Central Luzon College of Science and Technology

#1 CBMU RD., Upper Kalaklan, Olongapo City, Zambales, Phillipines

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STREAM STABILITY & STRESS

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Submitted By:

MARK JHUZIEL NACES

NICO DE GUZMAN
KERT EROLD DELOS SANTOS
PRINCE JEWEL CABEJO
RICHARD ALLEN REYES
JOHN JEOSPER AUSTRIA

2020
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. Effect of Slack Tanks 1

 Free Surface Effect 2
 Watertight and Weather tight Integrity 3
 Built-In Buoyancy for Undocked Vessels 4
 Righting Lever 4

II. Trim and Draught Calculations 5

 Trim 6
 Cause of Trim 6
 TRIM and Draught Calculations 6
 Effect of Loading and/or Discharging Weights 9
 Using the Hydrostatic Curves 11
 Hydrostatic Curve 13

III. Actions to be Taken in the Event of Partial Loss 14

of Intact Buoyancy
 Preparatory Measures to Restart Flooding 15
Before Damage
 Type of Flooding 15
 Establishing Flooding Boundaries 15
 Estimate of Damaged Ship’s Situation 16
 Ability to Keep the Ship Afloat 16
 Determination of whether Flooding is 16
Progressing
 Effectiveness of Immediate Corrective 16
Measures
 Transverse Stability After Damage 16
 Reserve Buoyancy After Damage 17
 Longitudinal Stability After Damage 17
 Structural Strength 17
 Actions to be Taken in Case of Damage 17
 Damage Control Flow Chart 19
 Actions to be Taken in the Event of Partial 20
Loss of Intact Buoyancy
 Damage Stability 20

IV. References 21
EFFECT OF SLACK
TANKS

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FREE SURFACE EFFECT

When a vessel with a full tank is heeled, the liquid within the tank acts like a solid mass. Its
centre of gravity, being the centre of its volume, remains constant and therefore does not cause any
change in the vessel’s centre of gravity (G) or its metacentric height (GM) as the vessel is heeled.

When a vessel with a partially-filled tank is heeled, the liquid will seek to remain parallel with
the waterline. The centre of gravity of the liquid, being the centre of its volume, will move with the
liquid and can have a considerable effect upon the vessel’s stability. This effect is similar to that caused
by adding weight on deck, i.e. rise of the vessel’s centre of gravity (G) which causes a decrease in the
vessel’s metacentric height (GM) and thereby its stability.

Partially-filled tanks have the greatest adverse

effect upon a heeled vessel’s metacentric height
(GM). The division of the tank into two equal parts by
the use of a watertight bulkhead will reduce the
adverse effect on the vessel’s metacentric height
(GM) by up to 75% of that of an undivided tank.

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 Care should be taken when endeavouring to
correct a list by filling tanks. Having two partially-filled
tanks will create additional free surface effect. If there is a
possibility that the vessel’s list is caused by loll, it is
recommended that the tank on the low side be filled
before commencing to fill the tank on the high side.

Free surface effects are not only caused by partially-filled tanks. They can, for example, also be
caused by accumulated water on deck. To enable the water to run off quickly, a vessel should have
adequate freeing ports. Pound boards should be arranged so that water can flow easily to the freeing
ports which should always be clear.

 Anti-rolling tanks have a free surface effect which decreases the vessel’s metacentric height
(GM). They should, therefore, always be emptied when the metacentric height is small and, in
particular, when there is a risk of ice accretion.
 At any one time the number of partially filled tanks should be kept to a minimum. Tanks that are
either completely full or completely empty do not have a free surface effect and therefore do
not reduce the vessel’s metacentric height (GM).

WATERTIGHT AND WEATHERTIGHT INTEGRITY

The vessel’s hull must be tight to prevent water from entering the vessel. Closing devices to
openings, through which water can enter the hull and deckhouses, should be kept closed in adverse
weather. This applies to doors, hatches and other deck openings, ventilators, air pipes, sounding
devices, side scuttles and windows and
inlets and discharges. Any such device
should be maintained in good and efficient
condition.

Vessels are often subdivided into compartments by bulkheads in order to minimize the effects
of water flowing from one part of the vessel to another.

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  “Watertight” means that a structure is designed and constructed to withstand a static head of
water without leakage. Water (or any other liquid) is not able to pass through the structure into
or out of any of the watertight compartments, i.e. prevention from the passage of water in any
direction. The vessel’s hull, working deck (weather deck) and bulkheads between compartments
must be watertight. Watertight bulkheads must be watertight up to the working deck. Any
openings on such bulkheads must be equipped with watertight closing devices. “Weathertight”
means that in any sea condition water will not penetrate into the vessel, i.e. prevention from
the passage of water in one direction only. Hatches, side scuttles and windows must be
equipped with weathertight closing devices. The same applies for doors and other openings on
enclosed superstructures.

BUILT-IN BUOYANCY FOR UNDECKED VESSELS

Undocked vessels do not have a fixed watertight deck and will therefore not have the watertight
and weathertight integrity of decked vessels. The safety of undocked vessels can be considerably
improved if they are fitted with sealed buoyancy compartments, which are filled with solid buoyancy
material. Such compartments should be distributed so that the vessel stays afloat and on an even keel
and without listing, in order to make bailing possible even if the vessel is fully swamped.

RIGHTING LEVER

When heeled by an external force, the vessel’s centre of gravity (G), which is unaffected by the heel and
the weight (of the vessel), is considered to act vertically downward through G. The centre of buoyancy
(B) (being the geometric centre of the underwater section) has moved to a new position B1 and the
force of buoyancy (equal to the weight of water being
displaced) is considered to act vertically up through the
new centre of buoyancy B1. The horizontal distance from
the centre of gravity (G) to the vertical line from B1 is
called the righting lever. This distance can be measured
and is usually referred to as GZ. Therefore, the force
involved in returning the vessel to the upright position is
the weight of the vessel acting down through the centre of
gravity (G) multiplied by the righting lever (GZ). This is
referred to as the moment of statical stability.

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 TRIM AND DRAUGHT
CALCULATIONS USING
TRIM TABLES

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TRIM AND DRAUGHT CALCULATIONS

TRIM
- May be considered as the longitudinal equivalent of list. Trim is also known as ‘longitudinal
stability’. Instead of trim being measured in degrees, it is measured as the difference between
the drafts forward and aft. If the difference is zero then the ship is on even keel. If forward draft
is greater that aft draft, the vessel is trimmed by the bow. If aft draft is greater than the forward
draft, the vessel is trimmed by the stern.

Causes of Trim:
1. Moving loads fore and aft from one point to another changes the trim of the ship but not the
mean draft
2. Adding or removing loads to and from the ship will involve a decrease or increase of the mean
draft as well as a change in trim
3. The change in water density where the ship floating changes the mean draft as well as the trim
of the ship.

TRIM AND DRAUGHT CALCULATIONS

When on even keel, the center of gravity (G) and the center of buoyancy (B) will be in the same
vertical line.
Now, let a weight ‘w’, already on board, be shifted aft through a distance ‘d. This causes the center of
gravity of the ship to shift from G to G to G1 parallel to the shift of the center of gravity shifted.

GG1 = w x d
W or W x GG1 = w x d

A trimming moment of W x GG1 is produced, but W x

GG1 = w x d,
Therefore, The trimming moment = w x d

The ship will now trim until the centers of

gravity and buoyancy are again in the same vertical
line.
Point F, the point about which the ship trims, is the
center of gravity of the water-plane area.
The point F is called the ‘center of flotation’ or
‘tipping center’

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 A vessel with a rectangular water-plane has its centre of flotation on the centre line amidships
but, on a ship, it may be a little forward or abaft amidships, depending on the shape of the water-plane.
In trim problems, unless stated otherwise, it is to be assumed that the center of flotation is situated
amidships.
The moment to change trim one centimetre (denoted by MCT 1 cm or MCTC)
The MCT 1 cm or MCTC, is the moment required to change trim by 1 cm, and may be calculated by using
the formula:
MCT 1 cm = W x GML tons m/cm
100L
Where:
W = the vessel’s displacement in tonnes
GML = the longitudinal metacentric height in meters
L = the vessel’s length in meters.

Change of draft forward and aft due to change of trim

When a ship changes trim it will obviously cause a change in the drafts forward and aft.
One of these will be increased and the other decreased.
Observe properly the next slide

Trimming moment = displacement x trimming arm

Trimming moment = displacement x horizontal distance of GG1
At even keel the LCG and LCB are equal, hence the LCG at even keel can be substituted by the value of
LCB, Thus trimming arm also equals
Trimming arm (GB) = LCG-LCB
Trim = Trimming moment
meters (the unit of trim is meter)
MTC x 100

Trim = Displacement x trimming arm

meters
MTC x 100

Trim = Displacement x (LCG-LCB)

meters
MTC x 100

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 Change of Trim = Trimming moment cm
MTC 1 cm Where :
l = the distance of the center of
Change of draft (aft)= l flotation from aft in meters
X Change of trim cm
L
L = the ship’s length in meters
Therefore,
Change of draft (fwd) = Change of trim – Change of draft (aft)

Change of Trim = Trimming moment cm

MTC 1 cm
Change of draft (aft)= l Where :
X Change of trim cm
L l = the distance of the center of
flotation from aft in meters
Change of draft (fwd)= (L – l)
X Change of trim cm
L L = the ship’s length in meters

Change of draft (fwd) = Change of trim – Change of draft (aft)

Example1:

A ship 126 m long is floating at drafts of 5.5m F and 6.5m A. The center of flotation is 3m aft of
amidships. MCT 1cm = 240 tons-m. Displacement = 6000 tons. Find the new drafts if a weight of 120
tons already on board is shifted forward a distance of 45 meters.

Solution: Trimming moment =wxd

= 120 x 45

= 5,400 tons m by the head

Solution: Change of trim = Trimming moment/ MCT 1 cm

= 5,400 / 240

= 22.5 cm by the head

Solution: Change of draft (aft) = l / L x Change of Trim

= 60 / 126 x 22.5

= 10.7 cm

Solution: Change of draft (fwd) = (L-l) / L x Change of Trim

= (126 - 60) / 126 x 22.5

= 66/126 x 22.5

= 11.8 cm

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Answer:

Effect of Loading and/or Discharging weights

When a weight is loaded at the centre of flotation it will produce no trimming moment, but the
ship’s drafts will increase uniformly so that the ship displaces and extra weight of water equal to the
weight loaded.
When a weight is loaded away from the centre of flotation, it will cause both a bodily sinkage
and a change of trim.
When a weight is discharge away from the centre of flotation, it will cause a bodily rise and a
change of trim.

Bodily sinkage/ rise = w

TPC
Added or subtracted from the original drafts depending on operation:
Loading – Added to original draft
Discharging- Subtracted from draft

Example:

A ship 90m long, is floating at drafts 4.5m F and 5.0m A . The Centre of flotation is 1.5m aft of
amidships. TPC 10 tonnes. MCTC 120 tons m. Find the new drafts if a weight of 450 tons already
onboard is loaded in a position 14m forward if amidships.

Solution: Bodily sinkage = w / TPC

= 450 / 10
Bodily sinkage = 45 cm (to be added on original draft)

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Solution: Change of trim = Trim moment / MCTC
= (450 x 15.5) / 120
Change of trim = 58.12 cm by the head

Solution: Change of draft (aft) = l / L x Change of Trim

= 43.5 / 90 x 58.12
= 28.09 cm

Solution: Change of draft (fwd) = (L-l) / L x Change of Trim

= (90 – 43.5) / 90 x 58.12
= 46.5 /90 x 58.12
= 30.03 cm

Answers:

Example2:
A ship 100m long, arrives in port with drafts 3m F and 4.3m A . TPC 10 tons and MCTC 120 tons m. The
Centre of flotation is 3m aft of amidships. If 80 tons of cargo is loaded in a position 24m forward of
amidships and 50 tons of cargo discharged from 12m aft of amidships, find the new drafts.

Solution: Bodily sinkage = w / TPC

= 40/ 10
= 4 cm (to be added on original draft)

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Example2:

A ship 100m long, arrives in port with drafts 3m F and 4.3m A . TPC 10 tons and MCTC 120 tons
m. The Centre of flotation is 3m aft of amidships. If 80 tons of cargo is loaded in a position 24m forward
of amidships and 50 tones of cargo discharged from 12m aft of amidships, find the new drafts.

Solution: To find change of trim, take moments about the centre of flotation.

If resultant moment is -negative sign,

it means by the head

Solution: Change of trim = Trim moment / MCTC

= 2520/ 120
Change of trim = 21 cm by the head

Solution: Change of draft (aft) = l / L x Change of Trim

= 47 / 100 x 21
= 9.87 cm

Solution: Change of draft (fwd) = (L-l) / L x Change of Trim

= (100 – 47) / 100 x 21
= 53 /100 x 21
= 11.13 cm

Answers:

Using the hydrostatic curves

After the end drafts have been taken it is necessary to interpolate to find the ‘mean draft’. This
is the draft immediately below the LCF, which may be aft, forward or even at amidships. This draft can
be labeled dH.
Next slide shows an example of hydrostatic values for a 135.5m general cargo ship about 10,000
tons deadweight.

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From those values, a set of hydrostatic curves were drawn

Example:

Find the hydrostatic values for a mean draft of 6m. The Naval architect or mate onboard ship
draws a horizontal line parallel to the SLWL at 6m on the vertical axis right across all of the hydrostatic
curves.
At each intersection with a curve and this 6m line, he or she projects downwards and reads off
on the appropriate scale on the ‘x’ axis.

Obtained Values:
TPC = 19.70 t; KMT = 7.46m
MCTC = 152.5 tm/cm DispMT = 10,293T
LCB = 0.80m forward of amidships KML = 207.4m
LCF = 0.05m forward of amidships

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Hydrostatic curves

These values can then be used to calculate the new end drafts and transverse stability, if
weights are added to the ship, discharged from the ship or simply moved longitudinally or transversely
within the ship.
LCF and LCB are distance measured from amidships or forward of the Aft Perp. (FOAP indication)
Nowadays these values can be put on a spreadsheet in a computer package.
When the hydrostatic draft is keyed, the hydrostatic values appertaining to this draft are then displayed
ready for use.

In cases where the change of mean draught is large, calculation of change of trim by taking
moments about the centre of flotation or by means of trimming tables should not be used

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ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN
IN THE EVENT OF
PARTIAL LOSS OF
INTACT BUOYANCY

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Preparatory Measures to Restart Flooding Before Damage

It has been wisely said that 90 percent of the work of damage control- the important part is
accomplished before damage and only about 10 percent after the ship has been hit. Most preparatory
work consists of measures taken to toughen the ship to resist flooding. An important first step is for all
personnel concerned with damage control to learn what features have been designed into their ship to
enable it to resist flooding.

The most significant of these features is the extent and type of vessel subdivision. The subdivision or the
vessel will determine the extent and type of flooding that can occur and type of corrective measures
needed after damage. Certain material preparations are vital in toughening the ship to resist flooding.

They include:
 maintaining watertight integrity of the ship's subdivision
 properly setting material conditions of closure
 properly classifying closures and fittings, and
 providing adequate and well-distributed operable damage control equipment.

Type of flooding

There are two major types of flooding:

 SOLID
 PARTIAL.

SOLID:

If the ship has received severe underwater damage, compartments will be badly ruptured and
completely flooded. Little or nothing can be done to correct this damage. Isolate the compartments to
permit concentration on compartments that can be repaired to prevent progressive flooding.
(Solid flooding refers to a compartment that is completely filled from deck to overhead.)
To be able to flood solidly, a compartment must be vented. Venting can take place through an air
escape, an open scuttle or a ventilation fitting, or fragment holes in the overhead. Solid flooding has no
other effect than to add weight at the center of gravity of the ship.

PARTIAL:

Compartments that are only partially flooded because their outboard bulkheads contain small
holes, cracks, loose rivets, broken seams, or splinter holes, allow progressive flooding to take place. If
nothing is done about these holes, the ship will lose buoyancy and list or trim stability. Partial flooding
refers to a condition in which an intact compartment is not completely flooded. An “intact
compartment” means that the deck on which the water rests and the bulkheads that surround it remain
watertight.
If the boundaries remain intact, water will neither run into nor out of the flooded compartment
as the ship rolls. The final result of partial flooding is usually a decided loss in overall stability.

Establishing Flooding Boundaries

Flooding boundaries are the bulkheads and decks restricting the partially flooded area from the
flooding boundary. If partially flooded compartments become completely flooded, the flooding
boundaries may not hold. There may be hidden cracks or leaky stuffing tubes or the bulkheads may not
be able to withstand the pressure put on them. In other words, just because a flooding boundary seams
safe one minute is no sign that it will be safe the next. Therefore, repair party personnel should keep on
respecting and should make sure the boundaries holds (even so far as to add shoring if bulkhead or
overhead strength is in question.)

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Estimate of Damaged Ship's Situation
The most significant factor for ship stability after damage situation is the ability to keep the ship
afloat.

Ability to keep the ship afloat

The following factors have an important bearing upon the ship's ability to stay afloat.
 Whether or not flooding is progressing
 Effectiveness of immediate corrective measures
 Transverse stability
 Reserve Buoyancy
 Longitudinal Stability
 Structural Strength

Determination of whether flooding is progressing

The first step to be taken is to determine whether or not flooding is progressing. This can be
done by a careful survey, including observations to determine the rate of increase of list, trim, and
bodily sinkage.

Effectiveness of immediate corrective measures

Other steps including the plugging and patching of holes, and removal of damage water with the
available capacity of undamaged pumping and drainage equipment.

Transverse Stability After Damage

A substantial underwater explosion usually results in the entrance of a great mass of water with
extensive free surface, the combined result of which is a reduction of stability. The seriousness of
stability loss can be gauged by the extent of the free surface, and by the behavior of the ship with
respect to list and tenderness. List, or capsizing in the ultimate case, is due to negative GM, or
unsymmetrical flooding, or a combination or both. Whatever the case, list is undesirable. List acts to
reduce stability, as well as to make it more difficult to fight the ship. Except in the case of battleships
and large aircraft carrier, other ships may develop very small, or even negative GM. Negative GM is rare
if liquid ballasting instructions are followed, but the
possibilities must not be overlooked after damage.

The following facts should be given particular attention:

 GM usually is positive if flooding is limited to one main compartment.
 If the flooding is unsymmetrical, it is safe to assume that GM is positive when the list is not out
of acceptable limit.
 If the flooding is known to be symmetrical and there is an appreciable list, the situation will be
definitely identified as one of the negative GM. If the list is small, the ship will loll (roll with a
slow, “undecided” motion) from side to side under the influence of a small disturbing force such
as waves, weight movements or rudder forces. If the list is large, the following tendency may be
obscured by lack of sufficient disturbing force; and the ship will not even feel logy. ( A logy ship
has an extremely long or immediate period of roll.)
 If the flooding is unsymmetrical and if there is extensive free surface, negative GM should be
suspected when the list is out of acceptable limit. The ship may not be logy or extremely tender
if the list is large.
 In order to visualize the dynamic stability, still remaining after offcenter flooding has caused the
ship to list.
 Dynamical Stability. In the figure, there is a static stability curve for the intact ship, the angle of
maximum righting arm being 44°.Superimposed on this is the inclining moment curve due to
moving a weight off-center. In this example, the angle of permanent list, is 22°, equal to one-half
the angle at which the maximum righting arm occurs on the intact stability curve. The shaded
area represents the residual dynamic stability is much less than half the original total dynamic
stability. In addition, if the list had been due to off-center flooding, the combined effects of

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 added weight, free surface, and free communication would normally have resulted in a smaller
stability curve than the original intact one. The residual dynamic stability due to flooding,
therefore, would be even less than that resulting from moving a weight off center to produce an
equal permanent list.

Reserve Buoyancy After Damage

If the ship side above the waterline is holed, some flooding may take place as the ship rolls.
Reserve Buoyancy as well as other stability characteristics will suffer. A heavy under water explosion will
result in the entrance of a great mass of water. Flooding will be limited by subdivision, dependent upon
the type and complexity of the ship. Tn any case the relative amount of freeboard remaining after
damage will be a good indication of the residual reserve buoyancy.

Longitudinal Stability After Damage

The freeboard remaining at the ends of the ship may be used as a measure of the residual
longitudinal stability. Trim is not apt to be fatal unless the sea is washing over the weather deck. In fact,
ships have steamed long distances with sterns submerged.

Structural Strength

Flooding in the middle length increases sagging stresses, while flooding at the ends increase
hogging stresses. If the ship does not break in two immediately, a prompt, careful examination should
be made of the principal strength members (main deck, stringer plate, shear strake, bilge strake, and
keel.) Shoring of decks and bulkheads may be beneficial if stanchions have been disrupted.

Actions to be Taken in Case of Damage

Following actions are to be taken immediately after damage in order to ensure the watertight integrity
of the vessel and to assess the damage:

1. Closing of watertight doors and hatches

All watertight hatches are to be closed immediately. In general the status of the closed hatches can be
checked on the status panel on the bridge. Additionally a visual check by a designated person shall be
performed. In case it is deemed absolutely necessary to open a watertight door or hatch in the damaged
condition in order to proceed with further actions, it should be carefully judged whether this hatch/door
is crucial to prevent progressive flooding. After use, the hatch is to be closed immediately.

2. Closing of weather tight openings

All weather tight openings are to be closed immediately, further more the closing appliances for
ventilation openings are to be secured.

3. Closing of valves

All valves in the piping system are to be closed immediately as far as the connected pipes are not used
for the pumping operations.

4. Check the extent of damage

If possible a visual check of the extent of damage and the affected compartments shall be carried out.

5. Sounding of flooded compartments

After having found out which compartments are damaged, the amount of water ingress shall be
determined by sounding measurements. In case a compartment is connected to the remote sounding
system, the amount of water ingress can be determined directly.

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6. Draught readings

Draught readings at the forward, mid and aft draft marks shall be performed, the heel angle and trim
shall be calculated based on the draught readings.

7. Calculation of water ingress

By periodical checking of the soundings of the damaged compartments and comparison with the draft
readings, a calculation of the water ingress and flooding rate shall be made.

8. Use of pumps

Bilge and ballast pumps are available for pumping out water from the damaged compartments. Two
scenarios – a) the amount of water ingress (flooding rate) exceeds the available pump capacity, the
compartment must be isolated by closing all water tight accesses including valves

in the piping system and b) the pump capacity exceeds the flooding rate, the pumping shall be
continued. It is important that the pumps shall be kept in a permanent stand-by mode and ready for
use, at any time.

9. Use of loading computer

For determining the possible scenarios of liquid transfer operations, the loading computer shall be used.
Loading computer shall be used for estimating stability and strength after damage. For loading
computer which are intended to calculate intact conditions only, the amount of water ingress can be
considered as additional load in the respective compartments for the actual loading condition. It is to be
noted that such an idealization gives approximate results only. In case the loading computer is capable
of damage stability calculation, the actual extent of damage shall be considered.

10. Liquid transfer operations

Before any filling or discharging of water ballast carried out, a thorough check and precalculation of the
resulting floating position is to be carried out and the limit values for stability and strength are to be
checked. The crew must be aware that filling or discharging of water ballast tanks can have negative
influences on the stability due to the effect of free surfaces for
partially filled tanks. In order to minimize the heel and trim of the vessel, it may be advisable that water
should be pumped in the tanks opposite to the damage location. If possible, the filling of slack tanks
should be preferred to improve stability of the vessel.

11. Determination of ground condition, in case of grounding

Check the ground condition and extent of damage by a diver. This check shall be performed only with
the necessary safety measures when the ship is in a stable position and no movement of the ground is
anticipated.

12. Information to the owner, coast guard

The local coast guard and the ship owner shall be informed about the present situation. A possible
outflow of oil should be stated immediately.

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Damage control flow chart

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Actions to be Taken in the Event of Partial Loss of Intact Buoyancy

• The immediate actions which should be taken by the officer in charge of the watch are aimed at
limiting the volume of lost buoyancy to the minimum.
• At the same time, if cross-flooding arrangements are required, they should be put into
operation immediately to restrict the angle of list.
• Whether anything can be done to stop or reduce the inflow of water will depend upon the
circumstances.
• In the event of loss of buoyancy due to damage to a hatch cover, a prompt reduction in speed or
alteration of course, or both, may be effective.

Damage Stability

• A damage stability criterion varies from ship to ship and the requirement for the same is given in
SOLAS chapter II-1. It may be single compartment flooding, multi compartment flooding, engine
room flooding etc.
• Under all the criteria as applicable, vessel margin line should not be submerged after the
damage. Margin line is an imaginary line drawn 75mm below the free board deck.
• In order to ensure sufficient floatability and stability after damage it is vital to prevent water
propagating further through the buoyant parts of the ship
• The volume of tanks and spaces must be limited with watertight bulkheads to improve stability
• Keeping watertight doors closed must be vital to survival.
• Internationally, more radical means of maintaining buoyancy have been proposed, such as the
use of high density foam in double hulled compartments.
• Greater subdivision, the duplication of all ship systems to ensure that they are not knocked out
in a collision, grounding or fire are more conventional approaches that will tend to be employed
to make a loss of buoyancy less likely in an accident.
•

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References:

1. SEAM IV
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/369632660/18-SEAM-
IV?fbclid=IwAR2TyKCegm11v_nQmpL3XG6F6VWBMLrMaU0ryhfFw7rwv6w_5MXBmVXNtUw

2. Damage Control Information

http://www.mermaid-consultants.com/damage-control-information-for-ship.html

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