X-ray:-

X-ray is an electromagnetic wave of high energy and very short wavelength, which is able to
pass through many materials with the speed of light.

X-rays are produced by the collisions of electrons with tungsten atoms.

Properties of X-ray:

1. X-ray belongs to family of electromagnetic radiation which travels in straight line with
the speed of light.
2. They are invisible to eye and cannot be seen; heard or smelt.
3. The cannot be reflected, refracted or deflected by a magnet or electric field as they do not
possess any charge.
4. X-rays are pure energy, no mass & they transfer energy from place to place in the form of
quanta (photons).
5. X-rays can penetrate various objects and the degree of penetration depends upon the
quality of X-ray beam, and also on the intensity and wavelength of x-ray beam.
6. X-rays cause destruction of fermenting power of enzymes.
7. When x-rays are incident on atom, one of the reactions it produces is ‘excitation’. These
states of excitation in biological materials enable it to take part in chemical process in to
which in normal state it would not enter.
8. The photographic paper or film when exposed to x-ray radiation and then developed will
be found blackened.

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Production of X-rays:

X-rays can be produced with the help of high vacuum tube with a heater, cathode and anode.
Vacuum tube is operated at very high voltage. A special electron tube (vacuum tube) is shown
in Fig.1 which is used for production of x-rays. Such a tube has a hot filament cathode an
anode made a very heavy metal. Electron flow from the cathode to anode as in any diode tube.
However a large DC voltage is used between cathode and anode of x-rays tube.

Fig.1 X-ray Tube

When heater is on and very high anode to cathode voltage is applied the electron emits from
cathode and travel toward the anode with very high Velocity, as clear from figure 1, this
beam of electron strike the metal anode such speed that new rays are made from the slanting
surface of the anode these x-rays seem to bounce sideways and out thought the well of the
tube. As the DC voltage (anode-to-cathode of the x-rays tube) is increased, the wavelength
of x-rays decreases. Same tubes now operate at more than a million volts.

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 Fig.2 Block Diagram of X-ray Machine

Operation/Working of X-Ray Machine:

High voltage source and high voltage transformer

High voltage source is responsible for providing high voltage to the H.V transformer for a
decided time. The H.V transformer produces 20 KV to 200 KV at the O/P. These voltages
are used to determine the contrast of the image. High voltages have higher contrast.

High voltage rectifier

This rectifier rectifies the high voltage produced by the H.V.T and supplies them to the anode
of the X-ray tube.

Thermal overload detector

The heat of the X-ray tube (should not be increase by a specified range). If the heat is
exceed from a specified value, and then the thermal over load detector is used to turn off
system.

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Rotor control

Most of the X-ray tube anodes are rotated by an induction motor, in order to limit beam
power at any spot and helps to cool the anode.

Pulse duration timer

The duration of the time must be very small so that

1. The patient does not receive the excessive dose,

2. The film does not become over exposed.
3. The X-ray tube does not over neat. The pulse duration timer determines this pulse
duration.

Aluminum Filter

The X-ray beam used in the medical field which contains a broad band of frequencies.(1) The
unwanted frequencies in the x-ray based create side effects
e.g extra dose for patient causing tumor also reduce the contrast in the image. These are
called soft x-ray. To eliminate these effects Aluminum filter is used.

Collimator

Another mean to reduce the dose of patient is to confine the x-ray beam only on the
region of interest on the body of patient. An external collimator placed between patient
and filter does this.

Diaphragm

X-rays inside the patient create x-ray scattering, which tends to burned the image to
absorb the scattered x-rays and eliminate the burning of an image a lead grid is used
which is called diaphragm.

Film and lead shield

The x-rays passed from the desired region of the patient body are made to strike on the film
where they produce an image of the body soft and hard parts. A lead shield is use to collect
the x-rays after striking on film.

The H.V. source produces high voltage supply, which are rectified by rectifier and applied to
anode of the x-ray tube. Filament supply is also provided. As a result x-rays tube producing
an x-ray beam which is passed through the body and produces image of body and the film,
which is examined in laboratory.

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Applications of X- Rays:
Most applications of X rays are based on their ability to pass through matter. This ability varies
with different substances; e.g., wood and flesh are easily penetrated, but denser substances such
as lead and bone are more opaque. The penetrating power of X rays also depends on their
energy. The more penetrating X rays, known as hard X rays, are of higher frequency and are thus
more energetic, while the less penetrating X rays, called soft X rays, have lower energies. X rays
that have passed through a body provide a visual image of its interior structure when they strike a
photographic plate or a fluorescent screen; the darkness of the shadows produced on the plate or
screen depends on the relative opacity of different parts of the body.
Photographs made with X rays are known as radiographs or skiagraphs. Radiography has
applications in both medicine and industry, where it is valuable for diagnosis and nondestructive
testing of products for defects. Fluoroscopy is based on the same techniques, with the
photographic plate replaced by a fluorescent screen its advantages over radiography in time and
cost are balanced by some loss in sharpness of the image. X rays are also used with computers in
CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans to produce cross-sectional images of the inside of
the body. In the industry X-rays are used for measuring the thickness of material, for inspection
of metals & Inspection of fruits before packing.
Application of the X-Ray in Medical field:
1. Detection of the fraction in bones.
2. Detection of infection of lungs, kidneys and other injury.
3. Detection of presence of Tumour.
4. X-rays are used for treatment for Tumour.
Application of the X-Ray in Industry:
(i) NDT Radiography:

NDT radiography is a critical non-destructive testing method used in the Petrochemical,

Automotive, Aerospace, Manufacturing, Transport, Power Generation and other vital industries.
Radiography traditionally uses radiographic film to record imaging results; however advances in
digital technology have allowed access to accurate and real-time information.

Non-destructive radiography utilizes X-rays or gamma rays as the energy source. Their
wavelengths and other properties (especially the ability to penetrate and exit through various
materials) make these energy sources invaluable for non-destructive inspection.

Radiography enables operators to detect hidden flaws in a relatively short period of time, without
impacting on the work surface. As a result, defects that could have catastrophic implications can
be detected and rectified as part of scheduled maintenance and inspection regimes.

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Applications of non-destructive radiography:
1. Industrial radiography is used in the inspection of new products and welds to ensure they
meet the requirements of the relevant standards of construction. New pipelines (including
bends and joints), storage containers and even insulated materials are routinely inspected
using radiography.

2. Another common use for industrial radiography is the detection and measurement of
internal flaws in existing plant. The early detection of internal flaws in pipelines and
plant in the oil and gas sector, for example, is essential for maintaining production flow
and for the prevention of potentially disastrous hydrocarbon spills.

3. Detection of Corrosion under Insulation (CUI), is another common application for

radiography. Operators can pinpoint any defects without the costly and time consuming
process of removing and replacing the insulation.

4. Aside from industrial applications, NDT radiography is also used in security. There are
now devices available for inspecting suspicious packages and objects, which eliminates
the need for dangerous intrusive or manual inspection methods.

(ii) X-ray thickness Gages: -

These are extensively used in rolling mills for measuring thickness of metal. This is done by
passing x-rays through the metal sheet and measuring with the help of an electrical transducer,
the intensity of X-Rays on emergence from the sheet, lonization chambers and Geiger tubes may
be used for this measurement.

(iii) Identification of objects through x-ray diffraction: -

When as X-Rays beam falls on a thin substance major portion of the beam gets, passing through
the substance but at the same time a small portion gets scattered. The angular distribution of
scattered energy is not uniform but depends upon the atomic arrangement of the substance in the
sample.. If the objects under study are completely surrounded by a sphere of photographic film
to record the diffracted rays, then this film shows lines of maximum intensity arranged according
to the object may be identified.
Different techniques may be employed for obtaining x-ray diffraction patterns for objects of
different types. Thus for an object in the form of a thin section, the photographic film for
recording the x-ray diffraction pattern is mounted on the same side opposite from the x-ray
source. In the case of object, in the form of fine powder placed in a container. In the case of
solids of relatively greater thickness, the photographic film is mounted on the same side of the

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samples as x-rays source. In this case the film records the scattered radiation which is mostly
reflected from the object under study.

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