty acid tails repel water

and form the middle layer of the membrane.
 Hydrophilic phosphate heads attract water
and form the outer layers of the membrane.
 There is always a water solution on each side of a
membrane and so there must be a hydrophilic barrier
next to the solution
 If there was only one layer then the hydrophobic tails would be exposed to the water
 The major force causing the formation of the bilayer is the hydrophobic interaction between the tails

2.4.3 List the functions of membrane

proteins

Functions of membrane
proteins
 Hormone receptor
 Active transport
 Diffusion channel
 Electron carrier
  Cell adhesion
 Cell-to-cell communication
 Immobilised enzymes

2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion Osmosis
the passive movement of particles from a the passive movement of water molecules,
region of higher concentration to across a partially permeable membrane,
a region of lower concentration using from a region of high concentration of water
molecular kinetic energy (lower solute concentration) to a region of
 Passive means no energy from ATP is used low concentration of water (higher solute
 A membrane is not essential concentration).
 Passive means no energy from ATP is used
 A membrane is essential

Simple Diffusion

Osmosis

2.4.5
Explain
passive
transport
across membranes in terms of simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

Concentration gradient: Molecules can diffuse across

membranes from areas of higher to lower concentration by:

Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion

Many substances can move easily through the Substances that cannot pass easily through the
cytoplasm, blood and tissues – water, urea, phospholipid bilayer need to get into the cell by
lipids and steroid hormones can diffuse through alternate routes such as protein channels, Each
 the phospholipid bilayer easily channel is specific and has a binding site for the
transported substance
The channel may be gated to control the flow of
the substance

Facilitated Diffusion

2.4.6 Explain the role of

protein pumps and ATP in
active transport across
membranes.

Active Transport is require when transport is against a concentration gradient - moves substance from an area where it
is in lower concentration to an area where it is in higher concentration
Protein pumps Requires energy:
 Integral protein pumps embedded within  Provided by ATP.
 Often by phosphorylating the protein pump as ATP is
membranes. hydrolysed to ADP + Pi
 Specific to molecule transported
 Some pumps transport two substances,
either in the same direction (symport) or in
the opposite direction (antiport).

:
2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, and plasma membrane.

 Vesicles bud of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)

 Vesicles move through cytoplasm and join onto one side of the Golgi apparatus
 Vesicles bud off other side of Golgi apparatus
 Vesicle may move to plasma membrane for secretion of contents
 Vesicle may remain in cytoplasm as a lysosome and fuse with a phagocytic vesicle

2.4.8 Describe how

the fluidity of the
membrane
allows it to
change shape,
break and reform
during
endocytosis and
exocytosis.

Membrane
fluidity
 The phospholipids are held together by mutual attraction an dnot by chemical bonds
 The hydrophobic tails are flexible
 This allows the membrane to bend easily, break and rejoin
 Unsaturated fatty acid chains make a membrane more fluid
 Cholesterol makes a membrane less fluid

ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis – taking into cell involves both Endocytosis – removing substance from a
 phagocytosis (taking in particles cell – includes secretion
 pinocytosis (taking in solutions)  a vesicle in the cytoplasm joins to the
 energy from ATP required plasma membrane
 the plasma membrane folds inwards to
form a vesicle which bus off
Endocytosis

Exocytosis
 QAHS BIOLOGY
CORE TOPIC 2.5 Cell Division
2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and
cytokinesis

The cell division cycle consists of three stages

Interphase Interphase is the active period in the life of a cell when there are three phases
many metabolic reactions occur (eg. Protein synthesis,  G1 (Gap 1) – longest phase, synthesis of
DNA replication and an increase in the number of biochemicals (protein, mRNA, tRNA); replication of
mitochondria and/or chloroplasts organelles
 S (synthesis) – DNA replication
 G2 (Gap 2) – synthesis of microtubule
components; centrioles in animal cells replicate;
mitochondria and chloroplasts replicate
Mitosis Nuclear division – the replicated chromosomes are there are four phases
separated into two nuclei  Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
Cytokinesis Cell division – the cell is split into two, one nucleus in each new cell

Cytokinesis

2.5.2 State that

tumours (cancers) are
the result of
uncontrolled cell
division and
that these can occur in any organ or
tissue.

Tumours (cancers) are the result of

uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur
in any organ or tissue.

Normal cell

Tumour cell
2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many
metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and
an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.

Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic

reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an
increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.

2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four

phases of mitosis

Prophase  Chromosomes condense by supercooling, becoming visible under light microscope

 Microtubular spindle apparatus forms at each pole
 Centrioles move to opposite poles
 Nucleolus disappears
 Nuclear envelope breaks down
Metaphase  Spindle microtubules attach to chromosome centromeres
 Chromosomes move to central plate (equator) of cell
Anaphase  Centromeres split as spindle
 Microtubules contract
 Chromatids pulled to opposite poles (after centromeres split, sister
chromatids are known as sister chromosomes)
 Sister chromosomes move to opposite poles as microtubules shorten
Telophase  Sister chromosomes have arrived at poles
 Spindle disappears
 Nuclear envelope reforms
 Nucleolus becomes visible
 Chromosomes uncoil, becoming chromatin
2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

 DNA replication during S phase of interphase produces two identical copies of DNA
 Identical sets of DNA are attached to each other as sister chromatids of each of the
cell’s chromosomes
 Mitosis segregates the two chromatids of each chromosome to opposite poles, forming
two identical nuclei, each with one complete copy of the original DNA
 Cytokinesis separates the two daughter nuclei into two identical daughter cells

2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development,

tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

Mitosis is involved in
 growth
 embryonic development
 tissue repair
 asexual reproduction