Chapter Seven
Above the Clause: The Clause Complex
7.1 The Notion of Clause Complex
The notion of clause complex was proposed by Halliday (1994: 216) in his book An
Introduction to Functional Grammar. The term, clause complex, refers to the
grammatical and semantic unit formed when two or more clauses are linked by
tactic and logico-semantic relations. Halliday points out that the clause is a
multivariate structure but the clause complex is a univariate one. A multivariate
structure is one which is made up of functionally distinct constituents. For
example, the functions of the transitivity structure of the clause all have different
values- Actor, Process, Goal, Location and so on. Each element performs a distinct
role in contributing to the meaning of the whole clause structure. So the following
clause can be analaysed as it is explained in the figure below:
And fortunately Jim analyzed the text through stylistic analysis
through
And fortunately Jim Analysed the text stylistic
analysis
Adjunct: Adjunct:
Subject Finite: mod Complement Adjunct: circ
conjun comment
MOOD RESIDUE
Actor Process Goal Circ: manner
From the above analysis we can observe that a clause has a multivariate
structure; each constituent has a different function in constructing the whole
meaning of the clause.
1
But when it comes to clause complex the scenario is different. Here we are
dealing with a relationship between elements that stand in the same relation to
other elements and which can be chained together. For example,
He resigned his position in the company.
|||He resigned his position in the company // when he became 30|||
|||He resigned his position in the company // when he became 30 // as he
believed in the need for renewal|||
We can see that the clause complex is a univariate (serial) structure; where it is
composed of one clause after another clause after another clause.
7.2 Systems of the Clause Complex
But what are the systems involved in the formation of clause complex? Halliday
goes further in providing two basic systems that can determine how one clause is
related to another; they are tactic system and logico-semantic system.
7.2.1 The Tactic System:
The tactic system is also known as interdependency. This system tells about the
type of relationship between clauses linked into a clause complex, whether they
are of equal or unequal status. There are two options in relation to the analysis of
taxis; parataxis or hypotaxis.
a- Parataxis: refers to the relation between two clauses of equal status.
Consider the following example,
||| Tom crouched low to the ground // and moved slowly |||
We have two clauses; they are presented as being of equal status. They are
independent of one another, each one constitutes a proposition and can be
tagged – Tom crouched to the ground, didn’t he? and he moved slowly,
didn’t he?. Therefore, we can say they are of paratactic relation.
2
b. Hypotaxis: refers to the relation between two clauses of unequal status. For
example,
||| While walking home one moonless night 1968,|| he was shot in the back |||
Here one of the clauses is dependent on the other, so they are of hypotactic
relation.
7.2.2 Logico-semantic system
In addition to the tactic system explained above, Halliday adds another system called
logico-semantic system. This system describes the specific type of meaning relationship
between linked clauses. Again, there are two main options: clauses may be related
through expansion (where one clause expands the meaning of another; either by
elaborating it, extending it or enhancing it), or through projection (where one clause is
projected through another via a verb of saying or thinking). We will start by explaining
the three types of expansion namely elaboration, extension and enhancement.
[Link] Elaboration
Elaborating clause clarifies or specifies the meaning of another clause. Elaborated
clauses are called primary clauses and elaborating clauses are called secondary clauses
(H & M 2014: 442). Elaboration may be either paratactic or hypotactic.
a) Paratactic elaboration
It refers to the case where the meaning of one clause can be elaborated on through
exposition, exemplification or clarification.
i) Exposition
Here the thesis of the primary clause is restated by a secondary clasue that means the
message of the primary clause is presented from another point of view or reinforced.
For example,
- That clock doesn’t go; it’s not working
- This test is difficult; it’s really complicated.
- He was tired; he was really exhausted
3
As can be noted from the examples above; there is no explicit conjunctive signal of the
relationship – the two clauses are simply juxtaposed.
On the other hand, the relationship can be made explicit by using a conjunctive
expression such as : or(rather), in other words, that is to say, I mean, or in writing i.e
(2014: 463)
ii) Exemplification
Here the secondary clause develops the thesis (context) of the primary clause by
providing an example. The relationship may be made by implicit (i.e by simply
juxtaposing the clauses) or explicit by using conjunctives such as: for example, for
instance, in particular or in writing, e.g. (H & M 2014: 463). Here are some examples:
||| I’ve visited so many places in Aurangabad; || I’ve gone to Elora, Dawlatabad, and
Masmal|||
|||There are lots of things you might do – ||for example, you might learn to play a
musical
Instrument|||
iii) Clarification
Here the secondary clause clarifies the meaning of the primary clause “backing it with
some form of explanation or explanatory comment.” (H & M 2014: 463). This can be
achieved either by simply juxtaposing the clauses or using conjunctions such as in fact,
actually, indeed, at least. For example,
|||I wasn’t surprised||-it was [[what I expected]]
|||We should get through this job fairly soon; ||actually, there is very little left to do|||
b) Hypotactic elaboration
4
Hypotactic elaboration clauses are expressed by what is known in traditional grammar
as non-defining or non-restrictive relative clauses (H & M 2014: 464). The function of the
non-defining relative clause is to comment on the dominant clause or part of the
dominant clause. Elaborating dependent clauses can be either finite or non-finite:
i) Finite
Halliday mentions that the finite non-defining relative clauses have the same form like
defining relative clauses but they differ in tow aspects: 1- there is a distinction in
meaning, and 2- there is a corresponding distinction in the expression. With regard to
the meaning, non-defining relative clauses adds supplementary information that does
not help to define what we are talking about. On the other hand defining relative
clauses defines subsets that is to say, they provide essential information that helps to
understand what or who is being referred to. Halliday (2014: 465) points out that the
domain of a non-defining relative clause may be the whole of a primary clause or any of
its constituents. He provides three headings to show the domain of the non-defining
relative clauses:
a- Clauses with ‘which’, whose domain is either the whole of the primary clause or
some part of it that is more than a nominal group; e.g,
|||He talks down to people, ||which automatically put’s people’s pack up|||
Here the non-defining relative clause elaborates on the whole of the antecedent
primary clause. Such constructions have always the sequence ɑˆ=B
b- Relative clauses with ‘which, that, who, whose’, whose domain is a nominal
group, e.g,
|||She had been to the hairdresser,|| who had done a remarkable job|||
Here the non-defining relative clause elaborating on the nominal group ‘the
hairdresser’.
|||This was the first English Department class at the University of Ibadan, ||which had
just been founded|||
In this example, the non-defining relative clause elaborates on the nominal group ‘the
University of Ibadan’
5
When the nominal group is in non-final position in the main clause, the secondary
clause is often enclosed,e.g
Tom, who works as a history teacher, attended my party.
Here the structure is ɑˆ<B>ˆɑ, which can be shown as :
ɑ Tom,
<=B> who works as a history teacher,
ɑ attended my party
c- Relative clauses with ‘when or where’ whose domain is an expression of time or
place , e.g.
ɑ it should be ready by July,
=B when the holidays start.
ɑ Café is a small restaurant,
=B where people can get a light meal.
With regard to the expression, that is how defining relative clauses are expressed
differently in both speech and writing. In written English, a non-defining relative clause
is signaled by punctuation, usually commas, but sometimes by using a dash. This is
reflected in spoken English; a non-defining relative clause forms a separate tone group
that is linked to the main clause by tone concord. A defining-relative clause, on the
other hand, is not separated by punctuation from its antecedent. This is in turn reflected
in the way they are expressed orally where the defining relative clause enters into a
single tone group with its antecedent.
ii) Non-finite
Non-finite clauses work in the same way as finite clauses and their domain can be a
nominal group or even the whole clause. For example,
I’ve brought down the table form upstairs, to put the television set on.
At the moment Charles appeared in the hall, propelling himself in a wheelchair.
6
[Link] Extension
In extension, the secondary clause extends the meaning of the primary clause. Halliday
identifies three categories: addition, variation and alternation. Below is a discussion
about each category with regard to hypotactic and paratactic relations.
a) Paratactic extension
Paratactic extension refers to what is traditionally called coordination. This relation
between clauses is expressed by and, nor, or, but. As we mentioned above, three
subtypes of paratactic extension can be recognized: addition, variation, alternation.
i) Addition
Here two processes are adjoined in a relationship of equality that is positive , negative
or adversative.
1- Positive addition is expressed by the use of the conjuction ‘and’. For example,
|||He’d been a medieval history student in college||| and I was interested in
medieval literature, too.|||
2- Negative addition is expressed by the conjunction ‘nor’. For example,
||| He could neither explain the whole situation to the editor|| nor could he accept
his rebuke|||
3- Adversative addition is expressed by the conjunction ‘but’. e.g.
||| It is an extremely simple device||, but actually it is very effective|||
ii) Variation
In paratactic variation, “one clause is presented as being in total or partial replacement
of another” (2014: 473). The former is referred to as ‘replacive’ which is expressed by
‘but instead’, and the latter as ‘subtractive’ which expressed by the conjunction ‘except’.
For example,
7
He didn’t stay even an hour, but instead returned to London on the next train. (replacive
variation)
He runs the department well, except he rarely holds meetings. (partial variation)
iii) Alternation
In paratactic alternation “one clause is presented as an alternative to another.” (2014:
473). Paratactic alternation is expressed by the conjunctions ‘or, alternatively, on the
other hand’. For example,
Either we go now or we remain here forever.
There are several medium-priced hotels: alternatively, self-catering facilities are
available.
b) Hypotactic extension
Here the secondary clause (dependent clause) extends the meaning of primary clause;
the secondary clause can be either finite or non-finite (H & M 2014:474). In hypotactic
extension relation between clauses, Halliday also identifies there subtypes of relations
(i.e addition, variation, alternation).
i) Finite Clauses:
a) Addition
The conjunctions used to recognize hypotactic clauses of addition are ‘whereas and
while’. For example,
+B While I think some parts of the plan are good,
ɑ I don’t think it’s practical.
ɑ Jane already speaks two foreign languages,
+B whereas her brother hasn’t yet learned any.
b) Variation
8
Here the second clause can be in a subtractive relation to the primary clause. i.e. the
secondary clause considered as a partial replacement to the primary clause.
Conjunctives like except that, but (for the fact that) can be used to recognize a
subtractive relation. For example,
|||The exam went pretty well||, except that I misread the final question|||
||| John was quite prepared to make it, || but for the fact that his life was cut tragically
and unnecessarily short|||
c) Alternation
The structure ‘if….not’, can be used to express a hypotactic extension of alternation. For
example,
|||If you haven’t lost it||, then it’s in that cupboard|||
ii) Non-finite The dependent extending clause may be non-finite. Such clauses are often
introduced by a preposition or preposition group functioning conjunctively, e.g. (beside,
apart from ‘additive’; instead of ‘replacive’; other than ‘subtractive’) (2014: 475). For
example,
- ||| Besides being gifted with literary talent, ||Amir Khusrau was a musician, too|||
- ||| I prefer to be sure || instead of making mistakes|||
- ||| We call him a murderer||, but for him there is no way out|| other than doing the
deed|||
[Link] Enhancement
In enhancement, the secondary clause adds to the meaning of the primary clause by
reference to time, space, manner, cause or condition. The suggested notation for
enhancement relation is ‘X’ (multiplied by). For example,
XB When returning home,
ɑ the group was instructed to remain silent.
9
Enhancement can also be either paratactic or hypotactic.
a) Paratactic enhancement
Paratactic enhancement (has the notation 1X 2), it is a kind of coordination in which the
meaning of the primary clause is reinforced by a secondary clause with a circumstantial
element. The circumstantial element of the secondary clause can be introduced by one
of the following:
1- By the conjunctions: then, so, for, but, yet, still.
2- By a conjunction group with and, e.g. and then, and there, and thus, and so, and
yet.
3- By and in combination with a conjunctive (i.e cohesive conjunction), for example,
at that time, soon afterwards, till then, in that case.
(H & M 2014: 478)
Halliday provides four subtypes of enhancement:
i) Temporal
- At the same time
1 the bus has left;
X2 now we won’t be able to attend the lecture.
- Later time
1 I served in world war II
X2 and then I went to Yale.
ii) Spatial
1 I met him in the campus,
X2 and there we talked about the exams
iii) Manner
a- Means
1 Call me every few days,
10
X2 and in that way we can keep in touch if something happen
b- Comparison
1 John misunderstood the question,
X2 and so did his brother.
iv) Casual conditional
1. Cause: reason
a. Cause ˆ effect
1 John misunderstood the question,
X2 and so gave the funniest answer.
b. Effect ˆ Cause
1 He found it increasingly difficult to read,
X2 for his eyesight was beginning to fail.
2. Condition: Positive
1 He might tell your father,
X2 and in that case you need to give an accepted excuse.
3. Condition: negative
1 you’ll have to go now,
X2 otherwise you’ll miss your bus.
4. Condition: Concessive
a. Concession ˆ Consequence
1 The hotel was terrible;
X2 still we were lucky with the weather.
11
b. Consequence ˆ Concession
1 they rushed to the hospital;
X2 but they were too late.
ii) Hypotactic enhancement
In hypotactic enhancement relation, the notation is (ɑ X B). Hypotactic enhancing
clauses correspond to what is called traditionally as “adverbial caluses”. They can be
finite or non-finite. “As with parataxis, these are clauses of time, place, manner, cause,
and condition” (2014: 481)
1) Finite
Finite clauses are introduced by conjunctions (suborinatory conjunctions). The
following examples provide an illustration of the different types of the finite
hypotactic enhancing clauses:
a- Time
Some of the subordinating conjunctions or binders used with a time reference are:
- When, wherever, once, as soon as, ever since, by the time.
For example,
XB Whenever I hear that tune,
ɑ it makes me think of you.
XB Once I get him a job,
ɑ he will be fine.
b- Place
Place can be concrete or abstract. The binders used with a reference to place are:
wherever, where. For example,
12
ɑ That is the place
XB where he was last seen
ɑ She is shadowed by detectives
XB wherever she goes (Concrete Place)
ɑ They examined a variety of hot button issues
XB where ideology conflicts with science.(Abstract Place)
c- Manner
Manner can be of three types: quality, comparison, means. Some binders used with
a reference to manner are: as, as if, whereby. e.g.
XB As I explained on the phone,
ɑ your request will be considered at the next meeting.
ɑ She’s behaving arrogantly
XB as if she was the queen of England (comparison).
ɑ They have set up a plan
XB whereby you can spread the cost over a two-year.(Period.. comparison)
d- Cause – Condition
Halliday provides further types of hypotactic enhancement clauses that can be of
cause or condition. The cause can be of: reason, purpose, or result. For example,
ɑ They’re rather expensive,
XB since they are rare to find. (reason)
13
ɑ I hope they have decided to come
XB as I wanted to hear about the car accident. (reason)
ɑ I waited for an hour
XB so that I could meet him. (Purpose)
ɑ He was very tired,
XB so that he decided to stay at home. (result)
Condition can be of two types either positive or negative. For example,
XB If she hadn’t called,
ɑ I wouldn’t have known. (condition: Positive)
ɑ Let’s take our swimming costumes
XB in case there is a pool at the hotel.(Condition: Positive)
ɑ They won’t come
XB unless you invite them.(Condition: Negative)
Halliday states that the enhancing finite clauses are introduced by subordinating
conjunctions that are grouped as:
a- Simple conjunctions such as because, when, if.
b- Conjunction groups like: as if, even if, soon after, so that.
c- Complex conjunctions which have three subclasses:
1) Derived from verbs (verbal conjunctions). For example, suppose (that), seeing
(that), provided (that), granted (that).
14
2) Derived from nouns ( nominal conjunctions). For example, in case, in the
event that, to the extent that, the day, in spite of.
3) Derived from adverbs (adverbial conjunctions). For example, as/so long, as/so
far as, (as) much as.
(H &M 2014: 483-484)
ii) Non-finite
Halliday distinguishes between two types of non-finite enhancing clauses:
1) Non-finite enhancing clauses introduced by a structural conjunction.
2) Non-finite enhancing clauses without structural conjunctions; they are expressed
by the to+infinitive or the verb + ing forms.
Here are some examples illustrating both types:
1) Non-finite enhancing clauses introduced by a structrural conjunction
ɑ look both ways
XB before crossing the road. (Time)
XB While talking,
ɑ he jotted everything down in a pad. (Time)
ɑ I can’t give an opinion
XB without having read the book (Condition)
XB By turning this handle,
ɑ you can make ice-cubes come out.
15
2) Non-finite enhancing clauses starting by a direct verb form (i.e these verb forms
are expressed by the ‘to+infinitive’ or the ‘verb-ing’; such clauses are not
preceded by structural conjunctions). For example,
ɑ You must book early
XB to book a seat.
XB Feeling tired,
ɑ I went to bed early.
XB Having found an hotel,
ɑ we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
7.3 Embedded expansion
In this section, Halliday brings into focus the notion of embedding which is different
from clauses of hypotactic or paratactic relations. Hypotaxis and parataxis refer to the
relation between clauses. In contrast, embedding is a “mechanism whereby a clause or
phrase comes to function as a constituent within the structure of a group, which itself is
a constituent of a clause.” (2014: 491). Here is an example given by Halliday to show the
difference between embedded clause vs hypotactically related clause:
ɑ The only person [[who was kind to him at all]] was the Skin Horse,
=B who had lived longer in the nursery than any of the others.
In this example, the embedded clause is represented as [[ ]]. It does not function as a
dependent clause in its own right, but rather it acts more like a postmodifier in a
nominal group. It modifies the “person”. Embedded clauses can function as Head of a
nominal group (nominalization), and as a Postmodifier in an adverbial group. Examples;
||The teacher liked students[[who asked lots of questions]]_ _Post modifier in nominal group
||Rick won the race more easily [[than he expected]]||__ Post-modifier in adverbial group
||[[What Tom wanted to do]] was difficult||__ Head of nominal group
16
7.4 Reports, ideas and facts: three kinds of projection
Projection refers to the relationship which exists between a clause containing a verb of
saying or thinking (projecting clause) and a clause which expresses what is said or
thought (Projected clause). That means both meanings (ideas) and wordings (locutions)
can be projected (2014: 508). Halliday provides three systems that are involved in the
differentiation of different kinds of projection:
i) The level of projection (idea vs locution). As it is mentioned above the projection may
be a representation of a mental clause; such projections are called ideas. On the other
hand, the projection may be a representation of a verbal clause; such projections are
called locutions. For example,
I said “I can’t do this assignment”__ Locution
I thought “I can’t do this assignment” ___ Idea
ii) Mode of projection (hypotactic reporting vs. paratactic quoting). Locutions and ideas
can be projected paratactically; such projections are referred to in traditional grammar
as ‘direct speech’. Here the exact words of the Sayer are quoted. For example,
- She said “I’ll go”__ Paratactic locution
- She thought “I’ll go”__ Paratactic idea
Locutions and ideas can also be projected hypotactically; such projections are referred
to in traditional grammar as ‘indirect speech’. For example,
- She said that she would go .__Hypotactic locution
- She thought that she would go.__Hypotactic idea
iii) The speech function of the projection (projected propositions vs projected proposals)
All the examples above show a projection of propositions (information); we can also
project proposals (offers and commands), and again the projection can be either
paratactic or hypotactic. Here are some examples of projected commands:
“No, please stop,” I said__ (Paratactic idea projection)
The Gendarme nodded and told me to wait outside__(Hypotactic locution projection)
The following examples show projected offers:
17
“I’ll build a house in readiness,” promised Edward __Paratactic locution
I’d promised my mother I’d buy her some new central-heating ___Hypotactic locution.
As Halliday points out those clauses of verbal processes project locutions, whereas
clauses of mental processes project ideas.
7.4.1 Quoted speech : verbal processes, parataxis
In quoted speech, the projecting clauses are a verbal process. The projected clause
contains that which is said. The relation between these clauses can be described as
paratactic; the two clauses have equal status. For example,
|||He said|| ‘I saw it on TV.’||| the order of the projecting and projected clasues is
free; we can reverse the order of the above structure:
||| ‘I saw it on TV’|| he said|||
“In spoken English, the projecting clause receives less prominence than the projected
one, in whatever position it occurs.”(Dowling &Locke 2002:298).
Halliday (page 514) provides a range of verbs that can be used in quoted or directed
speech:
1- The verb say
2- Verbs specific to different speech functions:
i) Statements (tell, remark, point out, announce)
ii) Questions (ask, demand, inquire, query)
iii)Offers and commands (suggest, offer, call, order, request, tell, propose, decide)
3- Verbs with additional circumstantial feature: reply, explain, protest, add,
interrupt, warn
4- Verbs of uttering with other connotative meaning (insist, complain, cry, boast,
murmur, stammer, blame)
18
7.4.2 Reported thought: mental process, hypotaxis
In reporting ideas, the projecting clause is mental clause whose process is typically of
the ‘like’ type or the ‘please’ type. Verbs of ‘like’ type are: believe, guess, think , know,
imagine, doubt, remember, forget, dream. Verb of ‘please’ type are: strike, occur to,
down on. Some examples are given below:
a- |||So you believe|| that the short story is better at dealing with real life, human
emotions|||
b- |||It didn’t occur to him||that I might want to stay on and watch the cricket.|||
In (a) the projecting clause has a process of ‘like’ type, while in (b) it is of ‘Please’ type.
7.4.3 Quoted thought: mental processes, parataxis
In the same way words are quoted, thought can also be quoted. For example,
||| ‘the gods must watch out for Kukul,’|| he thought to himself|||
As it is shown in (page 510), table 7-17, quoted thoughts (ideas) are relatively few in
number in English, in comparison with the wide variety of reporting ideas (hypotactic
projection).
Verbs of mental processes that can be used in projecting ideas include:
a) Think, the basic verb
b) Other verbs of cognition which express some additional, often aspectual
meaning: muse, ponder, reflect, wonder (Dwoling & Lock 2002: 300)
7.4.4 Reported speech: verbal processes hypotaxis
In reported speech, what someone said is repackaged into an indirect form; this is what
called traditionally as ‘indirect speech’ (2014: 519).
The verbs used in reporting and quoting are often the same. Here are some examples of
reported declaratives and interrogatives:
i) Indirect declaratives:
19
|||In India, for quite some time, we debated|| whether the Court should have the
power to review a constitutional amendment|||
ii) Indirect interrogative:
|||I’ve always been asked|| what the highlights of my fourteen years in Paris were|||
Halliday states that the usage of paratactic (quoting) form, suggests representing
wordings, whereas the usage of hypotactic (indirect speech) form, suggests
representing the sense or gist.
20
