Sl Raton nd it Meurer 8») —___ ie Ration and te Meare 55 Madeownenesan[ Basen] can where nis the day ofthe year, leg. June 21, 1988 isthe 173th (31 +29 +3140 +31 + 21) day of 1988 he. n = 173) The hour anglew isthe angle through which the earth must tum toring the meridian of a point directly inline with the sun's rays, The hhour angle w is equivalent to 15 per hour. It is measured from noon basedon the local solar time (LST) or local apparent time, being positive in the morning and negative in the afternoon, (The term LST will be defined a little later). It isthe angle measured in the earth's equatorial plane, between the projection of OP and the projection ofa line from the centre of the sun to the centre ofthe earth, Altitude angle « (solar altitude). It is a vertical angle between the projection of the sun's rays on the horizontal plane and the direction of sun's rays (passing through the point). (Refer Fig. 2.43) Sup e Fe [Link] hint “Zenith angle ©, It is complimentary angle of sun's altitude angle, [tis a vertical angle between the sun's rays and a line perpen dicular to the horizontal plane through the point ie. the angle between ‘he beam from the sun and the vertical once in degree akong eal angle meanared rays. This angle isroar ast ang can rt eignte a hoa teengrnmetn arn Ge age Te xprnsene a ~ aw ofthe eis seit atte ‘te te og a oro gt, nrth latitude iain agate, he decinaton wil in aia ete the vernal equinox and seen et ale. = Sai ee “os ee ange mde the ane helo er rac ming mate eit i re ines mh nang 9 tie oa vinnie as tang al mei sm te ea eae om an surtce Fg 243 rn eet ng dope fin Incident angle (0) Iti the angle being measured between the beam of rays and normal to the plane were = latitde noth putes ae 35 dectnation aor poste) hour angle, one betwee bur na sla md ight and nce. Aongitide with morning postive and shersnen egnine eee Sen: and 7H raha arco cp . = 152-1an, ofthese are allows or vertical wrface, 90" equation (245) becomes Fr horizontal surface # = © 8 nih ance er surface facing du south y cos O; = in (ein cons 4 con Seon nn) (incident angle ia expreced as denoting he urface a ted ons) wsin Sain (2) cea eonsicanig=s) (249) Vertical surfaces facing due south = 97.7» 0) sin con 8 cos ene sind aa ‘Day length. At the time of sun rw or sunset, the zenith angle ‘ge 90° substituting this n equation (2.47), we obtain un re Bou ingsind fos geared tan gtand oy scos! (tan gtan 8) aayAAD none Comventional Sources of Ener € Since 15° of the hour angl ength (in hours) ie are equivalent to 1 hour, the day Qos us ost (tan ¢ tan 6) @AA% =e ate *i5 : pet Therefore, the length of the day (,) is « function of latitude and solar declination. a ‘. our angle at sunrise oF sunset on an inclined oo,/a'* will be lesser than the value obtained by equation, (2.4.12) if the ve efing incidence angle comes out to be more {hans 90°. Unders car ePelition, by putting 0 = 90" in equation (2.4.5) oF Soe ofits simple ti conc or an inclined surface facing south substituting 9 = 90°, jn equation (2.4.9), we obtai Wg = COS 1 tan (@—s) tan 6) w(2.4.13) ‘The corresponding day Jength (in hours) is then given by t= eos! [tan 9) tan dl ef) Local Solar Time (or Local Apparent Time). The time used for calculating the hour angle in all the equation above, is the local solar {ime or local apparent time, which does not coincide with the local clock time. The solar time can be obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying two corrections. The first correction arises because of the difference in longitude between a location and the meridian on which the standard time is based. The correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference in longitude. The second correction called the equation of time correction is due to the fact that earth's orbit and rate of rotation are subject to small perturbations. is correction is on experimental observations in Fig. (2.4.5). “me ™ ae 15 10 \THON OF TIME IN min.—_— Solar Radiation and its Measurement 59 ——_ Thus : Local solar time (LST) Standard time = 4 (Standard time longitude — longitude Stlcatin) Equations tine crecn) 4) ‘The negative sign is applicable forthe eastern hemisphere, Example 2.4.1. Determinethe Local Solar time and declination atalocation latitude 23° 15'N, longitude 77* 30 Bat 12.30 1ST on June 1a, Baton of me covcton i en from standard table or chart 2-('01- Solution. -.. ‘The local solar time += IST - (Standard time longitude — longitude of loration) + Equation of time correct = 124 30! — 4 (82° 30’ - 77" 30')- 1’ 01" Indian Standard Time (IST) isthe local civil time corresponding to 82.5" E longitude 2" 30-4 x 5-101" = 12h8'69. Ans. Declination can be obtained by Cooper's equation i.e, we wissen S00] 00 = 23.45 sin [ 365 (284 +170) | (nis the day of the here = 170 on June 19) | += 28.45 sin 86° 22343". Ans. 3" 2556 Example 24.2. Calculate the angle made by beam radiation ‘with the normal tc flat collectar on December 1, at 9.00 AM., solar time for a location at 26° 351 N. The collector is tilted at an angle of latitude plus 10°, with the horizontal and is pointing due south ‘Solution. y= 0 since collector is pointing due south, For thiscase ‘we have the equation ‘con Oy = cos (92) cos 6 cos @ + sin (p<) sind | Declination & can be obtained with the help of Cooper equation Ayn = 335. éwal Sources of Ener cos Of = cos (28.58" ~ 38.58") cos (~ 22.11") Ore oom 4st + sin (- 22.11) sin (28.68" — 38.58") oe foe cos 22 11° cos 45° + sin 22.11" sin 10° 0.6451 + 0.0653 0.7104 op = 44.72", Ans. ar Radiation Measurements ae diation are important because of the er heal cooling applications, and the increasing number of solar heating and need for accurate ‘solar irradiation data to predict performance. Eaperinentl determination of the eneraytranaferred tea surface by Soler radiation required instruments which will measure the beating Site of direct solar radiation and difuse solar radiation. Measure: tment are alo ads ofeam radiation, which respond to solar radiation Teed fom a very small prin of the etc scar sky. A ttl Tadlation (ype of instrament may be used for measuring diffuse ra {ion alone by shading the sensing element from the sun's direct rays: ‘Two basic types of instruments are employed for solar. ‘radiation measurement (0) apyrhetiometer, which collimates the radiation to determine the beam intensity as a function of incident angle, and (2) apyranometer, which measures the total hemispherical solar radiation. The pyranometer measurements are the most common. ‘The total solar radiation arriving atthe outer edge of the atmos- phere is called the solar constant as already mentioned (A) Pyrheliometers. A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures beam radiation, Incontrast toa pyranometer, the sensor dise is located at the base of tube whose axis is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays. Thus diffuse radiation is essentially blocked from the sensor surface. ‘Most pyrheliometers used for routine measurements operate on the thermopile effect and are similar to pyranometer in this respect. They differ in that mechanically they must follow the sun to measure only direct sunlight and avoid the diffuse component. In practice, direct. solar radiation is measured by attaching the instrument to an electri. cally driven cquataria mount for tracking the sun. The diffuse com- ponent is avoided by installing a collimator tube over the sensor with circular cone angle of about 5°. the sensor with Problems with pyrheliometer measurements are several the apeature angle, the circum solar contributions and imprecision the tracking mechanism. The first two problems are almost inposeible to eliminate because ofthe inability to define the solar disk precisely _and the finite dimensions ofthe instrument components, The practice]Fee taking and sensor orientation are simply great: The A A cca oat of Peron factors in not only involv Soot eorietslr component on abriental wrace may also be sont waing« seding in hn done by subtracting the shaded se) from the ‘unshaded (global) reading ( practice in solar radiometry relies primarily on ther- wren seducers. However, relatively low cost photvalinie ie are becoming more popular, To mesa the direct solar ry creciving surface must be normal to direct solar ray, rae ning the wun and eer “Three pyrheliometers have been in sine ad use to meare normal incient beam radiation i) the Angstrom pytheliometer {inthe Abbot silver dsc pyrheliometer (ii) Eppley pytheliometer, he matruments provide primary and secondary standard of jiation measurements. ‘Angstrom compensation Pyrheliometer. [8 (i pe thin blackened shaded mangani strip (Size 29 * 2x ee peated electrically unt itis at the sme tempera 8 hown schemati- spoeectt lar adi 01 mm) similar aly in Fig. 2.5.1 —27-4 Heating current Thermo:junction Shaded str .Galvanometer equal tothe absorbed solar the back of each strip, connected in [galvanometer (or other null detector) "The energy i! of directo tetnmntemebe elated A k Seaver naceeara ee ee ryrenoy to ley Parone, Te Bink ilincie tga compel Se pees Buthsiverthernopie mused thehaeefcbran te te itn Sphere ot whichsstind nage‘ Acheron sha, asvessrrangenen fthrmcnspesued odecopa chats volngs than pons wingely oe Te tbe eden ae tndiseaelwihacywlgiart window hcbirewvle Re hel tnd Itisa stabl instrument and can be used as a sub-standard. The instrument has found wide acceptance within the U. S.A and parts of the worl. 7 pe Pyranometers. A pyranometer is an instrument which total or gba radiation over a hemispherical feldat eet a shading ring is attached, the beam radiation’ prevented from falling on the instrument sensor andin then measur eal ae ns Ponent of the radiation. In moet ramen allowed to fall on a black surface to wl thermopile are attached. The cold Junctions of the thermopile are located. F such a ae do not receive the radiation. As a re: ult, aan emf. proportional to the solar radiation is generated. Thas cf which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV cas be rea rennet: integrated over a period of time with regular calibration uf about « 2 percent can be obtained. the sun's radiation is hich the hot junctions of a— Feasts Rivage peor ppeley pyravometer, (i) Yell slr i ora Timetlie tea oe the Rabitesch type, (0) Velchme pyrano fer, 1) The ict Rt pyranmetr, 1) Tne. Fiat two types are described briefly inthefellowi Fy forenomcte. Is based lhe presse seh ie ee ster hic absorb most solar radiation) and white surfaces il set most sola Fadiation). Thedaecthn etenipecetaredimeee reflect iy thermopl. It wses concent sve ings 0.25 mm ‘the, sprite coated lack and whit, with ether 10 or 50 thermocouple ser jot tenerar incr incen tei ae sung wedges arranged in acirularpatern, with alternate black de ng Tne dss oredr ond na beibera Sir irumets oe mantred Beoe lr Gas pp The Eppley Pranometers, and sia struments solar cel reometer with alternate black ani white sensor segments arecafbratedin a horizontal postion. Calibration these instramens arr gary to some degree if the instrument is neined fo measure widiation on other than a horizontal surface. (ii) Yellot Solarimeter (Photovel have alee been used on photovoltaic (ola el) detectors, ton cells ave a et commen for aolar energy. Silicon solar cells bave the froperty that their light current (approxinately eave! the short eee aveveat normal radiation levels) ina Tinear fonction of Me rNieatsvlar radiation. They have the disadvantages thatthe spectral eeponee isnot linear, so instrument calibration is @ function of the spectral distribution ofthe incident radiation. ‘Sunshine Recorder Fig. 25.2 Pyrat ‘The duration of bright sunshine ina day is measured by mea fasunshine reorder Tae sun's rays ar focussed by a glass Per int on a card strip held in a groove in aspherical bow! mov Poncenricaly with the sphere. Whenever there isa bright ishingSe panes fred intone the fg the aye the um me a bar aimed onthe #8 ratings include the following informations: oe 1 Wheather they are instantaneous menor’ tor val integrated over some period of time {usually hour o day} +r ths time ar time period ofthe measurements 3. Whether the measurements are of beam, diffuse or total radiation, and the instrument used. 44 The receiving surface orientation be inclined at a fixed slope or normal) 5. If averaged, the period over which they are averaged (©. monthly average of daily radiation). Most ofthe data on solar radiation received on the surface of the earth tetSured by solarimeter which give readings for instan- cart eae aaarventa at rate throughout the day for total radiation tans ontal surface. Integrating the plot of rate of energy received aot area per unit time over a whole day gives the langleys of Pediation received on a horizontal surface. Tt should be pointed out that solar radiation flux is generally reported in langleys per hour or per day (1 langley = 1 cal/cm”). The unit ‘angley’has been adopted in honour of Samuel Langley who made the first measurement ofthe spectral distribution of the sun. __ Forinstance, the total daily solar radiation received in Caleutta tte 20 32 390m he bag yay average i 80 lngleys i, ‘Average solar radiation data are also avail canbe ned as aire of average radi date te ne ane Gate sow aly eral Sr clear day Ijcontal raieese bonny peril fr ty ate eb cn ty barzontal radiation for any ee ae for hours of sun shine (usually horizontal, it may idiation, and the average of the global and diffuse Fig. 2.6.1. In contrast to @ jagged variation with loudy day. This iee Radiation and its Measurement 65 Freda ora cations Toe averaging ually made over a moath fand tabulations showing the hourly variation of global and diffuse Radiation —= =. 1600 200 00 Fig. 261, Atypical daily record of gabe and diffe radiation, radiation, the amount received per day and the sunshine hours per day RAOIATION—= 1800 1700 $20 Fig 262, Atypical pobal and dif ration co a clo day India lies between latitude 7” and 37 N, and receives an annual average intensity of solar radiation between 1670029260 kimn"iday, (400700 calmday). The daily solar ineclaion figures over the vorycent places in Indi accurately available Peak values are generat diferent Pin Aprilor May, with pars of Rajasthan and Gujarat rei ing over 25100 kJ/m”/day (600 cal/em ‘cal/em?/day). During the monsoon and winter months the daily solar kJ/miday (400 cal/em*/day)) radiation decreases to about 16700 ‘The annual daily diffuse radiation received over the whole country is observed ta be about "7300 kSim?/day (175 cal/em*iday). The diffuse radiation, measured over many parts ofthe country during November and December, are betwee Salim? day, (75 and 100 calem?/day) while inaximum values aay ae eeeatey are about 12560 km®/ay (900 calem day) spill in July in Gujarat. | | | are prepared. S Len0.9970 + 1.65 x 0.1765 x 0.3987)] 24 = 2A 1 W0.967510.0149)1 a. = 210.9816 “ ‘The value of fg in $1. units is 1353 Wim? or 4871 J/m* br and MKS units is = 1165 keal/hr m*. ST units 24 2, Ho = Gi «1953 x 0.9816 = 10143 Wh day Hy. = 10143 x (0.3 + 0.51 x 0.55) = 10143 x 0.58 = 5884 Wim day. Ans: MKS units a= 24,1165 «0.9816 « 8140 heal 3 Hyp = 8140 x 0.58 = 5070 koa? day. Ans. jlar Radiation on Tilted Surfac ‘The rate of receipt of solar energy on a given surface oO the ground depends on the orientation ofthe surface ‘with reference to the grou lly un tracking surface that always faces the 172080 the Sum pu possible solar energy atthe particular vate Asurface of tine area oriented in any other direction will eco ‘smaller mount of solar radiation. Because solar radiation issuch ‘dilute'form amount ya desirable to capture as much a posible 292 6°50 area, GW have seen in the preceding sections thatthe ‘measuringinstruments ‘ona borizontal surface. Because lecting devices are tilted srt data for a ‘Beam Radiation. In most cases; the tilted surface Facer due south i.e, 7 = 0, for this case, ‘con 6 = sin 6 sin (8) +608 5 c08 0 0819-9) For horizontal surface (sional Sources of Bere it ‘led mby singaind+cospcosdeosm (28) ‘This ratio is called the tilt factor for beam radiation, 28. Radiation om horizontal and tilted eurface, fal Radiation. Beam and diffuse component of solar radia tion fe absorbed in at plate type collector. The angular correenin {actor has heen determined for beam radiation as given by wiuatin, 2.8.1. Correction for diffuse radiation ean be applied for clear days, for that it can be assumed that their origin is near the sun, that is, the scattering of solar radiat attering. For such a ion is mostly forward sc saty 4nay be assumed equal toy, where R isthe correction factor for both direct and diffuse radiation, For cloudy or hazy days diffuse radiation can be assui med as on the tied st, sky. The effective ratio of solar energy zontal surface is thenSoar Radiation aad ee A gurface tilted at slopes from the horizontal sees 2 * 59° of the sky dome * heen Taig wate ae ne ground or other surroundings and if jose surroundings have a diffuse reflectance of p for solar radiation the reflected radiation from the surro a relied ral yunding on the surface from total (Hy, + HQ ~coss) £ a rf Hence three compo! ts ; the beam radiation, diffuse solar radiation and ie Sere ; slar radiation reflected from the ground which the tilted Cae rea Tawesfaccmneredby 8 08 Jordon. Hence combining the three terms. * 1 + £088) Hy= Hie + Hy 2222) «an, + He dy 2.8.4) My Hy se 7 wna Rath p, HelLteme) ,-cone) aH 2 (235) ‘The values of diffuse reflectance as suggested by Liu and Jordon are a8 follows 9 =0.2 when there is no snow = 0.7 when there is a snow cover. ‘Therefore for Indian conditions, a value around 0.2 is general expected with surfaces ufconcrote or glass and can be ‘used, Fortunately expesMflected radiation term does not contribute mach © the total tee ree in India the value of the angle would rarely exceed 30° Questions 2.1. (i) Define solar constant. vi) What are the reasons for variation in solar radiation reaching the ‘earth than received at the outside of th stmosphere? 2.2. Write notes on Beam and Diffuse radiation 2.3. Define the terms (i) Altitude angle (i) Incident angle, (iii) Zenith angle. (iv) Solar azimuth ange, () Latitude angle, (vi) Declination ancle, (wit) Hour angle. ‘2. Calculate the angle made by the Peas radiation with the normal to ® fat plate collector, pointing due south ad in New Delhi (28° 38 N, 77 17 6) fi gO hour, solar time on December 1. The vellector ia tilted at angle of 36° ‘with the horizontal. (Ans. 45.57sola one lastic stems t The th an nsfer. a self f the 208 of bsor- tings luces y are ng is dded rber sfer) neat d, it late yeat The ost. Solar Energy Collectors 81 problem with this design is that in cold weather, moisture may condense on the inside of the transparent cover plate and thus decrease the transmission of the solar radiation Header woter, Header Fig. 2.3, Wator Now in Mat plat aller. Water is a very effective heat-transport medium, but it suffers from certain drawbacks, one is the possibility of freezing inthe collector tubes in cold climates during cold nights. as stated earlier ethylene slycol is added to prevent freezing, but this generally adds to the complexity ofthe heating system. Furthermore, the antifreeze solution is less effective than water for heat removed from the absorber. In some cases, the water is drained from the collector tubes if freezing is expected, but difficulties have been experienced in refilling all the tubes in the morning Another problem arises from corrosion of the metal tubes by the water; this is aggravated ifthe water is drained at night thus allowing air to enter. The oxygen in air increases the rate of corrosion of most metals. Corrosion can be minimizedby using eopper tubing. Aluminiuan isa less expensive alternative, although periodic chemical treatinent of water is desirable. Finally, leaks in a water (or anti freeze) circulation im require immediate attention. ral Air Collectors or Solar Air Heaters _ Fig. 3.3.4 shows a schematic flat-plate collector where an al? stream is heated by the back side of the collector plate, Fins attached to the plate increase the contact surface. The back side of the collector Solor radiation Absorber plate a Fig. 3.3.4. Typical Solar Air Collector sand asTttimvfuintinben amps coma roto, sd ies sn water aka Nowover oe elec sarees of heat storage) for space heating. On the other hand, larger duct sizes ana she ow rch cased png ol SS Tar ite hes emp oS is that transfer of heat from air to water in a hot water supply stew is inefficient a an important lac among bt in ‘many systems meant forthe trun ret re But solar air heater b collectors. It can be used aa subeatns 2 Utilization of solar energy. Possible applications drying or curing of agricultural products, heating regeneration of debumidifying agen‘ ‘seasoning of timber, it industrial jucts such as plastics / ie variations inthe design of collectors BASE ein Pigys 3.6006 987 AE i as finned ites ol 3,6 an Basically air categories (1) The first stream does not fo land or behind the (2) The seo expanded metal, ibeorber, aa shownlar Energy Collectors 83 ber Without fins Staggered fins (b) Vee corrugated © SECTION CC Fig. 3.6. Noo-porou type air heaters Basically air heaters are classified in the following two categories. (4) The first type has a non-porous absorber in which the air ‘rough the absorber plate, Air may flow above plate, as shown in Fig. 3.3.6. includes slit and lapped glass plateConventional Sources of Eneray [Link]-oroas eesti th aisren lowing over ba de othe aan nin Fig 3.36 (a.m most common design the ae asin surface, Air fw above the upper surface in behind he aor non fromthe cover pate and therefore isnot et ithe arinet temperature rise atthe collstor are large, ieshown in Fig 3380) ‘Transnission of the solar radiation through the transparent cover aystem and its absorption is identical to that of a liquid type flat plate collector. To improve collection efficiency selective coating ‘may be applies provided there iso much cost, Due to low heat transfer rales, efficiencies are lower than liquid solar heaters under the same radiation intensity and temperature conditions Performance of air heaters is improved by (a) Roughning the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and improve the convective heat transfer coefficient, or (6) Adding fins to increase the heat transfer surface. Usually turbulence is also increased which enhances the convective heat transfer. ‘[Link] collector with V-corrugated copper fel is illustrated in Fig. 9.3.6 (), Absorption of solar radiation is improved due to surface radioactive characteristics and the geometry ofthe corrugations, which Help in trapping the reflected radiation. penne bsorbers. The main drawback of the n6iCporous abeorber plate isthe necessity of absorbing all incoming radiation over the projected area from a thin layer over the surface, which isin the order of a few microns, Unless selective coatings are used, radiative losses from the absorber plate are excessive, therefore the collection efficiency ean not be improved. The pressure drop along the duct formed between the absorber plate and the rear insulation may also be prohibitive especially in the case of added fins to increase the heat transfer surface and turbulence rate. The difficulty with tur- bbulenee is the pressure drop across the collector, Too many surfaces and too much restriction to air flow will require a larger fan and a larger amount of energy to push the sir through. The energy required for this ‘cancels Sack ntwving fom wing solar energy, particulary fan elect inated in a porous absorber type collectors (a) The solar ra absorbed gradually dey stream introduced from by the upper layers wh stream warm up, while layers are hotter than effectively transfer ho Matrix iosn-porous Jes of the re is not re large, nsparent id type e coating transfer the same lence and . Usually tive heat strated in 0 surface ns, which awback of incoming » surface, tings are therefore rop along, tion may rease the with tur- faces and La larger for this inelectri- rplant to collectors Solar Bnergy Collectors 85 (a) The solar radiation penetrates to greater depths absorbed gradually depending on the matrix density. The cool air stream introduced from the upper surface ofthe matrix is first heated hy the upper layers which are coler than the bottom layers. The air stream warm up, while tcaversng the matrix ayers. The lower matrix layers are hotter than the upper ones, therefore, the effectively transfer hest from the matrix. Improper selection of the S Wiresmesh Slit-Exp. Matrix (o) Sli or expanded meta Honey comb Matrix Insulation (0) Tranepired Heney Comb, (4) Over gpa ln plate in bating alae |g 327 Seahorse pt ators.ources of Bnerky 96 Non-Conventional Se sult in reduced eff yy and the thickness may Te ee pptimum may no longer layers beyond on 0 ‘} eat the air stream further. ually lower than the low per unit cross- flow, the matrix porosit Since the additional matrix I labvorb the solar radiation ans non-porous absor fection would be much lo flow the ee dropereparted for porousmatrix absorbers ane Ul mer than are cemporous absorbers. The solar ait heating NOs te epired honey comb [Fig. 88.7 ()] is also very favourable from the presnure drop stand point sine the flow cross-section is much larger: Whillier has suggested a method of using crushed glass layers to absorh colar radiation and heat the air. A porous bed, as shown in Fig. 327 @) made by forming layers of broken bottles (bottom dark wep aoe slaco, may be readily used for agricultural drying purposes with tminimal expenditure. ‘The overlapped glass plate air heater as shown in Fig. 3.9.7 (d) can be considered as a form of porous matrix, although overall flow Gincetion is along the absorber glass plates instead of being across the matrix Plate and air stream temperature increase gradually along the Tillecor length and across fom top to bottom. Thus thermal losses could be significantly reduced, The pressure drop is also significantly Tene than the non-porous flat-plate absorber design. Applications of Solar Air Heaters. The solar air heaters, which supply hot air that could be mainly used for the following processes : (i Heating buildings, (i) Drying agricultural produce and lumber. (iii) Heating green houses. (iv) Air conditioning buildings utilizing desiccant eee ing desiccant beds or a (©) Using air heaters at 501 fs lee eae the heat sources for a heat engine such _ Advantages of Flat-plate Collectors ing both beam and diffuse towards the sun. an the concentrating reflec- of focusing collectors ee