1

PROFESSIONAL SUMMARY
REPORT

DC GENERATORS IN RAILWAYS

Submitted by

KEERTHI C (1703038)
KHREETHI P (1703039)

in partial fulfillment of the course

16EE212– DC MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

[Educational Service: SNR Sons Charitable Trust]
[Autonomous Institution, Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade]
[Approved by AICTE and Permanently Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai]
[ISO 9001:2015 Certified and All Eligible Programmes Accredited by NBA]
Vattamalaipalayam, N.G.G.O. Colony Post,
COIMBATORE – 641 022
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MARCH 2019

SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING

COLLEGE
[Educational Service: SNR Sons Charitable Trust]
[Autonomous Institution, Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade]
[Approved by AICTE and Permanently Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai]
[ISO 9001:2015 Certified and All Eligible Programmes Accredited by NBA]
Vattamalaipalayam, N.G.G.O. Colony Post,
COIMBATORE – 641 022

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Professional Summary Report is prepared and submitted by

“Keerthi.C(1703038)., Khreethi.P(1703039).” during the period from December 2018 to March
2019.

COURSE CODE: 16EE212

COURSE TITLE: DC MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS
PRESENTATION TITLE: DC GENERATORS IN RAILWAYS

SIGNATURE
Dr.S.Allirani
COURSE INSTRUCTOR
Associate Professor
Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,
Coimbatore-641022.

Submitted for the Oral Presentation held on ____________

INTERNAL EXAMINER
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No. Title Page No.

1 INTRODUCTION 5
2 DC GENERATOR 8
3 APPLICATION IN RAILWAYS 19
4 CONCLUSION 26
5 SNAPSHOT OF THE POSTERS 28
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ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to know the application of DC Generators in railways. The Generator
is used for converting the mechanical energy (diesel) into electrical energy. The electrical energy is
used in railways is required for traction purpose. Coach lighting, fans, mobile and laptop charger, air
conditioning equipment, pumping, hot plates, bottle coolers, water boiler, refrigerators, battery
charger for emergency light, radiator motor and distributor transformer, these loads are collectively
described as hotel load. DC Generator uses the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. It states that the emf is generated in electrical conductor which encircles varying magnetic
flux. The induced emf causes the current to flow if the circuit is closed. The generator is also used for
the braking of the train.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Generator is a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) into electrical power for
use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water
turbines, internal combustion engines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the
Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday.

Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two broad categories, dynamos and alternators.

●Dynamos generate pulsing direct currentthrough the use of a commutator.

●Alternators generate alternating current.

The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a
magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current
radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring
contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.

The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832
by Michael Faraday. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is
generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux.He also built the first
electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk; a type of homopolar generator, using
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a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.This
design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were
not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the
magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the
magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste
heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array
of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow
direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path
through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could
produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns,
generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns.
Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.

Hippolytepixii’sdynamo. The commutator is located on the shaft below the spinning magnet.
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This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no
longer used due to the size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power applications.

A coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field produces a current which changes direction with each
180° rotation, an alternating current(AC). However, many early uses of electricity required direct
current (DC). In the first practical electric generators, called dynamos, the AC was converted into DC
with a commutator, a set of rotating switch contacts on the armature shaft. The commutator reversed
the connection of the armature winding to the circuit every 180° rotation of the shaft, creating a
pulsing DC current. One of the first dynamos was built by HippolytePixii in 1832.
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CHAPTER 2
DC GENERATOR
GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical
energy (or power). Induced e.m.f is produced in it according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. This e.m.f cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence, two basic
essential parts of an electrical generator are:
a) Magnetic field.
b) Conductor or conductors which can move as to cut the flux. Generators are driven by a source of
mechanical power, which is usually called the prime mover of the generator(steam turbine, diesel
engine, or even an electric motor).

OPERATION OF SIMPLE LOOP GENERATOR

The following figure shown is a single turn rectangular copper coil ( AA′BB′)rotating about its
own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The two end
of the coil are joined to two slip-rings which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft.
Two collecting brushes (carbon or copper) press against the slip-rings. The rotating coil may be called
(armature) and the magnets as (field magnets). One way to generate an AC voltage is to rotate a coil
of wire at constant angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field, figure. (slip rings and brushes connect
the coil to the load). The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut (faraday's law), and its polarity is dependent on the direction the coilsides move through
the field.
The direction of an induced e.m.f can be predetermined by using Flemings Right-hand rule (often
called the generator rule) fig.
 First finger-Field
 Thumb – Motion
 second finger – E.m.f
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Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time. For
example in (a), since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no flux lines are being cut and the
induced voltage at this instant (and hence the current) is zero. (this is defined as the 0 degree
position of the coil). As the coil rotates from the 0-degreeposition, coil AA′ and BB′ cut across flux
lines, hence, voltage builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the maximum rate in the 90
degreeposition as in (b). Note the polarity of the voltage and the direction of current. As the coil
rotates further, voltage decrease, reaching zero at the 180-degree position when the coil sides again
move parallel to the field as in (c). At this point, the coil has gone through a half-revolution. During
the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that which they did in the first
half revolution, hence, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. As indicated in (d), voltage
reaches a peak at the 270-degreepoint, and, since the polarity of the voltage has changed, so has the
direction of current. When the coil reaches the 360-degreeposition, voltage is again zero and the cycle
starts over. Fig. shows one cycle of the resulting waveform. Since the coil rotates continuously, the
voltage produced will be a repetitive, periodic waveform as you saw in fig.
E.m.f. generated in one side of loop= Blv⋅sinφ, and
total e.m.f. generated in loop=2 × Blv⋅sinφ (volts), where
(B): flux density in (tesla),
(l): length in (meters),
(v): the conductor velocity, is measured in meters per second.
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CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATORS

The parts of a simple DC generator are shown in fig. The principle of operation of a DC
generator is similar to that of the AC generator, which was discussed previously. A rotating armature
coil passes through a magnetic field that develops between the north and south polarities of permanent
magnets or electromagnets. As the coil rotates, electromagnetic induction causes current to be induced
into the coil. The current produced is an alternating current. However, it is possible to convert the
alternating current that is induced into the armature into a form of direct current. This conversion of
AC into DC is accomplished through the use of a commutator. The conductors of the armature of a
DC generator are connected to commutator segments. The commutator shown in fig. has two
segments, which are insulated from one an other and from the shaft of the machine on which it rotates.
An end of each armature conductor is connected to each commutator segment. The purpose of the
commutator is to reverse the armature coil connection to the external load circuit at the same time
that the current induced in the armature coil reverses. This causes DC at the correct polarity to be
applied to the load at all times.
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CONSTRUCTION PARTS

1. Yoke:
It is the outermost frame of the generator. It serves two purposes. It act as a protecting shield for the
generator and provides mechanical support for the poles. In small generator, it is made of cast iron
and in large generator it is made of cast steel or rolled steel.
2. Field Magnets:
It consists of pole core and pole shoes. It spreads out flux in the air gap. Due to the large cross section
the reluctance of the magnetic path can be reduced. It is the support for the field coils.
3. Pole Coil:
It consists of copper wire wounded on the former. After getting the correct dimensions the wound
coil is removed and placed over the core. When current passes through the pole coils it produces
necessary magnetic flux that is cut by revolving the armature conductor.
4. Armature Core:
It houses the armature conductor and causes them to rotate and therefore cutting the magnetic flux
of the field magnet. It provides the path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature and
it is cylindrical or drum shaped. It is built of circular sheet steel discs or laminations approximately
0.5mm thickness.
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5. Armature Windings:

Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are joined to the
commutator. These are called (lap windings) and (wave windings). These windings will be examined
individually below, and their advantage and disadvantage will be discussed.
i)The Lap Winding:

The simplest type of winding construction used in modern DC machines is the simplex lap
winding. A simplex lap winding is a rotor (armature) winding consisting of coils containing one or
more turns of wire with the two end of each coil coming out at adjacent commutator segments fig.
The number of current paths in a machine is :
a = mp lap winding, Where:
a : number of current path in the rotor.
m :plex of the windings (1,2,3,etc….)
p : number of poles on the machines.
Lap wound generators produce high current, low voltage output.
ii)The Wave Winding:

The wave winding is an alternative way to connect the rotor (armature) coils to the commutator
segments. Fig. shows a simple wave winding. In this simplex wave winding, every other rotor coil
connects back to a commutator segment adjacent to the beginning of the first coil. Therefore, there
are two coils in series between the adjacent commutator segments. Furthermore, since each pair of
coils between adjacent segments has a side under each pole face, all output voltage are the sum of the
effects of every pole, and there can be no voltage imbalances. wave windings, generators produce
higher-voltage, low current outputs, since the number of coils in series between commutator segments
permits a high voltage to be built up more easy than with lap winding.
6. Commutator:
It facilitates the collection of current from the armature conductors. It converts AC to
unidirectional current in the external load circuit, it is cylindrical structure and built up of wedge
shaped segments of high conductivity.
7. Brushes:
It collect current from commutator. It is usually made up of carbon or graphite and are in the
shape of rectangular block. It is housed in brush holder which is mounted on spindle. The
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number of brushes per spindle depends upon the magnitude of the current to be collected from the
commutator.

TYPES OF GENERATOR

The are two types of generator based on the constructions. They are
 Field excitation
 Permanent magnet
The field excitation are further classified into two types namely…
 Separately excited generator
 Self excited generator
The self excited generator are of three types:
 Series generator
 Shunt generator
 Compound generator

FIELD EXCITATION:
When a DC voltage is applied to the field windings of a dc generator, current
flows through the windings and sets up a steady magnetic field. This is called FIELD
EXCITATION. This excitation voltage can be produced by the generator itself or it can be supplied
by an outside source, such as a battery.

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR:

In this, the field magnets are energized by some external dc source such as battery.
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SELF EXCITED GENERATOR:

In this, the field magnets are energized by the current supplied by themselves. The field coils are
internally connected with armature. Due to residual magnetism some fluxes are always present in the
poles. The self excited generator are of three types:
1) SERIES GENERATOR:
In this the field windings are connected in series with armature conductors. So the whole
current are flow through the field coil as well as the load. As series field winding carries full load
current it is designed with relatively few turns of thick wire. The electrical resistances is very
low(nearly 0.5 ohms).

2) SHUNT GENERATOR:
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In this field windings are connected in parallel with armature. Armature current is divided
int two parts, one is shunt field current and the other is load current. Effective power across the load
will be maximum when load current will be maximum. The shunt field winding is kept high(100 ohm)
and large number of turns are used for desired emf.

3) COMPOUND GENERATOR:
Compound generators have both series field winding and shunt field winding. One winding is
placed in series with armature and the other is placed in parallel with armature. It has two types …
short shunt and large shunt generator.
i)SHORT SHUNT DC COMPOUND GENERATOR:
The generators in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with armature winding as shown in
fig.

ii)LONG SHUNT DC COMPOUND GENERATOR:

The generators in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature
winding as shown in fig.
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APPLICATIONS
Separately Excited DC Generators:

 Separately excited DC Generators are used in laboratories for testing as they have a wide
range of voltage output.
 Used as a supply source of DC motors.

Shunt wound Generators:

 DC shunt wound generators are used for lighting purposes.

 Used to charge the battery.
 Providing excitation to the alternators.

Series Wound Generators:

 DC series wound generators are used in DC locomotives for regenerative braking for
providing field excitation current.
 Used as a booster in distribution networks.
 Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting and heavy power supply.
 Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels, homes, schools, etc.
 Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc welding purpose.
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CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF DC GENERATOR IN RAILWAYS
ELECTRICITY IN RAILWAY SYSTEM
Electricalenergy in railways is required for traction purpose. Coach lighting, fans, mobile
and laptop charger, air conditioning equipment, pumping, hot plates, bottle coolers, water boiler,
refrigerators, battery charger for emergency light, radiator motor and distributor transformer, these
loads are collectively described as hotel load.

OUTLINE OF THE GENERATING EQUIPMENT

When the train is stopped power is supplied to the load from the battery. When the train is
running, the dc generator supplies power to the load at the same time charges the battery which was
discharged when the train was stopped to maintain the battery fully charged state.
BELT TENSION DEVICE:
◦ The DC generator suspended from the under frame of the coach and driven by the flat belt axle
pulley.
◦ The tension of the belt is maintained constant with the help of change in the distance between center
of the pulleys.
CONTROL DEVICE:
◦ Rectifying device
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◦ Generator voltage regulator

◦ Lamp voltage regulator.

GENERATORS
The generators used in railway coach are basically classified into two
 Main generator
 Auxiliary generator
MAIN GENERATOR
 These generators are used in propulsion of train.
 These generators provide supply to traction motor in train.
 Hence helpful for the movement of train in initial stage.
 Commonly DG sets are used as main generators.

DG SETS:
 DG sets stands for diesel generator.
 The diesel generator is a combination of diesel engine with a electric generator to generate
electric energy.
 This is a specific case of engine generator. The main parts of DG sets are diesel engine,
electric generator, electric motors.
 Diesel engine which consists of diesel(mechanical energy) which is converted into
electrical energy by generator. Then the electric motors which helps in the propulsion of
the train.

WORKING – DG Sets:
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 The fuel (diesel) is fed to the engine.

 When the engine is started it converts the chemical energy to mechanical energy
(rotating shaft).
 The rotating shaft is coupled with the generator and provides the reqired mechanical input
to the generator.
 As the rotor rotates emf is induced and electrical energy is taken as output.
 The electrical energy obtained is mainly used as a supply to traction motors used in train.

AUXILARY GENERATORS
 Auxiliary generators are generators that provide electrical supply to secondary
applications in train such as
 Fan
 Lighting
 Mobile and laptop charging
 Generator the traditional source for on -board low voltage supplies. The generator is a
DC machine driven by the diesel engine or, on locomotive (train), by a motor powered
from the traction current supply. On a coach, the generator was often driven directly off
an axle (a dynamo, batteries providing power for lighting when the train was stationary.

POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM OF INDIAN RAILWAYS

There are three power supply systems as existing over Indian Railways to provide illumination,
fan, air-conditioning and other miscellaneous needs of electricity for travelling passengers. These
are

Self Generating (SG):

2×25 kW alternators for AC coach and 1×4.5 kW for non-AC coach is mounted underslung,
driven by a pulley-belt arrangement when driving pulley is mounted on coach axle. Output is
rectified and charges 110V DC battery for continuous power supply to AC and non-AC coaches.
AC load of roof mounted packaged units is supplied by converting DC into 2×25 kVA inverters.
This system is followed over trains having a combination of AC and non-AC coaches.

End-on-Generation (EOG):

Two power cars each equipped with 2×750 kVA DG sets, one at each end of the train, supplies
3 phase power at 750 V AC power to each electrically interconnected air conditioned coach. The
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voltage is stepped down to 3 phase 400 V and supplied to standard voltage equipment on each coach.
EOG system is followed for fully air conditioned train like Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Duranto, GaribRath,
Premium special trains. Import of LHB class of coaches from Germany is provided with the EOG
system with a promise to provide SG system design for indigenous manufacturing. SG technology
given was a complete failure and IR is still struggling to develop designs for the last 15 years.

Head-on-Generation (HOG):

Power is supplied from the train locomotive at the head of the train. The single phase 25 kV
transformer of the electric locomotive is provided with hotel load winding which is converted to three
phase AC at 750 V using 2×500 kVA inverter and supplied to the same system as that of EOG. In
case of Diesel Locomotive, three phase alternator is mounted on the traction alternator and feeds the
hotel load. This is the most efficient system as the cost of power is about 25% less as compared to
EOG, but the system is still under development for the last 30 years. The other class of trains namely
Electrical Multiple Unit and Main Line Electrical Multiple Units employs the same system for coach
lighting. The system is similar to what is followed in train-set composition of train having a power
unit at head as well as on tail and power the entire load of the coach for comfort.

BRAKING

During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into electrical
generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator (MG) and the motor
armatures are connected across the load. The MG now excites the motor fields. The rolling
locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the motors act as generators, either
sending the generated current through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the supply
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(regenerative braking). Compared to electro-pneumatic friction brakes, braking with the traction
motors can be regulated faster improving the performance of wheel slide protection.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING:
Regenerative braking is an energy recoverymechanism which slows a vehicle or object by
converting its kinetic energy into a form which can be either used immediately or stored until needed.
In this mechanism the electric motor uses the vehicle's momentum to recover energy that would be
otherwise lost to the brake discs as heat. In addition to improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle,
regeneration can greatly extend the life of the braking system as its parts do not wear as quickly. The
most common form of regenerative brake involves an electric motor as an electric generator. In
electric railways the electricity generated is fed back into the supply system. In battery
electric vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or
mechanically in a rotating flywheel. In a fuel cell powered vehicle, the electric energy generated by
the motor is used to break waste water down into oxygen, and hydrogen which goes back into the
fuel cell for later reuse.

Regenerative braking is not by itself sufficient as the sole means of safely bringing a vehicle
to a standstill, or slowing it as required, so it must be used in conjunction with another braking system
such as friction-based braking.The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds, and cannot
bring a vehicle to a complete halt reasonably quickly with current technology, although some cars
like the Chevrolet Bolt can bring the vehicle to a complete stop on even surfaces when the driver
knows the vehicle's regenerative braking distance. This is referred to as One Pedal Driving.
Current regenerative brakes do not immobilize a stationary vehicle; physical locking is
required, for example to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.The regenerative braking effect
available is limited, and mechanical braking is still necessary for substantial speed reductions, to
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bring a vehicle to a stop, or to hold a vehicle at a standstill.Regenerative and friction braking must
both be used, creating the need to control them to produce the required total braking.

DYNAMIC BRAKING:
Regenerative test contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic
energy is converted to unwanted and wasted heat by friction in the brakes, or with dynamic brakes,
where energy is recovered by using electric motors as generators but is immediately dissipated as
heat in resistors.

The electrical energy produced by the motors is dissipated as heat by a bank of onboard resistors,
referred to as the braking grid. Large cooling fans are necessary to protect the resistors from damage.
Modern systems have thermal monitoring, so, if the temperature of the bank becomes excessive, it
will be switched off, and the braking will revert to friction only.
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CHAPTER - 4
CONCLUSION

The invention of the DC generator made our life easy. But the fact that commutators are complex
and cost a lot of money, a lot of DC generators have been replaced by amodified AC generator which
is more economical. The modification to the AC generator is done by adding rectifiers that makes the
current flow in one direction only as mentioned before. It hope that more studies will be carried out
in the future to reduce the cost of the commutators therefore reduce the cost of the DC generator.
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REFERENCES

1. John J wang, G.P Penamlli and Lei Zuo, “Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting
from Train Induced Railway Track vibrations”, IEEE, 2012, pp.29-34.
2. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_brake.
3. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/railway_electrification_system.
4. Jacintha.V, Kavin.L, BlessonSAviour.M, Chandru.E.N. “A Railway system based
automated power generation system” volume 119 no.15 29018,519-523.
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CHAPTER – 5
SNAPSHOT OF THE POSTERS
POSTER - 1
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POSTER – 2