IGITAL INTEGRATED Lecture 0001(2)

20th of february 2019

CIRCUITS school year 2018-2019,

2nd semester

Lecturer (Șef Lucrări) Dr. Ing. Cojan Nicolae

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Circuite Logice Combinationale, Damian Imbrea, Editura “Gh. Asachi”, 2004, Iasi

2. Circuite Logice Secventiale Sincrone, Damian Imbrea, Editura “Politehnium”, 2013,

Iasi

3. Digital Design, Principles and Practices, 4th edition, John F. Wakerly, Pearson – Prentice
Hall, 2006/2000/1994

4. Engineering Digital Design, Richard F. Tinder, Academic Press, 2000

5. Digital Design, 4th edition, Morris Mano, Pearson – Prentice Hall, 2006

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LECTURE OUTLINE
1. Analog Vs. Digital; Digital Signals
2. Number Systems and Codes; Binary Numbers; Grey Code
3. Logic (Or Switching) Algebra; Axioms & Theorems
4. Logic Gates; Symbols & Delays
5. Combinational Logic Functions; Combinational Vs.
Sequential

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 1. ANALOG VS. DIGITAL
Analog devices and systems process time-varying signals that can take on any
value across a continuous range of: voltage, current, any other metric

time

Digital circuits and systems is modeled as taking at any time only one of two discrete values.
We can call them anyway we choose 0/1, LOW/HIGH, FALSE/TRUE, PIZZA/PASTA ...

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1. ANALOG VS. DIGITAL
Analog → Digital Why Digital?
Pictures Reproducibility of results
Video recordings Ease of design
Audio recordings Flexibility and functionality
Telephone systems Programmability
Traffic lights Speed
Etc.. Economy
Speed of advances in tech

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 1. ANALOG VS. DIGITAL
Vcc/VDD/2V/5V A simple analog function F(x,y)
x
F Transitioning from A to D:
• Only 2 values, 0 or 1
y
• Ignore intermediary values

Vss/Gnd/0V

x (digital)
time

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 1. ANALOG VS. DIGITAL
We must bridge the gap between physical domain (where the device operates) and the logic domain (where it was
designed) with notations:

LOW VOLTAGE or HIGH VOLTAGE (LV and HV)

ACTIVE or INACTIVE

0L or 1L etc....

time

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1. ANALOG VS. DIGITAL
physical domain → logic domain
HIGH = VDD = VCC = 5V = H → 1, TRUE
LOW = VSS = GND = 0V = L → 0, FALSE
B = {0,1}
phys

logic

Due to parasitic elements (R,L,C...) that come from the fact that logic circuits are
integrated with real transistors (not ideal), the rising edge and the falling edge in
reality are not perfectly vertical
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2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
The traditional number system:
733 = 7 ∗ 102 + 3 ∗ 101 + 3 ∗ 100
158,68 = 1 ∗ 102 + 5 ∗ 101 + 8 ∗ 100 + 6 ∗ 10−1 + 8 ∗ 10−2
= 100 + 5 + 8 + 0,6 + 0,08

Base/radix 10:
Is weighted, each weight is a power of 10 corresponding to the digit’s position; it can
be positive & negative (before & after the decimal point)
The comma (virgulă) is the decimal point (also called the radix point), the decimal
separator between integer part & fractional part
More digits can be grouped with “.” (digit separator) for easy reading: 8.345,35
Each representation is unique
(except for leading and trailing zeros: 034,2=34,2 or 492,12000=492,12)

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2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES

RO [Link] 11
 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
Base/radix 10 system:
158,68 = 1 ∗ 102 + 5 ∗ 101 + 8 ∗ 100 + 6 ∗ 10−1 + 8 ∗ 10−2

decimal/radix point

leftmost digit is the most significant digit,

MSD
(highest power of 10) rightmost digit is the least significant digit,
LSD
(lowest power of 10)

𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 𝑑𝑝−1 𝑑𝑝−2 𝑑𝑝−3 ⋯ 𝑑1 𝑑0 , 𝑑−1 𝑑−2 ⋯ 𝑑−𝑛

𝑝−1

ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒: 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖 𝑟 𝑖

𝑖=−𝑛

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2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
Base/radix 10 system:
• p = digits at the left of the radix point
• n = digits at the right of the radix point
• digit in position i has the weight of ri (= 10i )

𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 𝑑𝑝−1 𝑑𝑝−2 𝑑𝑝−3 ⋯ 𝑑1 𝑑0 , 𝑑−1 𝑑−2 ⋯ 𝑑−𝑛

𝑝−1 𝑝−1

ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒: 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖 𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 10𝑖

𝑖=−𝑛 𝑖=−𝑛

158,68 = 1 ∗ 102 + 5 ∗ 101 + 8 ∗ 100 + 6 ∗ 10−1 + 8 ∗ 10−2

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 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
Other base systems:

• Base7 (contains numbers from 0 to 6): 690

- Let’s switch from Base7 to Base10:
- 6907 =6*72+9*71+0*70=6*49+9*7+0=35710
• Base 16 or hex (numbers from 0 to 15:
01,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F)

When converting from a base system to another we must

keep in mind that the number of digits/bits can increase,
decrease, or stay the same:
• 10112=1110 (4 bits -> 2 digits)
• 6907 =35710 (3 digits -> 3 digits)
• 77710=11000010012 (3 digits -> 10 bits)
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 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
The binary numbers used in digital systems:

100112 = 1 ∗ 24 + 0 ∗ 23 + 1 ∗ 21 + 1 ∗ 20 =
= 1 ∗ 16 + 0 ∗ 8 + 0 ∗ 4 + 1 ∗ 2 + 1 ∗ 1 = 1910
1000102 = 1 ∗ 25 + 0 ∗ 24 + 0 ∗ 23 + 0 ∗ 22 + 1 ∗ 21 + 0 ∗ 20 =
= 1 ∗ 32 + 0 ∗ 16 + 0 ∗ 8 + 0 ∗ 4 + 1 ∗ 2 + 0 ∗ 1 = 342
101,0012 = 1 ∗ 22 + 0 ∗ 21 + 1 ∗ 20 + 0 ∗ 2−1 + 0 ∗ 2−2 + 1 ∗ 2−3 =
= 1 ∗ 4 + 0 ∗ 2 + 1 ∗ 1 + 0 ∗ 0,5 + 0 ∗ 0,25 + 1 ∗ 0,125 = = 5,12510

Base/radix 2 (binary radix – used in a digital system):

Is weighted, each weight is a power of 2 corresponding to the bit’s position
The comma (virgulă) is the decimal point (radix point), the bit separator between integer part &
fractional part
More bits can be grouped with “.” (bit separator) for easy reading: 111.101,110
Each representation is unique
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 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
Base/radix 2 system:
• p = bits at the left of the radix point
• n = bits at the right of the radix point
• bit in position i has the weight of ri (= 2i )

𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 𝑏𝑝−1 𝑏𝑝−2 𝑏𝑝−3 ⋯ 𝑏1 𝑏0 , 𝑏−1 𝑏−2 ⋯ 𝑏−𝑛

𝑝−1 𝑝−1

ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒: 𝐵 = 𝑏𝑖 𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖 2𝑖

𝑖=−𝑛 𝑖=−𝑛

101,0012 = 1 ∗ 22 + 0 ∗ 21 + 1 ∗ 20 + 0 ∗ 2−1 + 0 ∗ 2−2 + 1 ∗ 2−3 = ⋯

decimal/radix point

leftmost bit is the most significant bit, MSB

(highest power of 2)
rightmost bit is the least significant bit, LSB
(lowest power of 2)

⋯ = 1 ∗ 4 + 0 ∗ 2 + 1 ∗ 1 + 0 ∗ 0,5 + 0 ∗ 0,25 + 1 ∗ 0,125 = 5,12510 16

 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS
Remarkable aspects of the base 2 system (binary system):
&
•
•
CODES
bit in position i has the weight of ri (= 2i )
ranks are very important (bigger – to the left, smaller – to the right)
• knowing MSB and LSB is vital
• we read the entire string of 1&0 as a single number (we will see later that we will not do this
for BCD!)

powers of ... 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2

2:
1
1100011112

LSB (lowest power of

2)
MSB (highest power of
2)

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 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS
Converting from base2 in base10:
&
•
•
CODES
from left to right
convert each bit of 1/0 to it’s corresponding value in base10
• ... mentally!
powers of 2: ... 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2
1
1100011112

LSB (lowest power of

2)
MSB (highest power of
2)
1100011112=1*256+1*128+0*64+0*32+0*16+1*8+1*4+1*2+1*1=39
910
Application:
1. How many binary values can a 2-bit binary code yield ?
22 (=4) possibilities: 00,01,10,11.
2. What are the minimum and the maximum decimal values of those binary
values?
Corresponding decimal values are 0,1,2 and 3, so the min and max are 0 and 3.

How about for a 3-bit and a 4-bit binary code? How about for a n-bit binary 18
 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES 777 =? 10 2
Converting from base10 in base2 is actually a problem of finding
Decimal

0
Binary
(4bit)

0000
the ranks from base2 that multiplied by each 1/0 sum up to give 1 0001
the base10 number: 2 0010

3 0011
• Step A: what is the highest power of 2 that is closer to the number ?
4 0100
Answer: looks like it’s 512, 29
• Step B: what is left from our number if we subtract the highest power of 2 from 5 0101
the previous step? 6 0110
Answer: 777-512=265 7 0111
• Step C: what is the highest power of 2 that is closer to the number from the
8 1000
previous step?
Answer: looks like it’s 256, 28 9 1001
• Step D: what is left from the number in step B if we subtract the highest power of 10 1010
2 from step C?
11 1011
• Answer: 265-256=9
• ...repeat steps until the difference =0 12 1100

13 1101
So: 77710=11000010012
14 1110
Ranks: powers of 2, from RIGHT to LEFT: 1,2,4,8,16,32,64,etc
15 1111
Application: convert the following from decimal to base 2 using the least number of
bits: 9,8, 64, 63, 127,128, 5,4. 19
 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
Binary
binar)
code vs BCD code (Binary Coded Decimal, zecimal codat

- In binary code the entire string represents a number

- In BCD code, the string is divided for each of the decimal numbers (by the decimal
separator!)
- The position of the decimal separator is highly relevant !
Example (with dot “.” as decimal separator):
1000012=3310 binary to decimal
100.0012=4110 BCD to decimal
10.00.012=20110 BCD to decimal
notice the last two examples, the decimal separator position gives two different results.

In the BCD code each digit from base10 (0 to 9) is represented as a series of bits
from base2.

More examples:
6527=110.101.0102 base 7 to BCD
74110=0111.0100.00012 base 10 to BCD

Application: convert from or to the following base systems

1. from BCD 1010.0011.00012 to decimal
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2. from BCD 00011.00001.00002 to decimal
 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS &
CODES
Gray code; the problem of the encoding disk.

If we position the switch between

two values, let’s say between
001 and 010, due to hazard one
of the following possibilities will
be digitized:
011, 000.
Between 011 and 100: 000, 010,
001,111.

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 2. NUMBER SYSTEMS
N-bit Gray code (cod Gray pe n biti):
&
CODES
Step1: a 1-bit Gray code has two code words, 0 and 1
Step2: the first 2n code words of an (n+1)-bit Gray code equal the code words of a n-bit Gray
code written in order with a leading 0 appended
Step3: the last 2n code words of an (n+1)-bit Gray code equal the code words of an n-bit Gray
code, but written in reverse order with a leading 1 appended.

Major advantage: adjacent codes differ by 1 bit !

Let’s build the 2-bit Gray code step by step (22 possibilities so the table will have
4 lines without the header)
ab decim
binary al

00 0

01 1

11 3
Step1: start with 0 and Step2: mirror the 1-bit Step2: put leading 0 10 2
1, Gray code above the mirror and
the 1-bit Gray code leading 1 below
2-bit Gray code and
it’s decimal
Application: build a 3-bit and 4-bit Gray code. counterpart
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3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Along with B={0,1} there are two operations that are needed for logic design and Boolean
algebra:
AND operation, Boolean product, X*Y, XY, (X)(Y), X AND Y
OR operation, Boolean sum, X+Y, (X)+(Y), X OR Y

The hierarchy of Boolean operation is the same as Cartesian algebra for multiplication and
addition.

Reminder: the order of operations tells us which parts of a long expression to calculate
first to get the right answer:
1. parenthesis
2. exponents
3. multiplications and divisions
4. additions and subtractions

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 3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
AND operation: the output of a logic AND circuit symbol is
active if and only if all inputs are active.

OR operation: the output of a logic OR circuit symbol is active if

on or more of the inputs are active.

XY X AND Y XY X OR Y
00 0 00 0
01 0 01 1
10 0 10 1
11 1 11 1

Symbol for Symbol for OR

AND
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 3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA,
AXIOMS
Axiom: a statement or proposition which is regarded as being
established, accepted, or self-evidently true.
They can be easily verified with truth tables by giving all possible values for the input
variables

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 3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA,
AXIOMS
They can be easily verified with truth tables by giving all possible values for the input
variables

A3: X*(Y+Z)=(X*Y)+(X*Z)

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3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA,
THEOREMS

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 3. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA,
THEOREMS
The DeMorgan laws are usually used when we want to switch
from an operation to another: from + to ∙ or vice versa.

Application: expand using the DeMorgan laws:

𝐹 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐

𝐺 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐

𝐻 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐

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 4. LOGIC GATES
The most basic representation of a logic function is the truth table.
This representation simply lists the output of the circuit for every possible
input combination. Usually rows are arranged in ascending binary and
decimal counting order.
Specific values of the function
for various input values.

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 4. LOGIC GATES XY Output= ?

XY
X AND Y AND2 NAND2 00
X∙Y 01
00 0 10
01 0 11
10 0
11 1 OR2 NOR2 XY Output= ?
00
X OR Y
XY 01
X+Y
10
00 0
01 1 XOR2 XNOR2 11

10 1
11 1 XY Output= ?
00
X XOR Y
XY 01
XY
00 0
INV 10
01 1 11
X Output
10 1
0 1
11 0
1 0

Elementary: AND, OR, INV

Non-elementary (can be implemented with elementary gates): NAND, NOR, XOR, etc. 30
The number at the end usually represents the number of inputs
 4. LOGIC GATES
TG XYZ
Output=
?
I/O I/O NOR 000 F(x,y,z)=...
3 001
...
control
OR3 XYZ
Output=
Transmission gate: ?
- Bidirectional, left and right pins can be 000 G(x,y,z)=...
input/output or output/input
001
- the information flow is dependent on
the control bit: if control = 0 there is not ...
connection between left and right pins. NAND2
If control =1 a connection is made. Output=
XY
?
00
H(x,y)=...
01
10
11

Application:
1. Write each function implemented by the symbol and populate the truth
table with values for the functions
2. Write the truth table for the functions given in slide number 28 31
5. COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
FUNCTIONS
X X
2 2

F(X,Y)
1 1
G(X,Y)
Y 3 3
Y

Writing logical expressions from schematics by visual inspection:

- start from the right; for function F, the output given by gate 1 is a sum of two items given by
the gates 2 and 3
- gate 2 gives a product between two items, one is Y and the other one is 𝑋; gate 3 gives a
product between X and 𝑌
Application:
1. write each function implemented by the circuit and compute the truth table
2. look at the truth tables from slide number 30, can you recognize what operation is
implemented by both functions F and G ?
3. what is the difference between them ?
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Looking forward: function F is a sum of products, function G is a product of sums and they implement the same
VIP’S OF LECTURE 1

Understanding basics of digital signals; B={0,1,*,+,inv}

Transforming from base10 in base2 and vice versa
Binary code, Gray code
Elementary logic gates
How to write logical expressions from schematics by visual
inspection and write truth tables for those expressions

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