Chapter 2:

Properties of Materials

DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in

Manufacturing
2.1 Introduction

 Successful products begin with the appropriate materials

 Materials rarely come in the right shape, size, and quantity
for use
 Parts and components are produced by subjecting
engineering materials to one or more processes
 Manufacturing requires knowledge in several areas

Figure 2-1 The manufacturing relationships

among structure, properties, processing, and
performance.
Requirements for Design
 Material requirements must be determined
 Mechanical properties

 Strength

 Rigidity

 Resistance to fracture

 Ability to withstand vibrations or impacts

 Physical characteristics

 Weight

 Electrical properties

 Appearance

 Feature relating to service environment

 Ability to operate under temperature extremes

 Corrosion resistance
Metallic and Nonmetallic Materials
 Engineering materials: metals, ceramics, polymers
and composites
 Metallic materials
 Iron, steel, copper, aluminum, magnesium, etc.
 General properties
 Luster, high thermal conductivity, high electrical conductivity,
ductile
 Nonmetallic materials
 Wood, brick, concrete, glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
 General properties
 Weaker, less ductile, less dense, poor electrical and thermal
conductivities
Metallic and Nonmetallic Materials

 Metals have historically been the more important of

the two groups
 Recently, advanced ceramics, composite materials,
and engineered plastics have become increasingly
important
 If both a metal and nonmetal are capable for a
certain product, cost is often the deciding factor
 Other factors that are considered:
 Product lifetime
 Environmental impact
 Energy requirements
 Recyclability
Physical and Mechanical Properties
 Physical properties:
 A property that distinguishes one material from another
 density(weight),
 melting point
 optical characteristics (transparency, opaqueness, color)
 thermal properties (specific heat, thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity)
 electrical properties (electrical conductivity)
 magnetic properties
 Mechanical properties:
 A property that dictates how a material responds to applied
loads and forces
 Determined through specified testing
 It is important to take the testing methodology
Stress and Strain

 Stress is the force or the

load being transmitted
through the material’s
cross sectional area
 Strain is the distortion or
deformation of a material
from a force or a load
 Stress and strain can
∆L is elongation
occur as tensile, or (a change of the length)
compressive or shear
Figure 2-2 Tension loading and the
resultant elongation.
Tension, Compression, Shear Loading

Figure 2-3 Examples of

tension, compression, and
shear loading, and their
response.
Mechanical Properties
 Mechanical Properties
 Static properties (Topic 2.2)
 The forces that are applied to a material are constant or
nearly constant
 Tensile test
 Compression and bending tests
 Hardness test
 Dynamic properties (Topic 2.3)
 Products or components are subjected to a wide variety
of dynamic loadings
 Impact test
 Fatigue and endurance limit test
2.2 Static Properties

 Constant force on a material is called a static

force
 Static force is used to characterize the behavior
of materials
 A number of standardized tests have been
developed to determine these static properties
of materials
Static Testing
 Tensile test
 Uniaxial test
 Generates an engineering
stress-strain curve
 Compression test
 Difficult to test compression
 Similar results to that of the
tensile testing

Figure 2-5b Schematic of the load frame showing how upward motion of the darkened yoke
can produce tension or compression with respect to the stationary (white) crosspiece.
(Courtesy of Satec Systems, Inc., Grove City, PA.)
Static Testing Specimen

(a)

(b)

Figure 2-4 Two common types of standards tensile test specimens: (a) round; (b) flat
Strength Properties

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
 Key features
 Proportional limit (below
this limit, the strain is
directly proportional to
stress)
 Ratio of stress to strain is
Young’s Modulus
(Modulus of Elasticity)
 Measures stiffness
 Designated by E
 Stiffness indicates the
ability of material to resist
Figure 2-6 Engineering stress-strain diagram for a deflection or stretching
low-carbon steel. when loads
 Key features
 Up to a certain stress , if load is
removed, specimen will return to
its original length. This response is
elastic or recoverable (elastic
deformation)
 The uppermost stress that elastic
behavior is observed , known as
Elastic limit
 For most materials, elastic limit is
slightly higher or identical to
proportional limit
 Elongation beyond elastic limit
becomes unrecoverable and is
known as plastic deformation
(which is permanent deformation)
 Resilience - amount of
energy that material can
absorb while in the elastic
region
 Modulus of resilience -
amount of energy per unit
volume that a material
can absorb without
permanent damage
 Modulus of resilience is
represented by the area
under stress-strain curve
from zero to elastic limit
 Key features
 When elastic limit is exceeded,
stress is no longer proportional to
strain.
 A stress value may be reached
where additional strain occurs
without any further increase
stress. This stress is known as
yield point or yield point stress
 If two distinct point are observed
 the highest point (Upper yield
point) and
 the lower point (lower yield point)

The lower value is used as yield point.

 Upper yield point and lower yield
point are typical associated with
more ductile materials
  If yield point is not well defined
or the elastic-to-plastic
transition is not distinct, offset
yield strength is used.
 Offset yield strength defines
stress required to produce a
specified, acceptable, amount
of permanent strain.
 A common value is at 0.2%
strain (or 0.002 strain)
 Aerospace applications
frequently use at 0.02%

Figure 2-7 stress-strain diagram for a material not

having a well defined yield point, showing the offset
method for determining yield strength. S1 is 0.1%
offset yield strength; S2 is 0.2% offset yield strength
Offset Yield Strength– Example Problem

 Yield stress at a strain offset of

0.2% (or at engineering strain =
0.002)
 40,000 psi

 Young’s modulus
 Key features
 Ultimate Strength
 Stress at which the load-
bearing ability peaks

 Necking
 A localized reduction in
cross-section area

Figure 2-8 A standard 0.505-

in.-diameter tensile specimen
showing a necked region that
has developed prior to failure.
 Key features
 Breaking strength /
Fracture strength
 Stress at which fracture
occurs

 ductile materials
 necking occurs before
fracture
 Breaking strength is less
than ultimate strength
 brittle materials
 Fracture terminates stress-
strain curve before necking
and before the onset of
plastic flow
 Ductility and Brittleness
 Ductility is the amount of plasticity before fracture
 The greater the ductility, the more a material can be deformed before
fracture
 Brittleness is little or no ductility

 Ductility is determined by the

percent elongation of a tensile
test specimen at the time of
fracture (use total elongation)
 Percent elongation is the percent
change of a material at fracture
 Material failure is defined at the
onset of localized deformation or
necking
 Uniform elongation is the change of a
material prior to the onset of necking
 Thus, for material failure

 Another measure of ductility is

percent reduction in area (R.A.)

Af - a smallest area in the necked area after

fracture
Ao – original cross-sectional area
Ductility – Example Problem
A cylindrical metal specimen having an original diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505 in.) and gauge
length of 50.80 mm (2.000 in.) is pulled in tension until fracture occurs. The diameter at
the point of fracture is 6.60 mm (0.260 in.), and the fractured gauge length is 72.14 mm
(2.840 in.). Calculate the ductility in terms of percent reduction in area and percent
elongation.
 Percent reduction in area (%R.A.)

 Percent elongation (%E.L.)

Toughness
 Toughness or Modulus of Toughness
 work per unit volume required to fracture a material

 Determined by the total area

under the stress-strain
curve from test initiation to
fracture

 Variation in temperature and speeding load can change both stress-

strain curve and Toughness
Engineering Stress-Strain Curves
 Engineering stress-strain curve
 A plot of engineering stress (S)
versus engineering strain (e)

Engineering Stress

stress unit: N/m2 (Pa) or Ibf/in2 (psi)

Engineering Strain

strain unit: dimensionless or mm./m or

in./in. or percentage
True Stress-Strain Curve
 True stress-strain curve
 Instantaneous stress versus the
summation of the incremental
strain
True stress

True strain

Figure 2-10 True stress-strain curve for

an engineering metal. For cylindrical specimen
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve vs True
Stress-Strain Curve Engineering stress uses only

original cross-sectional area A o
 True stress uses instantaneous
cross-sectional area A (not original
cross-sectional area Ao)

 Engineering strain is computed by

the change of the length and
original length
 True strain is more complex using
the summation of incremental
strain

A comparison of tensile engineering stress-

strain and true stress-strain curves. Necking  After necking, engineering stress
begins at point M on engineering curve, which will fall, while true stress continue
corresponds to M’ on the true curve.
to rise.
Stress-Strain – Example Problem

A steel bar is 10 mm diameter and 2 m long. It is stretched with a force of 20

kN and extends by 0.2 mm. Calculate the stress and strain
1𝑚 𝑑
𝑑 = 10 𝑚𝑚 × = 0.01 𝑚; 𝑟= = 0.005 𝑚
1000 𝑚𝑚 2

𝐴𝑜 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 0.005 𝑚 2
= 7.857 × 10−5 𝑚2

𝐹 20 × 103 𝑁
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = −5 2
= 2.546 × 108 𝑁/𝑚2 = 254.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑜 7.857 × 10 𝑚
1𝑚
∆𝑙 0.2 𝑚𝑚 ×
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 1000𝑚𝑚 = 0.0001
𝑙0 2𝑚
Strain Hardening  Loading and unloading within the elastic
region will result in cycling up and down
elastic plastic region
region the linear portion of the stress strain
curve (O ↔A)
 Loading and unloading within the plastic
region
 Loading from O→B

 Unloading will follow the path BeC

 Specimen exhibits a permanent

elongation of the amount OC
 Reloading from C
 Elastic behavior is again observed as
the stress follows the path CfD
 Point D is now yield point or yields
stress for material in its partially
deformed state
 Point D has higher stress than point A
 When metals are plastically deformed,
Figure 2-12 Stress-strain diagram obtained
by unloading and reloading a specimen.
they become harder and stronger (strain
hardening)
Strain-Hardening Exponent
 Various materials have strain
hardening at different rates; thus
amount of deformation different
materials exhibit different increases in
strength
 Explained as

n strain-hardening exponent
K strength coefficient
 If n is large, materials strength will
significantly increase in strength with
small amount of deformation
Figure 2-13 True stress-true strain  Material with small n shows a little
curves for metals with large and small change in strength with plastic
strain hardening
deformation
Damping Capacity
 Damping capacity
 amount of energy that convert
mechanical energy into heat and is
absorbed by the materials
 area between two paths of
unloading and reloading in plastic
region
 If area is large, damping capacity
is good, it is able to absorb
mechanical vibrations or damp
they out quickly
 High damping capacity – Grey
cast iron
 Low damping capacity - brass,
steel
Compression Test

 Compression Test
 Similar to tension test
 More difficult to conduct than a standard tension test
 Specimen must have large cross-sectional area to resist
bending and buckling
 During deformation, material strengthens by strain
hardening and cross-sectional area increases, causing
to increase in required load
 Friction between machine and specimen can cause the
change of measurement
Bending Test

 Bending Test
 Use to evaluate hard, brittle
material, such as glass and other
ceramics
 Two types of bending tests
 Three-point bending test
 Four-point bending test
 Use to determine
Figure 2-14 schematic of the (a)  Flexural modulus (modulus of
three-point and (b) four-point
bending tests that are commonly elasticity)
applied to brittle materials
 Flexural strength (modulus of
rupture)
Hardness Testing
 Hardness is the resistance to permanent deformation in the form
of penetration or indentation
 Brinell Hardness Test

 Measures the indentation of a steel ball

 Yields a Brinell hardness number based on diameter of indentation
 Rockwell Test
 Small steel ball or diamond tip cone (called a brale) causes an
indentation
 Indentation is measured based on depth
 Vickers Hardness Test
 Knoop Hardness Test

 Microhardness Test

 Hardness testing can provide a close approximation of tensile

strength (~500 times the Brinell hardness number for psi)
 Brinell Hardness Test
 Measures the indentation of a steel ball
 A tungsten carbide or hardened steel ball
10 mm. in dia. Is placed into the flat
surface of a material
 Standard load 500 – 3000 kg
 Testing time
 10-15 sec. for iron or steel
 30 sec. for soft material
 a Brinell hardness number (BHN or HB)
 calculated as

 determined from tables based on

Figure 2-15 (a) Brinell harness tester; (b) Brinell diameter of indentation at specific loads
test sequence showing loading and measurement
of the indentation under magnification with a scale
calibrated in millimeters
 Rockwell Test

Figure 3-15 (a) Operating principle of the Rockwell hardness tester; (b) Typical Rockwell hardness tester.

 Two stage process

 First, preload or minor load is applied to a sample using a small steel ball or diamond
tip cone (called a brale), causes an indentation This can remove the effects of any
surface irregularities.
 Second, major load is then applied to the indenter to produce a deeper penetration.
 Indentation is measured based on depth produced by major load
 Cannot perform on thin materials, on rough surface, on inhomogeneous
material (i.e. grey cast iron)
Vickers Hardness Test
(Diamond Pyramid Hardness)
 Similar to Brinell harness test
 Use a 136-degree square-based
diamond tipped pyramid as a
indenter
 Defined as load divided by the
surface area of indentation
 Advantages
 More accuracy
 Diamond tip indenter enables to
evaluate any material and places all
materials on a single scaling
 Simple, less time consuming,
inexpensive
 Microindentation Hardness
 Indentation size is extremely
small
 Must perform on specimens
with polishing metallographic
surface
 Load ranging from 25 – 3600g
 The measurement is
performed under high
magnification of 200x – 400x
 Can perform on very thin
Figure 2-18 (a) Comparison of diamond-tipped indenter
specimen
used in Vickers and Knoop hardness test; (b)Series of Knoop
hardness indentation progressing across a surface-hardened
steel specimen
Other Hardness Determinations
 Durameter
 Testing soft, elastic materials (i.e. Rubbers and nonrigid plastics
 No permanent deformation occurs
 Scleroscope test
 Measured by the rebound of a small diamond tipped hammer that is
dropped from fixed height onto the surface of testing materials
 Evaluate the resilience of a material
 only used to compare similar materials
 The LEEB test
 A carbide-tipped impact body is driven test surface by a spring
force, with the impact and rebound creating a deformation induced
indentation
 Portable hardness testing
 File test
 Pass-fail test using a single file or semiquantitative evaluation using
a series of files
Relationships among the Various
Hardness Tests
Relationship of Hardness to Tensile
Strength

Figure 2-20 Relationship of

hardness and tensile strength for a
group of standard alloy steels
2.3 Dynamic Properties

 Dynamic loading
 Sudden impacts or loads that change rapidly
in magnitude
 Repeat cycle of loading and unloading
 Frequent changes in loading mode (i.e. From
tension to compression)

 Quantitative results of standardized tests

should be extremely caution because
the condition can vary greatly
Impact Tests

 Use to evaluate toughness or fracture resistance

under a rapidly applied load
 Two basic types
 Bending impacts
 Charpy test
 specimen is positioned horizontally
 Impact at the center
 Izod tests
 Specimen is positioned vertically
 Impact at the unsupported end
 Tension impacts
 Eliminate the use of notch specimen, thereby, avoiding
many objections inherent
Bending Test

Figure 2-22 Izod impact specimen Figure2-21 Charpy impact specimen

Impact test a) Izod b) Charpy

Bending Impact  Notch profile is very crucial
 Changes in the forms of notch and
speed of pendulum can produce
A standard specimen is a square significant changes in the results
bar with V notch, U-shaped notch  Under condition of sharp notches,
and keyhole notch wide specimens, and rapid loading,
many ductile materials lose their
energy absorbent capacity and fail in
a brittle manner
 Notch-sensitive material must have
good surface finish

Figure 2-24 Notched and unnotched impact specimens

before and after testing. Both specimens have the save cross-
sectional area, the specimen with notch fractures while the
other doesn’t
Tensile Impact Test
ASTM D1822

Before impact After impact Tensile impact specimen

ISO 8256

Before impact After impact Tensile impact specimen

Fatigue and endurance limit
 Materials can fail if they are subjected to repeated
applications of stress, even though the peak stress is less
than yield stress and ultimate tensile stress. This is known
as fatigue
 Fatigue can result from cyclic repetition of a load
 Stress versus number of cycles curves (S-N curve) are
useful in determining fatigue strengths and endurance
limits
 Endurance limit (or Endurance strength) is the stress
below which the material will not fail regardless of the
number of cycles
 Fatigue strength is the maximum stress that can be
sustained for a number of loading cycles
S-N Curve

Figure 2-27 Typical S-N curve for steel showing an endurance limit

Figure 2-27 Typical S-N curve for steel showing an endurance limit.

From standard tensile test: Fracture occurs at stress over 480 MPa

Under cycle loading: At 380 MPa, material fractures after 10,000 cycles
At 350 MPa, material fractures after 100,000 cycles
At 340 MPa, no fracture by fatigue, regardless of the number of
stress application cycles
Fatigue
 Fatigue resistance is sensitive to
 Stress raisers or stress concentration, such as sharp corners, small
surface cracks, machining marks or surface gauges
 Specimen must eliminate stress raisers and flaw surface
 Effects on fatigue performance
 Temperature
 If temperature is increased, fatigue strength is dropped significantly
 Environment (corrosion, humidity)
 In severe environment, fatigue lifetime and endurance limit can be significantly
reduced
 Residual stresses
 Residual Compression – shot peening, carburizing, burnishing
fatigue cracks is difficult to form, and lifetime is extended
 Residual Tension – welding, machining
fatigue lifetime is reduced
 Magnitude of load
Fatigue

Figure 2-28 fatigue strength of

Inconel alloy 625 at various
temperature
Fatigue Failure

 Fatigue Failure is the fail of material as a result of cycle

loadings

 Progressive fracture
 Fracture initiation – forms at surface cracks, sharp corner,
machining marks or metallurgical notch (an abrupt change in metal
structure)
 The stress at the tip of the cracks is higher than the strength of materials
 Crack growth – continues with each successive application of the
load until failure
 Overload Fracture – occurs through the remainder of the material
 Smooth region – crack propagation by cyclic fatigue
 Ragged region – sudden overload tearing
 a) high applied load b) low applied load

Figure 2-29 Fatigue fractures with arrows indicating the points of fracture
initiation, the regions of fatigue crack propagation, and the regions of sudden
overload fracture (or fast fracture)
Fatigue Failure
 Characteristics of fatigue failure
 Fatigue striations – a series of parallel ridges radiating outward
from the original of the crack (visible only with electron microscope)
(Figure 2-30)
 Caused by the growth associated with each successive application of
the cyclic load
 Beach marks – appear on the fatigue surface, lying parallel to the
striation (visible to unaided eyes)
 Caused by interruptions to cyclic loading (changes in magnitude of
applied load and isolated overloads)
 Ratchet marks (or offset step) –appears on the fracture surface if
multiple fatigue cracks nucleate at different points and grow
together
Figure 2-30 Striation of fatigue fracture of AISI
type 304 stainless steel viewed in a scanning
electron microscope at 810 x.

Beach marks or clam shell mark

Ratchet marks
2.4 Temperature Effects

 Temperatures effect the mechanical properties of materials

Figure 2-31 The effects of temperature on the

tensile properties of a medium-carbon steel.
Figure 2-33 The effects of temperature and
strain rate on the tensile properties of copper
Effect of Temperature on Impact
Properties
 Ductile-brittle transition
temperature is the temperature at
which the response of the material
(toughness) goes from high energy
absorption to low energy absorption
 at this temperature, ductile
material becomes brittle material,
the fracture appearance also
changes from ductile fracture to
brittle fracture
 From Figure 2-34 steel indicated by
solid line becomes brittle at -4°C,
Figure 2-34 The effects of temperature on the
impact properties of two low-carbon steels.
while the other retains good fracture
resistant down to -26°C
Creep
 Creep is failure of a material due to long term exposure to
elevated temperature

Figure 2-36 Creep curve for a single

specimen at a fixed elevated
temperature, showing the three
stages of creep and report creep rate
2.5 Machinability, Formability, and
Weldability
 Machinability, formability, and weldability are the
ways in which a material responds to a specific
process
 Both the process and the machine dictate how
the material will respond to manufacturing
processes
 Each characteristic must be evaluated
individually (i.e. there is no necessary
relationship between machinability, formability,
and weldability)
Machinability, Formability, and Weldability

 Machinability
 Depends not only on the material being machine but
also on the specific machining process, process
conditions and process aspects
 Malleability, workability, and formability
 Refer to a material’s suitability for plastic deformation
processing
 Weldability
 Depends on the specific welding or joining process
and the specific process parameters
2.6 Fracture Toughness and The
Fracture Mechanics Approach
 All materials contains flaws or defects
 Material defects:

 Pores, Cracks, Inclusions

 Manufacturing defects
 Machining marks, arc strikes, contact damage to external
surface
 Design defects
 Abrupt section changes, Excessively small fillets, Small holes
 When specimen is subjected to load, the applied stress
are intensified in the vicinity of defects, potentially causing
accelerated failure or failure under unexpected conditions.
Fracture Mechanics
 Fracture Mechanics is used to identify the conditions
under which defects will grow or propagate to failure
 using three principle quantities
 Size of the largest or most critical flaw (a)

 Applied stress (σ)

 Fracture toughness (K)

(Fracture toughness – a quantity that describes the resistance of a
material to fracture or crack growth)
 In fracture mechanics, defects are
 Dormant defects are those whose size remains
unchanged through the lifetime of the part
 Dynamic defects change through the life of the part
Fracture Mechanics
 Basic equation of fracture mechanics

K – fracture toughness
σ – maximum applied tensile stress
α – dimensionless factor from flaw location,
orientation and shape
a – size of the largest or most critical flaw
When K is greater than usage condition, the flaw is
dormant
When K is equal, the flaw is dynamic. Crack growth or
fracture occurs
2.7 Physical Properties

 Physical Properties
 include thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical
characteristics

 Thermal properties
 Heat capacity or specific heat is extremely important in
casting because heat must be removed for
solidification or heat treatment
 Thermal conductivity measures the rate at which heat
can be transported through a material
 Thermal expansion is the measure of contraction or
expansion of a material due to heating or cooling
 Dimensions must be adjusted to compensate
Physical Properties
 Electrical Properties
 Electrical conductivity, electrical resistance
 may be significant considerations for manufacturing
 Magnetic properties
 Classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
 Refer to the way the material responds to an applied
magnetic field
 Optical properties
 Transmission, absorption, and reflection
 Weight or Density
 Melting and boiling point
2.8 Testing Standards and Concerns

 American Society of Testing and Materials

(ASTM) has standardized the testing
methodologies for determining physical and
mechanical properties
 Important that the tests are standardized and
reproducible
 ASTM maintains and updates testing
standards
Summary

 Material selection is extremely important to a

successful product
 Desired material properties must be determined
 Stress strain curve is a valuable engineering
tool that demonstrates a material’s behavior
as loads are applied
 Variety of testing methodologies to determine
material properties
 Method in which they are tested is important to
understand
Homework

 Review questions (12th ed.) – chapter 2: 3, 6,

10, 11, 15, 16, 21, 24, 42, 43

 Review questions (11th ed.) – chapter 3: 2, 4,

8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 17, 28, 29