Direct Proof and Counterexample II: Rational Numbers
Definition:
A real number r is rational if, and only if, it can be expressed as a quotient of two integers with
a nonzero denominator. A real number that is not rational is irrational. More formally, if r is a
real number, then
𝑎
𝑟 is rational ⇔ ∃ integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑟 = 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≠ 0.
Example:
a. Is 10/3 a rational number?
b. Is − 5 a rational number?
c. Is 0.281 a rational number?
d. Is 7 a rational number?
e. Is 2/0 a rational number?
f. Is 2/0 an irrational number?
g. Is 0.12121212 . . . a rational number (where the digits 12 are assumed to repeat
forever)?
Zero Product Property
If neither of two real numbers is zero, then their product is also not zero.
Theorem:
Every integer is a rational number.
Proof:
𝑧
Let 𝑧 be any integer. Since 𝑧 = 1 where both 𝑧, 1 ∈ ℤ and 1 ≠ 0, by definition of rational
numbers 𝑧 is a rational number. ∎
Theorem 4.2.2
The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
Proof:
Suppose 𝑟 and 𝑠 are rational numbers. [We must show that 𝑟 + 𝑠 is rational.] Then, by
definition of rational, 𝑟 = 𝑎/𝑏 and 𝑠 = 𝑐/𝑑 for some integers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 with 𝑏 ≠ 0 and
𝑑 ≠ 0. Thus
𝑎 𝑐
𝑟 +𝑠 = 𝑏 +𝑑 by substitution
𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
= 𝑏𝑑 by basic algebra.
Let 𝑝 = 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 and 𝑞 = 𝑏𝑑. Then 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers because products and sums of
integers are integers and because 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 are all integers. Also 𝑞 ≠ 0 by the zero product
property. Thus
𝑝
𝑟+𝑠 = ,
𝑞
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0.
Therefore, 𝑟 + 𝑠 is rational by definition of a rational number. ∎
Exercise:
The product of any two rational numbers is a rational number.
𝑟+𝑠
If 𝑟 and 𝑠 are any two rational numbers, then 2 is rational.
𝑎+𝑏
For all real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, if 𝑎 < 𝑏 then 𝑎 < < 𝑏.
2
𝑎2 +𝑏 2 +1
if a is any even integer and b is any odd integer, then is an integer.
2
Divisibility
Definition
If 𝑛 and 𝑑 are integers and 𝑑 ≠ 0 then
𝑛 is divisible by 𝑑 if, and only if, 𝑛 equals 𝑑 times some integer.
Instead of “𝑛 is divisible by 𝑑,” we can say that
𝑛 is a multiple of 𝑑, or
𝑑 is a factor of 𝑛, or
𝑑 is a divisor of 𝑛, or
𝑑 divides 𝑛.
The notation 𝑑|𝑛 is read “𝑑 divides 𝑛.”
Symbolically, if 𝑛 and 𝑑 are integers and 𝑑 ≠ 0:
𝑑 |𝑛 ⇔ ∃ an integer 𝑘 such that 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑘.
Example:
a. Is 21 divisible by 3?
d. Is 32 a multiple of −16?
b. Does 5 divide 40?
e. Is 6 a factor of 54?
c. Does 7 | 42?
f. Is 7 a factor of −7?
g. If k is any nonzero integer, does k divide 0?
Theorem:
For all integers 𝑎 and 𝑏, if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive and 𝑎 divides 𝑏, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏.
Proof:
Suppose 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive integers and 𝑎 divides 𝑏. [We must show that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏.] Then there
exists an integer 𝑘 so that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑘. Then, 𝑘 must be positive because both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive.
It follows that
1 ≤ 𝑘,
because every positive integer is greater than or equal to 1. Multiplying both sides
by 𝑎 gives,
𝑎 ≤ 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑏,
because multiplying both sides of an inequality by a positive number preserves the
inequality. Thus 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏.
Example:
Prove that for all integers 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, if 𝑎|𝑏 and 𝑏|𝑐, then 𝑎|𝑐.
Example:
Is the following statement true or false?
For all integers 𝑎 and 𝑏, if 𝑎 | 𝑏 and 𝑏 | 𝑎 then 𝑎 = 𝑏.
Theorem:
Any integer 𝑛 > 1 is divisible by a prime number.
Theorem: Unique Factorization of Integers Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)
Given any integer n > 1, there exist a positive integer k, distinct prime numbers 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , . . . , 𝑝𝑘 ,
and positive integers 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , . . . , 𝑒𝑘 such that
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑝11 𝑝22 𝑝33 . . . 𝑝𝑘𝑘 ,
and any other expression for 𝑛 as a product of prime numbers is identical to this except,
perhaps, for the order in which the factors are written.
Definition:
Given any integer 𝑛 > 1, the standard factored form of n is an expression of the form
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑝11 𝑝22 𝑝33 . . . 𝑝𝑘𝑘 ,
where k is a positive integer; 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , . . . , 𝑝𝑘 are prime numbers; 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , . . . , 𝑒𝑘 are
positive integers; and 𝑝1 < 𝑝2 < ··· < 𝑝𝑘
Exercise:
1. For all integers 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, if 𝑎|𝑏 and 𝑎|𝑐 then 𝑎|(2𝑏 − 3𝑐).
2. For all integers 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, if 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑐 then 𝑎𝑏 is a factor of 𝑐.
3. For all integers 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, if 𝑎𝑏|𝑐 then 𝑎|𝑐 and 𝑏|𝑐.
4. Is it possible to have a combination of nickels (5 cent), dimes (10 cents), and quarters
(25 cents) that add up to $4.72? Explain.
5. For all integers 𝑎 and 𝑏,if 𝑎|10𝑏 then 𝑎|10 or 𝑎|𝑏.
6. Suppose 𝑚 is an integer such that
8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 𝑚 = 17 · 16 · 15 · 14 · 13 · 12 · 11 · 10.
Does 17|𝑚?
7. If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers and 12𝑎 = 25𝑏, does 12|𝑏? does 25|𝑎? Explain.
8. If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are integers and 10𝑥 = 9𝑦, does 10| 𝑦? does 9 | 𝑥 ? Explain
