QUESTION NO.

Explain Maximum Power Point Tracking and its importance in PV based systems. (Ali-Chap5)

SOME BACKGROUND

In PV Systems, to obtain the maximum power transfer efficiency; we have to know the electrical characteristics of
load and the irradiance because of sunlight. As, the sunlight varies so it’s impossible for load to extract maximum
possible power. This happens because the open circuit voltage change with sunlight. It also depends on temperature
and some other factors but for the sake of simplicity consider these constant. The figure 1 below shows the change
of maximum point. The point of the curve where the voltage is 0 is called open circuit voltage point, and for current
0, it’s called short circuit current point. Also, the point where slope of P vs V is 0, is called maximum power point
(PMPP); in figure 1 it’s represented by the center line. The voltage at this point are called V MPP and current is IMPP. The
major focus of maximum power point tracking is to develop an algorithm where the load takes the maximum power
from the sunlight. Different panels have different characteristics, some optimal characteristics from Ali-Keyhani
Book are copied below in table 1.

Figure 1: Solar Cell I-V curve in varying sunlight

 Table 1: Optimal Values/Characteristics of a PV Cell

FORM FACTOR

As, we can see this maximum power point lies on the curve between V OC and ISC. The ratio of this gives PMPP and Isc x
Voc gives us a factor, called form factor to get the idea of how much our maximum power differs from the rated
power.

PMPP
FF 
I sc Voc

Generally, we can achieve the FF of 0.85, but usually it lies around 0.6.

PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFICIENY

The PV module efficiency, η is defined as:

VMPP  I MPP

PS
where VMPPIMPP is the maximum power output, PMPP and PS is the surface area of the module. The PV efficiency can
be also defined as:

VOC  I SC
  FF  
 P    .d 
0

Where P(λ) is the solar power density at wavelength λ. Figure 2 depicts a PV module consisting of 36 PV cells. If
each cell is rated at 1.5 V, the module rated voltage is 54 V.

Figure 2: A Photovoltaic Module Consisting of 36 Photovoltaic Cells

A string is designed by connecting a number of PV modules in series. A number of strings connected in parallel
makes an array.

IN DAILY USE / IMPORTANCE

Usually, if we buy a solar panel of 12V, that’s providing the 7A current, when it’s supposed to give 150W. It’s
happening because of the poor match of solar output current and battery voltage. To get the maximum efficiency we
have to use MPPT algorithm; that takes the input of ambient temperature, humidity and other factors and get the
maximum power point on curve at different values of factors, so we can always get the maximum efficiency from
solar panel.

In short, we use the MPPT for maximizing a photovoltaic (PV) power, as it continuously tracks the maximum power
point (MPP) of the system. MPP of the PV system depends on solar radiation conditions, ambient temperature, and
the load demand. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques can catch MPP of PV system. Such
techniques can be realized in many various forms of hardware and software. 
MPPT ALGORITHM

To generalize the concept of MPPT, means how it perform it operation to look for the maximum power point in the
circuit. Consider the two circuits given in figure below:

Figure 3: (a)--above and (b)--below

For the first circuit, the power is:

RL
P V2 
 Rin  RL 
2

And, for the maximum point; differentiate it:

dP R  RL
 V 2  in
 Rin  RL 
3
dRL

Setting the above to zero, we can calculate the operating point for the maximum power. The MPP can be delivered
to the load when, RL = RIN. A PV module output power is the function of irradiance solar energy. Figure 4 depicts
the output power in W/m2 at various irradiances as a function of module current and output voltage. The PV system
should be operated to extract the maximum power from its array as the environmental conditions change in relation
to the position of the sun, cloud cover, and daily temperature variations. The equivalent circuit model of a PV array
can be presented during its power transfer mode to a load R L as shown in figure 3(b). Figure 3(b) presents the circuit
model for a PV source by a current source that has a shunt resistance, R sh and series resistance, Rs. The shunt
resistance has a large value and series resistance is very small. The load resistance is represented by R L. In figure, RL
is the reflected load because in practice the load is connected to the converter side if the PV operates as a standalone.
When the PV is connected to the power grid, the load is based on the injected power to the power grid.
 Figure 4

As can be seen in Fig. 4, the characteristics of a PV module are highly nonlinear. The input impedance of a PV array
is affected by irradiance variation and temperature. The corresponding output power is also shown in Fig.4.

To achieve maximum power

transfer from the PV array, the
input impedance of the PV
generator must match the load. The
MPPT control algorithm (figure 5)
seeks to operate the boost
converter at a point on the PV
array current and voltage
characteristics where the maximum
Figure 5: MPPT Algo
output power can be obtained. For
a PV power generating station, the
control algorithm computes the dP/dV > 0 and dp/dV < 0 to identify if the pick power has been obtained.

QUESTION NO. 7

Define the role of power electronics converters in integration and automation of the Renewable Energy
Resources. You can explain it with the help of making a structural diagram of any converter connected with
the grid or microgrid. (Ekanayake-Chap10 or online MG papers of Dr. Akhtar RASOOL, preferably IEEE).
The future power system increasingly will include more controllable power electronic devices to make the best use
of existing circuits, maintain flexibility and optimum operation of the power system, and to facilitate the connection
of renewable energy resources at all voltage levels. Current Source Converter High Voltage DC (CSC-HVDC1) is
presently used for the connection of asynchronous power systems (for example, 50–60 Hz), for long overhead line
transmission and submarine cable circuits as well as for the connection of geographically extensive or weak systems.
It is anticipated that CSC-HVDC connections will be increasingly used in future for inter-country and inter-state
connections. Voltage Source Converter HVDC (VSC-HVDC1) is used for offshore wind farm connections.
Offshore wind farms up to 50–80 km from shore can be connected to the terrestrial grid using an AC connection.
However, the submarine cables generate significant reactive power limiting the distance over which an AC cable
connection can be used. The decision on whether to use AC or DC depends on the cable route length, the number of
cables required to transmit the wind farm output, acceptable losses and capital costs. Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) are used to increase the power transfer capability of existing AC lines, to control steady state and
dynamic power flow through an AC circuit, to control reactive power and voltage and to enhance voltage and angle
stability. Shunt-connected power electronic devices using Thyristors, for example, Static Var Compensators (SVCs)
using Thyristor Controlled Reactors or Thyristor Switched Capacitors are already widely used. Other FACTS
devices, given in table.
Table 2: Different FACTS Devices and Their Applications

CURRENT SOURCE CONVERTERS

The rapid development of semiconductor devices and associated control techniques has allowed a number of
applications of switching power converters in the electric power system. Two types of power converter, the Current
Source Converter (CSC) and the Voltage Source Converter (VSC) are in use. In a CSC, the DC side current is kept
constant with a small ripple using a large inductor, thus forming a current source on the DC side. The direction of
power flow through a CSC is determined by the polarity of the DC voltage while the direction of current flow
remains the same. At present, the CSC is used mainly in high power applications, particularly for HVDC
transmission with a capacity of up to 7000MWfor a single link. In a CSC, the power electronic switches (thyristor
valves) are turned on by control circuits but switch off through natural commutation when the current through them
drops to zero. Figure shows the circuit configuration of a CSC. Six thyristors are used to form this circuit and the
midpoint of each thyristor limb is connected to a three-phase supply. During the period when the a-phase voltage, v a,
is most positive, thyristor T1 can be turned on and during the period when v b is most positive, thyristor T3 can be
turned on. This pattern is repeated for the other phase. The lower thyristor in the a-phase, that is, T 4, can be turned
on during the time the a-phase voltage is most negative. The DC voltage, V d, depends on the upper and lower
thyristors that are conducting. For example, when thyristors T1 and T6 are conducting, Vd (the voltage of the positive
DC conductor with respect to the negative) is the line-to-line voltage between the a and b phases, that is, V ab. The
average value of the DC voltage can be obtained by dividing the shaded area by π/3 (the angle of the shaded area).
Since Vd is:

Figure 6: Current Source Converter

formed by the line-to-line voltage, its peak value is √2VLL. So, the average DC voltage is given by:
VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS

A converter where the DC side voltage is maintained as constant using a large capacitor is called a VSC. The VSC is
widely used for low and medium power applications such as grid connection of micro-generation, renewable energy
sources, and energy storage. However, the VSC is also used at power levels up to 1000 MW for HVDC
transmission. The semiconductor devices that are used in VSC are rapidly increasing in size and reducing in cost.
Therefore, it is anticipated that VSC technology will dominate high power DC applications in future. The VSC
offers advantages such as freedom to operate with any combination of active and reactive power, the ability to
operate in a weak grid and even black-start, fast acting control, the possibility of using voltage polarized cables and
generating good sinusoidal wave-shapes. Hence it is anticipated that it will be the choice of future converters. A
VSC employs controllable switches where current can be controlled in the forward direction and an anti-parallel
diode is provided for current flow in the reverse direction. The current in the forward direction can be switched on
and off. Commonly used semiconductor switches include Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
(MOSFET), Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT), Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO), and Insulated Gate
Commutated Thyristor (IGCT). The current and voltage ratings of MOSFETs are limited and therefore they are only
used for low power applications. IGBTs have been used in both low and medium power applications. As their
current and voltage ratings increase, it is anticipated that IGBT switches will be used in high power applications
(already a few HVDC projects of up to 500MWare employing them). The IGCT is evolving as a device having
lower on-state losses (compared to an IGBT) and faster switching times (compared to a GTO) and is used in some
high-power applications.
VSCS FOR LOW AND MEDIUM POWER APPLICATIONS

Low/medium power refers to applications in which the rating of the VSC is in the range of a few kWs to several
MWs. Applications include inverters for PV and energy storage systems, back-to-back VSCs for wind power
generators, active filters and DVRs. Some of these Applications use a single-phase VSC whereas others use a three-
phase VSC. The commonly used single-phase VSC is the H-bridge converter shown in Figure. The operation with
square wave output is also shown in Figure. In this configuration the switch pairs (S1 and S3) and (S2 and S4) are
turned on and off in a complementary manner. However, in order to avoid shoot-through of one leg (thus causing a
high short circuit current), a small dead time is introduced between the turn-on signals of two sets of complementary
switches. When the two switches S1 and S3 are on, the voltage across the load is Vdc, whereas when the two
switches S2 and S4 are on, the voltage across the load is –Vdc. Even though the output is a square wave, its
fundamental is sinusoidal as shown in Figure. The four switches could be MOSFETs (as shown in Figure below) or
IGBTs. Due to the harmonics produced by the square wave voltage output, this simple switching strategy is only
used with off-grid low power generators. In many applications a sine-triangular Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
technique is used to control the turn-on and turn-off times of the four switches. The switching instances are
determined by comparing a sinusoidal modulating signal with a triangular carrier signal. When the magnitude of the
carrier is higher than the modulating signal, S2 and S4 are turned on. On the other hand, when the magnitude of the
carrier is lower than the modulating signal, S1 and S3 are turned on.

TWO-LEVEL THREE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER

The two-level three-phase VSC, also called a six-pulse VSC, shown in figure. is essentially a three-limb
configuration of two complementary switches. A number of different modulating techniques can be used to generate
the AC output [12, 13] but the sine-triangular PMW technique is a commonly used method. In sine-triangular PWM,
the output of each phase is obtained by comparing the triangular carrier signal with three sinusoidal modulating
signals which are out of phase by 120◦.
 Figure 7: PWM for 2-different Modulation

THREE-LEVEL THREE-PHASE DIODE CLAMP CONVERTER

A three-level three-phase diode clamp converter configuration. This is the simplest multilevel configuration; more
levels could be added by increasing the number of series-connected switches. In this configuration, auxiliary devices
are used to clamp the output terminal to the potential of the DC-link mid-point (O). This configuration is also called
a Neutral-Point-Clamped (NPC) converter. The lower trace of Figure shows the a-phase output voltage with respect
to the midpoint, O. The upper switches (Sa1, Sa2) are used to produce positive DC voltage at the output. The lower
switches (Sa3, Sa4) are used to produce a negative DC voltage at the output. The middle switches (Sa2, Sa3) are
used to clamp the output voltage to the potential of point O. Therefore, this switching arrangement can produce three
output levels +Vdc/2, 0, −Vdc/2. A detailed discussion on switching states of the three-level converter can be found.
MULTI-LEVEXL CONVERTERS

Multi-level converters are an attractive choice for high power applications due to the reduced frequency of switching
(this reduces switching losses). The output of the multi-level converter is a step-like output and by using many
levels, a wave shape that closely resembles a sinusoid can be obtained. The main topologies in use are the diode-
clamped topology and the capacitor clamped topology. The Diode-Clamped Converter (DCC) topology is a
generalization of the two-level VSC. The three-level VSC is considered the simplest example of this topology.
Additional levels can be achieved by adding extra switches and diodes, however, the component count increases
with the level number.

An m-level DCC would require (m − 1) capacitors and (m − 1) (m − 2) clamping diodes. Each switch is only
required to block a voltage level of V DC/(m − 1). The clamping diodes need to have unequal voltage ratings. When
the VSC is used for real power transfer, balancing of the capacitor voltages is one of the major challenges in this
topology. A five-level DCC and its charging and discharging wave shapes under unity and zero power factor
operations. Under unity power factor, at each half cycle the capacitors will be charged for an uneven period. This
results in an imbalance of the capacitor voltages. In the case of zero power factor operation, at each half cycle a
capacitor is charged and discharged an equal amount of time (only the upper capacitor discharging and charging and
the capacitor unbalance problem does not arise. The voltage imbalance problem can be solved by connecting
separately controlled DC sources across each capacitor, but this increases the circuit complexity and cost. The
capacitor-clamped multi-level converter employs a large number of capacitors to form the step-like output. Figure
shows a single-phase five-level Capacitor Clamped (sometimes known as a floating or flying capacitor) Converter
(CCC) configuration. The main DC capacitors C1 and C2 are used by all three phases and are usually fed from
separate energy sources. The other capacitors Cf1, Cf2, Cf3 float with respect to earth, leading to the term floating
capacitors. The CCC configuration has an identical structure to floating capacitors and series-connected switching
devices are used for all three phases.

Figure 8: Charging and Discharging of capacitor in 5 level DCC

Figure 9: Single Phase Circuit and Output of 5 Level CCC Configuration

 Figure 10: Single Phase Circuit and Output of 5 Level M2C Configuration

MULTI-MODULAR CONVERTERS

A number of H-bridge converters can be connected to form a Multi-Modular Converter (M2C). Due to its modular
nature, redundancy can be incorporated and ‘standard’ modules can be used. shows a single-phase five-level multi-
modular circuit. Sometimes the M2C configuration is called a chain circuit VSC. This arrangement has two identical
H-bridge converter cells with separate DC sources, which allow independent control of the converter cells.
Compared to the five-level FCC, the five-level M2C configuration requires only two DC capacitors. The output
voltages of the single-phase M2C circuit. In this configuration the number of levels can be defined as the number of
DC voltages it can produce across the single-phase terminals. Each H-bridge can generate three voltage levels: when
S12 and S13 are on, the voltage level is +Vdc, when S11 and S14 are on, the voltage level is −Vdc and when all
switches are off, the voltage level is zero. The switching angles α1 and α2 can be used to control the fundamental
voltage component and eliminate one selected harmonic from the output voltage. Some system controls vary the
DC-link voltages to control the fundamental voltage component. In that case, the switching angles α1 and α2 can be
used to eliminate two selected harmonic components from the output voltage. A dominant second harmonic current
is caused by the full bridge single-phase converter arrangement, and this leads to a ripple on the DC link voltage.
Therefore, the DC capacitors have to be oversized to maintain a reasonably low ripple DC voltage. In addition, the
circuit also requires a complex control to maintain the DC voltage levels, particularly under system disturbances.