By

Sriaansh Kapoor

Physics ISC: 2017-18

 XII-A
 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

I would like to express my special

special thanks of gratitude to my teacher
as well as our principal Mrs. Rita Khanna who gave me the golden opportunity to do this
 wonderful project
project on the topic Magnetism,
Magnetism, which
which also helped me inin doing a lot of research
research
and I came to know about so many new things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing
this project within the limited time frame.

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Signature of Student Signature of External Examiner Signature of Teacher

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Signature of Principal

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by  magnetic

 magnetic fields.
Electric currents and the magnetic
the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic
field, which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. The most familiar effects occur
in ferromagnetic
in ferromagnetic materials,
materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be
magnetized to become permanent
magnets, producing
magnets,  producing magnetic fields
themselves. Only a few substances are
ferromagnetic; the most common
ones are iron,
are iron, nickel
 nickel and cobalt
and cobalt and
their alloys. The prefix Ferro-
prefix Ferro- refers to
iron, because
iron, because permanent magnetism
 was first observed
observed in lodestone,
in lodestone, a a form
of natural iron ore called magnetite,
called magnetite,
Fe 3O4. Although ferromagnetism is
responsible for most of the effects of
magnetism encountered in everyday
life, all other materials are influenced
to some extent by a magnetic field, by
several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic
magnetism.  Paramagnetic substances such as aluminum
as aluminum and oxygen
and oxygen
are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic
magnetic field; diamagnetic
field;  diamagnetic substances such as copper
as copper
and carbon
and carbon are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic
while antiferromagnetic materials such as chromium
as  chromium and
spin glasses have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field. The force of a magnet
on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt,
and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life these substances
substances are
often described as non-magnetic. The magnetic state (or magnetic phase) of a material material
depends on temperature and other variables such as pressure and the applied magnetic
field. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these variables change.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when people noticed that lodestones,
that  lodestones,
naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite,
mineral  magnetite, could
 could attract iron. The word magnet
comes from the Greek term for lodestone, "magnítis líthos", which means a stone from the
region of  Magnesia. In
 Magnesia. In ancient Greece, Aristotle
Greece,  Aristotle attributed the first
first of what could be called a
scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher  Thales of  Miletus, who
 Miletus, who lived from
about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time, in ancient
in ancient India, the
India, the Indian
 Indian surgeon
Sushruta was
Sushruta  was the first
first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.
purposes.

In ancient China, the
In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book
named after its author, The Master
The  Master of Demon Valley. The
Valley. The 2nd-century BC annals, Lüshi
annals, Lüshi
Chunqiu, also
Chunqiu,  also notes: "The lodestone
"The lodestone makes iron approach, or it attracts it." The earliest
mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work Lunheng
work Lunheng (Balanced Inquiri
Inquiries):
es):
"A lodestone attracts a needle." The 11th-century  Chinese
  Chinese scientist Shen
scientist  Shen Kuo was
Kuo was the first
first
person to write – in the Dream
the Dream Pool Essays – of the magnetic needle compass and that it
improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomi
astronomicalcal concept of  true
 true north.
By the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass
lodestone compass for navigation.
They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon
always pointed south.

 Alexander Neckam,
Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for
navigation. In 1269, Peter
1269,  Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote
Maricourt  wrote the Epistola
Epistola de magnete,
magnete, the first
first
extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and
the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf,
Al -Ashraf, a Yemeni
a Yemeni physicist, astronomer,
physicist,  astronomer, and
 and
geographer.

In 1600, William
1600, William Gilbert published his De
his De Magnete, Magneticisque
Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno
Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth).
In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the  terrella.
From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth
the  Earth was
 was itself magnetic
magnetic and that
that this was
was the
reason compasses pointed north (previously,
(previously, some believed that it was the pole star
(Polaris) or
(Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the North Pole that attracted the compass).

 An understanding of the relationship

relationship between electricity
between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with
 work by  Hans
 Hans Christian Ørsted, a
Ørsted,  a professor at the University of Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, who
discovered by the accidental twitching of a compass needle near a wire that an electric
current could create a magnetic field. This landmark experiment is known as Ørsted's
Experiment. Several other experiments followed, with  André-Marie Ampère, who
Ampère,  who in 1820
discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current
flowing through the perimeter of the path;  Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste
Gauss; Jean-Baptiste Biot and
and Félix
 Félix

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Savart, both of whom in 1820 came up with the Biot

Savart, both the  Biot––Savart law giving an equation for the
magnetic field from a current-carry
current-carrying
ing wire; Michael
wire;  Michael Faraday, who
Faraday, who in 1831 found that a time-
 varying magnetic
magnetic flux through
through a loop of wire
wire induced a voltage, and others finding
finding further
further
links between magnetism and electricity. James
electricity.  James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded
these insights into Maxwell's
into  Maxwell's equations, unifying
equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and  optics into the
field of electromagne
of electromagnetism.
tism. In
 In 1905, Einstein
1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of
special relativity, requiring
relativity,  requiring that the laws held true in all inertial
all  inertial reference frames.

Source of Magnetism

Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

1. Electric current.
2. Spin magnetic moments of  elementary
  elementary particles. The
particles.  The magnetic moments of the nuclei
of atoms are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic
moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials.
Nuclear magnetic moments are nevertheless very important in other contexts,
particularly in nuclear
in  nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic
and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI).

Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their
magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to
electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the
Pauli exclusion princip
principle
le (see
(see electron
 electron configurati
configuration)
on),, or combining into filled subshells
filled subshells
 with zero net orbital
orbital motion. In both
both cases, the electron
electron arrangement
arrangement is so as to exactly
cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron
the  electron
configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is
often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute magnetic
magnetic moments that
point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic.

Sometimes, either spontaneously,

spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field—
field —each of
the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. A suitable material can then
produce a strong net magnetic field. The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its
structure, particularly its electron
its  electron configurat
configuration,
ion, for
 for the reasons mentioned above, and also
on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal
random  thermal motion makes it more difficult
for the electrons to maintain alignment.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an

applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a
material with paramagnetic
paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external
magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates .[10] Thus, despite its universal
occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a
diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic
moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the
electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically
understood  classically as follows: “ When a material
material
is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to
their Coulomb
their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz
a  Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending
on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal
the  centripetal force on
the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling
them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic
moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

field (in accordance with Lenz's

with Lenz's law).
law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an
opposite direction to the applied field.”
field. ”

Paramagnetism

In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e.  atomic or

or molecular
 molecular orbitals
 with exactly one
one electron in them.
them. While paired
paired electrons are required
required by the Pauli’s
Exclusion Principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite
directions, causing their magnetic
magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align
its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these
magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field,
thus reinforcing it.

Ferromagnetism

 A Ferro-magnet,
Ferro-magnet, like a paramagnetic
paramagnetic substance,
substance, has unpaired
unpaired electrons.
electrons. However, in
addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied
field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient
parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even in the absence of an
applied field, the magnetic moments of the electrons in the material spontaneously line up
parallel to one another.
Every ferromagnetic substance
substance has its own individual temperature, called the  Curie
temperature, or
temperature,  or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is
because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to
ferromagnetic
ferromagnet ic order.
Ferromagnetism
Ferromagneti sm only occurs in a few substances; the common ones are iron,
are  iron, nickel,
 nickel, cobalt,
 cobalt,
their alloys,
their  alloys, and
 and some alloys of  rare
 rare earth metals

Magnetic Domains

The magnetic moments of atoms in a ferromagnetic

a  ferromagnetic material cause them to behave
something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into
small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic
called magnetic domains or
or Weiss
 Weiss
domains. Magnetic
domains.  Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal
magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many
scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.
 When a domain contains
contains too many
many molecules, it becomes
becomes unstable
unstable and divides into two
domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at
the right.
 When exposed to a magnetic field,
field, the domain
domain boundaries move
move so that the domains
aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure (dotted yellow area) as
shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

un-magnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized,

forming a permanent magnet.
 When magnetized
magnetized strongly enough
enough that the prevailing
prevailing domain
domain overruns all others
others to result
in only one single domain, the material is magnetically
is  magnetically saturated. When
saturated.  When a magnetized
ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie
the  Curie point temperatur
temperature,e, the molecules are agitated
to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties
they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure
spontaneously returns,
returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can can freeze
 freeze into a
crystalline solid.

 Anti-Ferromagnetism

In an anti-Ferromagnet, unlike a
Ferromagnet, there is a tendency
for the intrinsic magnetic
moments of neighbor
neighboring
ing valence
electrons to point in opposite
directions. When all atoms are
arranged in a substance so that
each neighbor is 'anti-aligne
'anti-aligned',
d',
the substance is
antiferromagnetic. Anti-
Ferromagnets have a zero net
magnetic moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Anti-Ferromagnets are less
common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low
temperatures. In varying temperatures, anti-Ferromagnets can be seen to exhibit
diamagnetic and ferromagnetic properties.
In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is
no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a
spin glass, and
glass,  and is an example of  geometrical
  geometrical frustration.

Ferrimagnetism

Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field.

However, like anti-Ferromagnets, neighboring
neighboring pairs of electron spins tend to point in
opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal
geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sub-lattice of electrons
that point in one direction, than from the sub-lattice that points in the opposite direction.
Most ferrites
Most  ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance,  magnetite,
 magnetite, is
 is a
ferrite and was originally believed to be a Ferromagnet; Louis
Ferromagnet; Louis Néel disproved this, however,
after discovering ferrimagnetism.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Super-Magnetism
 When a Ferromagnet
Ferromagnet or ferrimagnet
ferrimagnet is sufficient
sufficiently
ly small, it acts like a single magnetic
magnetic spin
that is subject to Brownian
to  Brownian motion. Its
motion.  Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar
to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.
Other Types of Magnetism
 Meta-Magnetism
 Molecule-based Magnet
 Spin Glass

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 An electromagn
electromagnetet is a type of  magnet
 magnet in which the magnetic
the magnetic field is produced by an electric
an electric
current. The
current.  The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets
usually consist of a large number of closely spaced turns of wire that create the magnetic
field. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic
a  magnetic core made from
a ferromagnetic oror ferrimagnetic
 ferrimagnetic material such as iron;
as  iron; the
 the magnetic core concentrates
the magnetic
the  magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent
a  permanent
magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by
controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However,
unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagne
electromagnett
requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic
field.
Electromagnetss are widely used as components of other electrical
Electromagnet
devices, such as motors,
as  motors, generators,
 generators, relays,
 relays, loudspeakers,
 loudspeakers, hard
 hard
disks, MRI
disks,  MRI machines, scientific
machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic
and  magnetic
separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in
industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap
iron and steel. Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism was discovered in 1820.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special

special
relativity, electricity and magnetism are
fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetis
magnetism m
lacking electricity, and electricity without
magnetism, are inconsistent with special
relativity, due to such effects as length
as  length
contraction, time
contraction,  time dilation, and
dilation, and the fact that
the magnetic
the  magnetic force is
 velocity-dependent.
 velocity-depende nt.
However, when both
electricity and magnetism
are taken into account, the
resulting theory
(electromagnetism) is
(electromagnetism)  is fully
consistent with special relativity. In particular
particular,, a
phenomenon that appears purely electric or
purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of
both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism
magnetism
are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special special relativity "mixes"
"mixes" electricity and
magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagne
electromagnetism,
tism, analogous
 analogous to
how relativity "mixes" space and time into space-time.
into  space-time.
 All observations on electromagnetism
on electromagnetism apply to what might be considered to be primarily
magnetism, e.g. perturbations in the magnetic field are necessarily accompanied by a
nonzero electric field, and propagate at the speed
the  speed of light.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 When electric current is carried

carried in a wire, a magnetic field
field is formed around
around it. The
magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire. The magnetic field direction
depends on the direction of the current. It can be determined using the "right hand rule", by
pointing the thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current. The direction of the
magnetic field lines is the direction of your curled fingers. The magnitude of the magnetic
field depends on the amount of current, and the distance from the charge-carrying
charge-carrying wire. The
formula
formula includes
includes the
the constant
constant . This is called
called the perm
permeabi
eability
lity of free
free space,
space, and
and has a
 value . The unit of magnetic
magnetic field is
is the Tesla, T.

B = magnetic field magnitude

magnitude (Tesla, T)
μ0 = permeability of free space ( )
I = magnitude of the electric current (Amperes, A)
r = distance (m)

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 A magnetic field
field is the magnetic
magnetic effect of  electric
 electric currents and
and magnetic
 magnetic materials. The
materials.  The
magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or
strength); as such it is represented by a  vector field. The
field. The term is used for two distinct but
closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, where H is measured in units
of  amperes
  amperes per  meter (symbol: A  m−1 or A/m) in the SI.
per meter the SI. B
 B is measured in tesla (symbol: T)
and newton
and  newton per
per meter
 meter per
per ampere −1 −1
 ampere (symbol: N m  A   or N/
(m  A)) in the SI.
the SI. B
 B is most commonly defined in terms of
the Lorentz
the  Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges.
Magnetic fields can be produced by moving moving electric
 electric
charges and the intrinsic magnetic
intrinsic  magnetic moments of  elementary
  elementary
particles associated with a fundamental quantum
fundamental  quantum property,
their spin.
their spin. In
 In special
 special relativity, electric
relativity,  electric and magnetic fields
are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called
the electromagn
electromagneticetic tensor; the
tensor; the split of this tensor into
electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity
of the observer and charge. In quantum
In  quantum physics, the
physics,  the electromagnetic field is quantized and
electromagneticc interactions result from the exchange of  photons.
electromagneti   photons.
In everyday life, magnetic fields are most often encountered as a  force created
by  permanent
  permanent magnets, which
magnets,  which pull on ferromagnetic
on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or
nickel, and attract or repel other magnets. Magnetic
Magnetic fields are widely used throughout
modern technology, particularly in electrical
in  electrical engineering and
and electro
 electro mechanics. The
mechanics.  The Earth
produces its
produces  its own magnetic field, which
field, which is important in navigation, and it shields the Earth's
atmosphere from solar
from solar wind. Rotating
wind. Rotating magnetic fields are used in both  electric
motors and
and generators.
 generators. Magnetic
 Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a
material through the Hall
the  Hall Effect. The
Effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such
as transformers is studied in the discipline of  magnetic
of  magnetic circuits.

Definitions, Units and Measurements

 The B-Field-The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on
the effects it has on its environment. Often the magnetic field is defined by the force
it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is known from experiments
in electrostatic
electrostaticss that a particle of charge q in an electric field E experiences a
force F = qE. However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle moves in
the vicinity of a current-carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that
particle. Fortunately,
Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that
the force on the particle satisfies the  Lorentz force law, here
law, here v is the particle's velocity
velocity

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

and × denotes the cross

the cross product. The
product. The vector B is termed the magnetic field, and it
is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law correctly
describe the motion of a charged particle. This definition
definition allows the determinat
determination
ion
of B in the following way. He command, "Measure the direction and magnitude of the
 vector B at such and
and such a place," calls for
for the following
following operations: Take a particle
particle
of known charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then measure the
force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other direction. Now
find a B that makes the Lorentz force law fit all these results —that is the magnetic
field at the place in question. Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms
of the torque
the torque it produces on a magnetic dipole.
 The H-Field-In addition to B, there is a quantity H, which is also sometimes called
the magnetic field. In a vacuum, B and H are proportion
proportionalal to each other, with the
multiplicative constant depending on the physical units. Inside a material they are
different.. The term "magnetic field" is historically reserved for H while using other
different
terms for B. Informally, though, and formally for some recent textbooks mostly in
physics, the term 'magnetic
'magnetic field' is used to describe B as well as or in place
of H. There are many alternative names
names for both.
Units
In SI units, B is measured in tesla
In SI in  tesla (symbol: T) and correspondin
correspondingly
gly ΦB (magnetic flux)
flux) is
in weber (symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of 1 Wb/m 2 is 1 tesla.
measured in weber 1 tesla. The
 The SI unit of
tesla is equivalent to (newton
(newton·second)
·second)// (coulomb
(coulomb·metre)
·metre).. In
In Gaussian-cgs
 Gaussian-cgs units, B
units,  B is
measured in gauss
in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) One nano-tesla is also
called a gamma (symbol: γ). The
γ).  The H-field is measured in amperes
in amperes per metre (A/m) in SI units,
and in oersteds
in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.

Magnetic Field Lines

Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle. First, measure the strength
and direction of the magnetic field at a large number of locations (or at every point in
space). Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector)
a  vector) pointing
 pointing in the direction of
the local magnetic field with its magnitude proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field.

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 An alternative method

method to map the the magnetic field is to 'connect'
'connect' the
arrows to form magnetic field lines. The direction of the magnetic
field at any point is parallel to the direction of nearby field lines,
and the local density of field lines can be made proporti
proportional
onal to its
strength.
Magnetic field lines are like streamlines
like  streamlines in
in fluid
 fluid flow, in
flow, in that they
represent something continuous,
continuous, and a different resolution would
show more or fewer lines. An advantage of using magnetic field
lines as a representation is that many laws of magnetism (and
electromagnetism)
electromagneti sm) can be stated completely and concisely using
simple concepts such as the 'number' of field lines through a
surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their
mathematical form. For example, the number of field lines through
a given surface is the surface
the  surface integral of the magnetic field. Various phenomena have the
effect of "displaying" magnetic field lines as though the field lines were physical
phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field, form lines that correspond
to 'field lines'. Magnetic field "lines" are also visually displayed in polar
in  polar auroras, in
auroras, in
 which plasma
 which  plasma particle dipole interactions
interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the
local direction of Earth's magnetic field.
Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic
magnetic forces.
In ferromagnetic
In  ferromagnetic substances like iron
like iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by
imagining that the field lines exert a  tension,
 tension, (like
 (like a rubber band) along their length, and a
pressure perpendicular
perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. 'Unlike' poles of magnets
attract because they are linked by many field lines; 'like' poles repel because their field lines
do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other. The rigorous form of this concept is
the electromagnet stress-energy tensor.

Magnetic Fields and Permanent Magnets

The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the
magnet. The magnetic field of a small straight magnet is proportional
proportional to the
magnet's strength (called its magnetic
its  magnetic dipole moment m). The equations
The equations are non-trivial and
also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple
magnets, m points in the direction of a line drawn from the south to the north pole of the
magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is equivalent to rotating its m by 180 degrees.
The magnetic field of larger magnets can be obtained by modelling them as a collection of a
large number of small magnets called dipoles
called  dipoles each having their own m. The magnetic field
produced by the magnet then is the net magnetic field of these dipoles. And, any net force
on the magnet is a result of adding up the forces on the individual dipoles.
There are two competing models for the nature of these dipoles. These two models produce
two different magnetic fields, H and B. Outside a material, though, the two are identical (to

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

a multiplicative constant) so that in many cases the distinction can be ignored. This is
particularly true for magnetic fields, such as those due to electric currents that are not
generated by magnetic materials.

Magnetic Field Model and H-Field

It is sometimes useful to model the force and torques between two magnets as due to
magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other in the same manner as the  Coulomb
force between electric charges. This is called the Gilbert model of magnetism, after William
after  William
Gilbert. In
Gilbert.  In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are
'smeared' around each pole. These magnetic charges are in fact related to the magneti
magnetization
zation
field M.
The H-field, therefore, is analogous to the electric
the  electric field E, which
starts at a positive electric
positive  electric charge and ends at a negative electric
charge. Near the North Pole, therefore, all H-field lines point
away from the North Pole (whether inside the magnet or out)
 while near the South
South Pole (whether inside the magnet
magnet or out)
all H-field lines point toward the South Pole. A north pole, then,
feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the
South Pole is opposite to the H-field.
In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic
dipole m is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole
strength qm separated by a small distance vector d, such
that m = qm d. The magnetic pole model predicts correctly the field H both inside and
outside magnetic materials, in particular the fact that H is opposite to the magnetization
field M inside a permanent magnet.
Since it is based on the fictitious idea of a magnetic charge density,
density, the Gilbert model has
limitations. Magnetic
Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other as electric charges can, but
always come in north/south pairs. If a magnetized object is divided in half, a new pole
appears on the surface of each piece, so each has a pair of complementary poles. The
magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents.

 American loop model

model and B-Field

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 After Ørsted
Ørsted discovered that electric
electric currents
currents produce a magnetic
magnetic field
field and Ampere
discovered that electric currents attracted and repelled each other similar to magnets, it
 was natural to hypothesize
hypothesize that
that all magnetic
magnetic fields are due to
to electric current loops.
loops. In this
model developed by Ampere, the elementary magnetic dipole that makes up all magnets is a
sufficiently
sufficiently small Amperian loop of current I. The dipole moment of this loop
is m = IA where A is the area of the loop.
These magnetic dipoles produce a magnetic B-field. One
important property of the B-field produced this way is that
magnetic B-field lines neither start nor end (mathematically, B is
a solenoidal vector field);
field); a field line either extends to infinity or
 wraps around to form
form a closed curve. To date no exception
exception to this
rule has been found. (See magnetic
(See magnetic monopole below.) Magnetic
field lines exit a magnet near its north pole and enter near its
south pole, but inside the magnet B-field lines continue through
the magnet from the South Pole back to the north. If a B-field line
enters a magnet somewhere it has to leave somewhere else; it is
not allowed to have an end point. Magnetic
Magnetic poles, therefore, always come in N and S pairs.
More formally, since all the magnetic field lines that enter any given region must also leave
that region, subtracting the 'number' of field lines that enter the region from the number
that exit gives identically zero. Mathematically this is equivalent to: where the integra
integrall is
a surface integral over the closed
the closed surface S (a closed surface is one that completely
surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape). Since dA points outward, the
dot product in the integral is positive for B-field pointing out and negative for B-field
pointing in.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Force between Magnets

The force between two small magnets is quite complicated and depends on the strength and
The force
orientation of both magnets and the distance and direction of the magnets relative to each
other. The force is particu
particularly
larly sensitive to rotations of the magnets due to magnetic torque.
The force on each magnet depends on its magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the
other.
To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magneti
magneticc pole
model given above. In this model, the H-field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles
of a second magnet. If this H-field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there
is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the
magnetic field of the first magnet is non-uniform
non-uniform (such as the H near one of its poles), each
pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This
difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field
and may also cause a net torque.
This is a specific example of a general rule that magnets are attracted (or repulsed
depending on the orientation of the magnet) into regions of higher magnetic field. Any non-
uniform magnetic field, whether caused by permanent magnets or electric currents, exerts a
force on a small magnet in this way.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

The details of the Amperi

Amperianan loop model are different and more complicated but yield the
same result: that magnetic dipoles are attracted/repelled into regions of higher magnetic
field. Mathemati
Mathematically,
cally, the force on a small magnet
magnet having a magnetic
magnetic moment m due to a

magnetic field B is: where the gradient

the  gradient is the change of the quantity m · B per unit distance
and the direction is that of maximum increase of m · B. To understand this equation, note
that the dot
the dot product m · B = mBcos (θ),(θ), where m and B represent the magnitude
the  magnitude of
the m and B vectors and θ is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then
the dot product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions
of higher B-field (more strictly larger m · B). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets
of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic
force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions each having
their own m then summing
then summing up the forces on each of these very small regions.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Magnetic Torque on Permanent Magnets

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

If two like poles of two separate magnets

magnets are brought near each other, and one of the
magnets is allowed to turn, it promptly rotates to
align itself with the first. In this example, the
magnetic field of the stationary magnet creates
a magnetic torque on the magnet that is free to
rotate. This magnetic torque τ
torque  τ tends
 tends to align a
magnet's poles with the magnetic field lines. A
compass, therefore, turns to align itself with Earth's
magnetic field.
Magnetic torque is used to drive electric
drive  electric motors. In
motors. In
one simple motor design, a magnet is fixed to a
freely rotating shaft and subjected to a magnetic
field from an array of electromagne
of  electromagnets.ts. By
 By
continuously switching the electric current through
each of the electromagnets, thereby flipping the
polarity of their magnetic fields, like poles are kept next to the rotor; the resultant torque is
transferred
transferre d to the shaft.
 As is the case for
for the force between
between magnets,
magnets, the magnetic
magnetic pole model leads
leads more readily
readily to
the correct equation. Here, two equal and opposite magnetic charges experiencing
experiencing the
same H also experien
experiencece equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are
in different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance (perpendicular to
the force) between them. With the definition of m as the pole strength times the distance
between the poles, this leads to τ
to τ =
 = μ0mHsinθ
mHsinθ,, where μ0 is a constant called the vacuum
the  vacuum
permeability, measuring
permeability, −7
 measuring 4π×10  V ·s/(A 
·s/(A ·m) and
·m) and θ is the angle between H and m.
The Amperian loop model also predicts the same magnetic torque. Here, it is the B field
interacting with the Amperian
Amperian current loop through a Lorentz force described below. Again,
the results are the same although the models are completely different.
different.
Mathematically, the torque
Mathematically, torque τ
 τ on
 on a small magnet is proportional both to the applied
magnetic field and to the magnetic moment m of the magnet:

 = m x B = µ0m x H
 where × represents
represents the vector cross
vector cross product. Note
product. Note that this equation includes all of the
qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if m is in the same
direction as the magnetic field. (The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the
same direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the
direction of magnetic field.

Magnetic Field and Electric Currents

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 All moving charged

charged particles produce
produce magnetic
magnetic fields. Moving point
Moving point charges,
such as electrons,
as electrons, produce
 produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that
depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration
acceleration of the particles.
Magnetic field lines form in concentric
in  concentric circles around a cylindrical
a cylindrical current-
carrying conductor, such as a length of wire. The direction of such a magnetic
field can be determined by using the "right hand grip rule" (see
rule"  (see figure at right).
The strength of the magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire. (For an
infinite length wire the strength is inversely proportional to the distance.)
Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field
inside the loop while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely
spaced loops to form a coil or "solenoid"
"solenoid" enhances
 enhances this effect. A device so formed
around an iron core
iron core may act as an electromagnet, generating a strong, well-controlled
magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet
electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field
inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic
field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength
and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil.
The Biot-Savart Law relates magnetic fields to the currents which are their sources. In a
similar manner, Coulomb's law relates electric fields to the point charges which are their
sources. Finding the magnetic field resulting from a current distribution involves the vector
product, and is inherently a calculus problem when the distance from the current to the
field point is continuously changing.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

Force on Moving Charges and Current

 A  charged
 charged particle moving in a B-field experi
experiences
ences a sideways force
that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the
component of the velocity that is perpendicu
perpendicularlar to the magnetic
field and the charge of the particle. This force is known as
the Lorentz force, and is given by:

F = qE + qV x B
 where F is the force,
the force, q
 q is the electric
the electric charge of the particle, v is the
instantaneous velocity
instantaneous  velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field
(in tesla).
The Lorentz force is always perpendicular
perpendicular to both the velocity of
the particle and the magnetic field that created it. When a charged
particle moves in a static magnetic field, it traces a helical path in
 which the helix axis is parallel
parallel to the magnetic
magnetic field, and in which
which
the speed of the particle remains constant. Because the magnetic
force is always perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic field can do no  work on an
isolated charge. It can only do work indirectly, via the electric field generated by a changing
magnetic field. It is often claimed that the magnetic
magnetic force can do work to a non-
elementary  magnetic
 magnetic dipole, or
dipole, or to charged particles whose motion is constrained by other
forces, but this is incorrect because the work in those cases is performed by the electric
forces of the charges deflected by the magnetic field.

Force on a Current Carrying Wire

The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a moving charge as expected since a
charge carrying wire is a collection of moving charges. A current-carrying wire feels a force
in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often
referred to as the Laplace force. Consider a conductor of length ℓ, cross section A, and
charge q due to electric current i. If this conductor is placed in a magnetic field of
magnitude B that makes an angle θ with the velocity of charges in the conductor, the force
exerted on a single charge q is

F = qvBsinφ
Direction of Force
The direction of force on a charge or a current can be determined by a mnemonic
a mnemonic known as
the right-hand rule. Using the right hand and pointing the thumb in the direction of the
moving positive charge or positive current and the fingers in the direction of the magnetic

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

field the resulting force on the charge points outwards

from the palm. The force on a negatively charged particle is
in the opposite direction. If both the speed and the charge
are reversed then the direction of the force remains the
same. For that reason a magnetic field measurement
measurement (by
itself) cannot distinguish whether there is a positive charge
moving to the right or a negative charge moving to the left.
(Both of these cases produce the same current.) On the
other hand, a magnetic field combined with an electric field can distinguish between these.
 An alternative mnemonic
mnemonic to the
the right hand rule
rule Flemings's
 Flemings's left hand rule.

Relation between H and B

The formulas derived for the magnetic field above are correct when dealing with the entire
current. A magnetic material placed inside a
magnetic field, though, generates its own  bound
current, which
current,  which can be a challenge to calculate. (This
bound current is due to the sum of atomic sized
current loops and the spin
the spin of the subatomic particles
such as electrons that make up the material.) The H-
field as defined above helps factor out this bound
current; but to see how, it helps to introduce the
concept of magnetizat
magnetization
ion first.
Magnetization-The magnetization vector
field M represents how strongly a region of material
is magnetized. It is defined as the net magnetic
net  magnetic
dipole moment per unit volume of that region. The
magnetization of a uniform magnet is therefore a
material constant, equal to the magnetic
moment m of the magnet divided by its volume.
Since the SI unit of magnetic moment is A  m2, the SI
unit of magnetization M is ampere per meter,
identical to that of the H-field.
The magnetization M field of a region points in the
direction of the average magnetic dipole moment in
that region. Magnetization field lines, therefore,
begin near the magnetic south pole and ends near the magnetic north pole. (Magnetiza
( Magnetization
tion
does not exist outside of the magnet.)
In the Amperian loop model, the magnetization is due to combining many tiny Amperian
loops to form a resultant current called bound
called bound current. This
current. This bound current, then, is the

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

source of the magnetic B field due to the magnet. Given the definition of the magnetic
dipole, the magnetization field follows a similar law to that of Ampere's law:

M.dl = Ib
 where the integral
integral is a line integral
integral over any closed loop and Ib is the 'bound current'
enclosed by that closed loop.
In the magnetic pole model, magnetization begins at and ends at magnetic poles. If a given
region, therefore, has a net positive 'magnetic pole strength' (corresponding to a north pole)
then it has more magnetization field lines entering it than leaving it. Mathematically
Mathematically this is
equivalent to:

s µ0M.dA = -qM
 where the integral
integral is a closed surface
surface integral
integral over the closed surface
surface S and qM is the
'magnetic charge' (in units of  magnetic
 magnetic flux)
flux ) enclosed by S. (A closed surface completely
completely
surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape.) The negative sign occurs
because the magnetization field moves from south to north.

H-Fields and Magnetic Materials

In SI units, the H-field is related to the B-field by:

H = (B/µ0)-M
In terms of the H-field, Ampere's law is:

H.dl = [(/µ)-M].dl = Itot-Ib = If 

 where If  represents
 represents the 'free current'
current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of H does
not depend at all on the bound currents. Ampere's
Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition:

(H1 + H2) = Kf  x

 x ̂
 where Kf  is
 is the surface free current density and the unit normal  ̂ points in the direction
from medium 2 to medium 1. Similarly, a surface
a  surface integral of H over any  closed
 closed surface is
independent of the free currents and picks out the "magnetic charges" within that closed
surface:

s µ0H.dA = s (B- µ0M).dA = qM

 which does not depend
depend on the free currents.
currents.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

The H-field, therefore, can be separated into two independent parts:

parts:

H = H0 + Hd
 where H0 is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and H d is
the demagnetizing
the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents.
The magnetic H-field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of "magnetic
charges". The H field lines loop only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic B field,
begins and ends near magnetic poles as well.

Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields

Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that a
changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material within the
magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy is released when the magnetic
field is destroyed so that this energy can be modelled as being stored in the magnetic field.
For linear, non-dispersive, materials
materials (such that B = μH
μH where
 where μ is frequency-independent),
the energy
the energy density is:

. . .

u= 
 =  
 = 
If there are no magnetic materials
materials around then μ can be replaced by μ0. The above equation
cannot be used for nonlinear materials,
materials, though; a more general expression given below
must be used.
In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume δW  needed
 needed to cause a small
change of magnetic field δB
δB is:
 is:

δW  =
 = H. δB
Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the
 work needed to reach a given magnetic
magnetic state. For hysteretic
For hysteretic materials such as Ferromagnets
and superconductors, the work needed also depends on how the magnetic field is created.
For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly to the
simpler energy density equation given above .

Important Uses and Examples of Magnetic Field

Earth’s Magnetic Field-
Field-The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be produced by
convection currents in the outer liquid of Earth's core. The Dynamo
The  Dynamo theory proposes that
these movements produce electric currents that, in turn, produce the magnetic field.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

The presence of this field causes a compass, placed anywhere within it, to rotate so that the
"north pole" of the magnet in the compass points roughly north, toward Earth's  North
Magnetic Pole. This
Pole. This is the traditional definition of the "north pole" of a magnet, although
other equivalent definitions are also possible.
One confusion that arises from this definition is that, if Earth itself is considered as a
magnet, the south pole of that magnet would be the one nearer the north magnetic pole,
and vice versa. The north magnetic pole is so-named not because of the polarity of the field
there but because of its geographical
geographical location. The north and south poles of a permanen
permanentt
magnet are so-called because they are "north-seeking" and "south-seeking
"south-seeking", ", respectively.
The figure is a sketch of Earth's magnetic field represented by field lines. For most locations,
the magnetic field has a signifi
significant
cant up/down component in addition to the north/south
component. (There is also an east/west component, as Earth's magnetic and geographical
poles do not coincide.) The magnetic field can be visualised as a bar magnet buried deep in
Earth's interior.
Earth's magnetic field is not constant—
constant —the strength of the field and the location of its poles
 vary. Moreover, the poles periodically
periodically reverse
reverse their orientation
orientation in a process
process
called geomagnetic
called geomagnetic reversal. The
reversal.  The most
 most recent reversal occurred 780,000 years ago.

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 Sriaansh Kapoor | Class XII-A | Physics ISC: 2017-18

 A very common source

source of magnetic
magnetic field found inin nature is a dipole,
a dipole, with
 with a "South pole"
pole" and
a "North pole",
pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as
compasses, interacting with the Earth's
the  Earth's magnetic field to indicate
North and South on the globe.
the globe. Since
 Since opposite ends of magnets are
attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole
of another magnet. The Earth's North
Earth's  North Magnetic Pole (currently in
the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it
attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field
contains energy,
contains  energy, and
 and physical systems move toward configurations
 with lower energy.
energy. When diamagnetic
diamagnetic material
material is placed in
in a magnetic field, a magnetic
magnetic
dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field
strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic
dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic
domains.
Magnetic Monopoles-Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons
distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the
resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole
and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—
monopole —if
such a thing exists—
exists — would be a new and fundamentally
fundamentally different
different kind of magnetic
magnetic object.
object. It
 would act as an isolated
isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice
vice versa. Monopoles
Monopoles
 would carry "magnetic
"magnetic charge" analogous
analogous to electric
electric charge. Despite
Despite systematic
systematic searches
since 1931, as of 2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.
Nevertheless, some theoretical
some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic
these  magnetic
monopoles. Paul
monopoles.  Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a
certain symmetry,
certain symmetry, just
 just as quantum
as quantum theory predicts that
individual positive
individual  positive or
or negative
 negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing
charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum
quantum
theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the
quantization of electric charge—
charge —that is, why the observed
observed elementary
 elementary particles carry
charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.
Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary
Certain grand
particles, are solitons
are  solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to
estimate the number of monopoles created in the big
the  big bang contradict
contradicteded cosmological
observations—
observations —the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would
have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of  inflation
 inflation (for
 which this problem
problem served as a partial motivation)
motivation) was successful
successful in solving
solving this problem,
problem,
creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with
current observations.

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Others

 gauss – the centimet

centimeter-gram-second
er-gram-second (CGS)
(CGS) unit
 unit of magnetic field (denoted B)
 oersted – the CGS unit of  magnetizing
 magnetizing field (denoted H)
 maxwell – the CGS unit for magnetic
for  magnetic flux
 gamma – a unit of magnetic flux density that was commonly used before the  tesla came
into use (1.0 gamma = 1.0 nanotesla)
 μ0 – common symbol for the permeability of free space (4π×10 −7 newton/(ampere-turn))2)
 newton/(ampere-turn

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